UNIT V APPLICATION OF RS AND GIS

Land cover and land use –Forestry-hydrology-Oceans and coastal monitoring-

watershed management- Soil mapping – natural disaster management – bio
diversity characterization- wildlife habitat mapping – water quality assessment -
Application of Remote Sensing and GIS in Precision Agriculture - Monitor Crop
Health - Management Decision Support Systems
Application of RS and GIS in Land cover and land use
 Land cover and land use mapping is one the most imperative and typical
application of remote sensing.
 Land cover represents the physical condition of the earth surface features
such as forest; grassland etc.
 Whereas land use reflects man-made activities includes use of land such as
residential area, industrial zone, agriculture field etc.
 Land cover include land surface feature, those can be natural, semi-natural
and man-made and these features can be observed directly on satellite
images.
 On the other hand, Land use is classified based on utilization of land.
 It can be categorized into residential, commercial, urban, rural and
agriculture etc.
 Land use indicates the employment of the land by human, so if any change
or shift in use of land such change from agriculture to
residential/commercial for any given location brings the change in land
use.
 Remote Sensing techniques are the most practical, cost efficient and
provide satellite data beyond human vision.
 Remote sensing provides multi-spectral, and multi temporal satellite
images for accurate mapping.
 Land cover/Land use mapping provide basic inventory of land resources.
 This mapping can be local or regional in scope; it depends on user’s
objective and requirement.
 Remote sensing platforms provide variety of satellite images with variation
in spatial resolution (pixel size) from centimeter to kilometer as well as in
timely manner (repetitive data) from days to weeks.
Process
 Land use and Land cover mapping starts with acquiring satellite images.
 Selection of satellite image for mapping completely depends upon user’s
requirement.
 In case of regional mapping, then need to select low resolution satellite
images.
 But for detailed mapping at higher scale then one need to select high
resolution satellite images.
 After acquiring satellite image, it should be corrected both radiometrically
and geometrically (if require).
 Image enhancement can be performed to improve the quality of satellite
image.
 Image classification can be performed using any image processing
software to map the study area.
 By this process satellite image used for mapping of land use and land cover
of any given area.
Application of Land use and Land cover Mapping
1. Mapping of land cover and land use is important for monitoring studies,
resource management and planning. Land cover and land use mapping
provide base line data, which can be further used in monitoring and
planning activities.
2. Change Detection is main concern for creating land use map data. As the
population is continuously increasing and affecting natural resources,
 therefore monitoring of natural resources and proper management need
high priority for government of any state.
3. The change in land use and land cover from rural to urban area can be used
to monitoring as well as for predicting/forecasting the future needs for
better planning and management.
4. Multi temporal analysis using remote sensing data provides a unique
approach to detect the change in land use and land cover. The change is
usually detected by comparing land use/land cover map prepared
independently using at least two multi date images.
The land use and land cover change can be divided in to two broad categories-
Seasonal changes- for agriculture change analysis and forest change
analysis
Annual changes- land use changes in built up areas, urban sprawl studies
etc.
To accurate change detection analysis, require multi spectral and multi temporal
satellite images as well as high resolution satellite image as per the requirements
of the project.
What are the benefits of LULC Maps?
The social and economic development of a society is completely dependent on its
expansion. This is the primary rationale for conducting socioeconomic surveys.
Both spatial and non-spatial datasets are included in this type of survey. At the
local, regional, and national levels, LULC maps play a critical role in programme
design, management, and monitoring. On the one hand, this type of information
helps in the understanding of land use issues, and on the other, it aids in the
formulation of policies and programmes necessary for development planning. It
is vital to monitor the ongoing process of land use/land cover pattern throughout
time in order to ensure sustainable development
To accomplish sustainable urban development and to prevent expansion of towns
and cities, authorities involved in urban development must establish planning
models that allow every available piece of land to be used in the most reasonable
and optimal way possible. This necessitates current and historical land use/land
cover data for the area. LULC maps also aid in the investigation of changes in
our ecology and surroundings. We can develop regulations and implement
programmes to safeguard our environment if we have detailed information about
the research unit's Land Use/Land Cover
Application of RS and GIS in Forestry
 Nowadays Forest Land Management is gradually tough due to population
growth, urbanization, climate changes, public demands/expectations, and
so on.
 But the technology-based applications like GIS & Remote Sensing are
provides boundless benefits to forest officials who can balance these
challenges when preserving, restoring, and managing the forest for a
sustainable future.
 Natural resource management involved in the forestry sector.
 Currently many states, and private forestry agencies, governments are
implemented Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote
Sensing (RS) for various applications.
 Mainly supporting analysis, assessment, and management of our forests.
 Wildfire management, private land regulation, and public land
management are done by different forest organizations and agencies.
 And so their major work part contributes to the nation’s governance.
 They assist in public land management, they have a major role in the
government of any nation.
 Nations state forestry organizations using geospatial data for their
operations.
 Geographic data with spatial dimensions is useful for understanding
ground conditions, also useful for strategic decisions.
 Spatial data is very important to foresters for conservation and prevention
planning of the forest, its management, and for global forest’s future
conditions.
 Remote sensing technology, panchromatic and multispectral satellite image
data processing operations involve georeferencing of the image, haze
removal, and image enhancement techniques, pan-sharpened image, color
balancing techniques is very useful for analyzing change detection and
mapping of the land cover of the forest, culture data extraction, classification
of lithology, Classification of NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index) and mapping of it, Urbanization (monitoring of the urban growth) is
also beneficial for emergencies monitoring

