DIVERSITY OF
REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES
REPRODUCTION IS A
BIOLOGICAL PROCESS
DURING WHICH A LIVING
ORGANISM PRODUCES
OFFSPRING.
• Reproductive success is measured by the
number of viable offspring an individual
produces.
• Reproductive strategies are structural,
functional and behavioural adaptations that
increase the chances of fertilisation and
Diversity of survival of offspring.
Reproductive • The success of a reproductive strategy depends
Strategies on how a species utilizes energy to produce and
care for viable offspring.
• There are two main types of reproductive
strategies:
◦ › r-strategy
◦ › K-strategy
Diversity of Reproductive Strategies
R-Strategy K-Strategy
• Animals (e.g turtles) expend • Animals (e.g lions & elephants)
more energy producing many produce fewer offspring, but
offspring, but they spend little expend more time & energy on
time or energy in parental parental care.
care.
• Most offspring survive to
• Many of the offspring will die adulthood
before adulthood, but
sufficient numbers survive to
continue the species.
Survivorship
curves
I L LU STR ATE TH E N U M B ER
O F O RGA N I SM S TH AT
S U RV I V E AT D I F F ERENT
STAGES O F TH E I R L I F E
S PA N .
Survivorship curves
Type l: convex curve Type II: straight line Type III: concave curve
high survivorship / steady survivorship / low survivorship / high
low mortality in young steady mortality at all mortality in young individuals
individuals ages
high survivorship / lower
low survivorship /
high mortality in old individuals have the mortality in old individuals
individuals same chance of dying at
e.g. r-strategy - frogs
any age
e.g. K-strategy –
humans e.g. small birds
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
COURTSHIP
Courtship: the behavioural patterns of male and female animals that lead to mating
The purpose of courtship:
ensures that both sexes are ready for mating.
It helps to identify mating partners of the same species (prevent unsuccessful mating between
different species, thus saving energy.)
It helps to choose a suitable mating partner. (Females choose larger, stronger males with more
attractive physical features that increases the chances of many healthy offspring.)
Courtship can take place by using:
Visual stimuli
Sound stimuli
Chemical stimuli
Physical movements
COURTSHIP
Visual Stimuli
e.g male peacock who uses
his striking, brightly
coloured tail feathers to
court the female. The
female usually chooses the
male with the most
impressive set of tail
feathers.
COURTSHIP
Visual Stimuli
fireflies, the males use a
specific pattern of light flashes
to find the right mate.
Interested female fireflies
send out the same pattern of
light flashes, indicating their
sexual maturity
COURTSHIP
Sound Stimuli
Male frogs use sounds to
attract the females. Each
frog species has its own
call. The females make no
sounds but are attracted by
the male's calls. The
females then choose a
mate from the croaking
choir of males.
COURTSHIP
Chemical stimuli
Some insects and mammal
species the females secrete
chemical
substances(pheromones.)
e.g male moths can detect
pheromones over long
distances by means of their
large, feathery antennae.
COURTSHIP
Chemical stimuli
Female lions, dogs and
domestic cats also secrete
pheromones into the air,
attracting the males.
COURTSHIP
Physical Movement
Scorpions perform a
mating dance to ensure
that both sexes are
ready to mate. If the
dance is successful,
mating will occur.
COURTSHIP
Physical Movement
The male weaverbird builds a
nest to impress the female.
When she approaches the nest,
he flutters around to display his
colourful wings. If the female is
satisfied with the nest, she will
occupy it.
COURTSHIP
Environmental changes, such as
◦ longer daylight hours,
◦ Warmer temperatures
◦ availability of food,
play a vital role in courtship as they affect hormone levels to trigger the
mating season.
Many mammals e.g. antelope, have a short annual mating season. This
ensures that births occur at the most favourable time - in ideal weather
conditions with an abundant supply of food.
EXTERNAL FERTILISATION
takes place outside the female's body.
It occurs mostly in fish and amphibians living in aquatic habitats.
Courtship and specific mating behaviour ensure that egg cells and sperm are
released at the same time and place to increase the possibility of fertilisation.
Pheromones are sometimes released by the females to attract the males.
Gametes (egg and sperm) are released into the water where fertilization occurs.
The water prevents gametes from drying out.
Large numbers of gametes are produced and released to increase the chances of
fertilisation and the number of offspring.
Eggs (ova) secrete specific chemicals to attract the sperm by chemotaxis(The
movement of a cell ororganism in response to a chemical stimulus)
EXTERNAL FERTILISATION
The fertilised egg cell (zygote) develops into a larva that lives on yolk
or plankton.
The parents do not need to expend any energy to feed the young.
Environmental dangers, such as predators, reduce the probability of
all the offspring surviving and reaching adulthood.
The offspring are independent and easily dispersed by water
currents, causing them to settle in different areas, away from the
parents to minimise competition.
INTERNAL FERTILISATION
Internal fertilisation takes place inside the female's body.
It occurs mainly in insects and terrestrial vertebrates (reptiles, birds
and mammals).
This type of fertilisation does not require water and is therefore not
limited to an aquatic environment.
Fewer gametes are produced, because the possibility of fertilisation
is much greater.
During mating the sperm are released directly into the female's
body. The sperm swim to the egg to fertilise it.
INTERNAL FERTILISATION
Specific mating strategies and cooperative behaviour are required
between the male and female individuals.
Much fewer offspring are produced compared to external
fertilisation.
The following increases the chances of survival of offspring:
In reptiles and birds the developing embryo is nourished by the yolk and
enclosed in a protective shell.
In mammals, the developing embryo remains inside the female where it
receives protection and nutrition (from the placenta).
OVIPARY, OVOVIVIPARY AND VIVIPARY
are reproduction strategies that indicate where the embryo develops and how
the embryo receives nutrition.
Ovipary fish, amphibians, birds
In oviparous animals the embryo develops in an egg outside the female's body.
ovipary: eggs hatch outside the body
Ovovivipary (some sharks, lizards and snakes)
• Internal fertilisation takes place and eggs remain inside the body.
• The embryo is surrounded by a thin, membranous shell inside the body.
• The developing embryo receives nutrition from the large quantity of yolk
stored in the egg.
• The egg is retained inside the female's body until the newborn hatch and are
then born live
ovovivipary: eggs hatch inside the body and young are born live
OVIPARY, OVOVIVIPARY AND VIVIPARY
are reproduction strategies that indicate where the embryo develops and how
the embryo receives nutrition.
Vivipary (most mammals, certain sharks and scorpions)
• Internal fertilisation takes place.
• The fertilised ovum develops into an embryo without the protection of a shell.
• The embryo/foetus is directly connected to the mother as it receives nutrients
through the placenta
• The female produces few gametes, requiring less energy.
• Parental care (the feeding and protection of the developing embryo and foetus)
however, requires large quantities of energy
vivipary: the young are born live
AMNIOTIC EGG
Terrestrial animals like some reptiles, birds and mammals, require
specialised structures to protect the developing embryo from drying
out.
Amniotic eggs are adapted for life on land.
The embryos are enclosed in an egg with a hard shell.
These eggs develop extra-embryonic membranes filled with fluid.
The amniotic egg prevents dehydration of the embryo and provides
nutrients, water and oxygen to the embryo while waste products
are removed.
AMNIOTIC EGG
AMNIOTIC EGG
The amniotic egg consists of:
• The developing embryo
• Three extra-embryonic membranes:
• A fluid-filled amnion surrounds the embryo. The amniotic fluid protects it
against shocks, injuries, temperature changes and dehydration.
• The allantois is a sac that grows from the embryo’s intestines, collects waste
products and exchanges gases.
• The chorion is the outermost membrane that surrounds all the membranes.
- In birds and reptiles, it allows gaseous exchange, together with the porous
shell.
- In mammals, it forms part of the placenta to supply the embryo/foetus with
nutrients and allow for gaseous exchange and excretion.
AMNIOTIC EGG
The yolk sac, filled with energy-rich yolk, provides food for the developing embryos.
The albumen, between the chorion and the shell, serves as reserve food (protein
and water).
The hard, calcareous or leathery shell is porous to allow gaseous exchange. It also
protects the developing embryo and prevents dehydration
PARENTAL CARE
Parental care is any behavioural pattern where parents spend time and/or energy on
the feeding and protection of their offspring.
In animals where most of the energy input of parents is prenatal, there is usually
very little or no postnatal parental care.
In animals where prenatal energy input is less, postnatal parental care is intensive,
requiring much more energy.
Examples of parental care include:
guarding of eggs
incubation of eggs
keeping the young warm
feeding the young
protection from predators