Multilayered site representation can be possible by using elevation (ex. slope),

hydrology and the locational information of roads and infrastructure this
interpreted data of large areas can useful for Emergency and Fire mapping. And
forest fires are directly affected by plants, animals, vegetation cover,
streamflow, soil, air quality, and climate. The loss the life and property also
caused by the loss of timber. Forest fires also responsible for wildlife habitat
destruction. GIS useful for forest fire modeling obtaining timely and efficient
geospatial information for the management of forest fires
GIS data useful for forest management, because most of the rainforests are
depleting at an enormous rate, and it is due to the increasing rate of urbanization
and agriculture and this human activities encroachment in forest areas.
Deforestation Identification using different RS data i.e. different multispectral
imageries with GIS maps of the urban growth and factor recognition affecting
deforestation. Also, Different temporal satellite image data can provide
statistical analysis of forest cover and information about deforestation using GIS
maps.
GIS is useful for representation in the form of graphs, maps, and other GIS
statistical modeling functionalities aid its value. So it is useful for forest
management
DEM (Digital Elevation Data) of forest cover useful for GIS analysis. And it is
useful for various terrain attributes examination, movement of soil and nutrients
influence from it, as well as the resulting outcome on wildlife productivity,
forest, plant distribution.
Application of RS and GIS in Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of water and the water cycle, focusing on surface water
and groundwater on land. A hydrologist studies the hydrologic cycle, how water
interacts with the environment including how it moves from the earth’s surface
This includes understanding the natural movement of water, but also the human
impact on water resources and water quality. It’s important that we fully
understand the hydrologic cycle because so many industries are reliant upon
sustainable, clean water supply.
GIS to solve the challenges in hydrology
It is broadly considered that there are three main challenges in hydrology:
 pollution mitigation and quantification in groundwater and surface water
supplies
 identifying and managing sustainable water use
 Improved flood management.
1. GIS in surface water monitoring and management
 we can identify patterns of flooding and flood risk, the impacts it has on
infrastructure and how climate change will influence hydrological
systems.
 Understanding and mapping surface water movement over large areas
have been difficult until GIS came into frame
 There are different levels of surface water maps, those that display at a
large scale and show bodies of water both man-made and natural, and
then there are urban surface water maps which are heavily influenced by
infrastructure and impervious surfaces which can make them more
challenging to develop.
 Flood-related damage in the summer of 2007 in the UK in urban areas
was caused primarily by surface water flooding, for which no models,
forecasts, warnings, or management strategies existed.
 Many governments and authorities around the world have created
catchment scale and urban surface water maps that are able to be viewed
and downloaded by the public, so this valuable information is available to
everyone.
2. Large scale surface water mapping
 To produce large-scale surface water maps, satellite imagery has been
particularly useful.
 There are two main satellite systems, Landsat and Sentinel, and they have
new models launched every few years.
 The two satellite systems vary in different ways, but both provide
multispectral imagery of the Earth’s surface, which can be used to
identify the presence of vegetation or water bodies and carry out
hydrological modelling.
 Catchment modelling takes into account other variables such as rainfall,
evaporation, soil type and elevation have on the amount of water runoff.
 These rainfall-runoff or watershed models use a comparison of observed
runoff against the computer-generated runoff simulation
3. Urban surface water mapping
 In comparison to rural areas and catchment mapping, urban areas have
more complex and irregular topography with buildings, drainage
networks, and other infrastructure
 Relatively rapid improvements in GIS and hydrological modeling have
made it possible to map urban surface water with a high degree of
accuracy.
  However, it’s essential to have good quality drainage network maps, as
the severity of urban surface water flooding is often highly dependent on
the capacity of drainage systems
4. GIS in groundwater monitoring and management
 Groundwater is the most extracted material and provides almost half of
all drinking water to the worlds’ population.
 As with any non-renewable natural resource, groundwater needs to be
monitored and managed to protect it from contamination and overuse.
 Groundwater supplies are used by agriculture, industry and for urban use.
 Primarily groundwater is used in agriculture, but also to support industry
and manufacturing and for drinking water in cities
 GIS gives hydrologists and land managers the ability to predict the
movement of contaminated water, monitor available groundwater, predict
groundwater supply, estimate sustainable abstraction potential and
conduct future groundwater development planning
 Without adequate groundwater management, overuse could lead to a
declining water table and water scarcity that has big impacts on
communities, industry and agriculture who are often heavily reliant on it.
 GIS can be applied successfully to manage and monitor groundwater
resources.
 It’s possible to use GIS and remote sensing to identify water fluctuations
and patterns, detect aquifer recharge zones, assess and classify periods of
hydrological drought, identify vulnerable aquifers, and map areas with
viable groundwater
5. GIS to map groundwater potential
 It’s possible to use a combination of GIS layers to map areas likely to
have a high potential of suitable groundwater.
 In India, GIS layers like ground cover, Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI), and slope (DEM) are used as a first step to identifying
area with possible groundwater reservoirs in the desert of Rajasthan.
 Computer-generated maps can then combine all this data to indicate areas
with a low to high potential for groundwater reserves.
 This means land managers can place wells or bores in the most optimal
locations, but this groundwater still needs to be monitored in order to be
used sustainably.
Future of GIS in hydrology
As the world we live in changes so too does the technology we use need to
adapt in order to effectively monitor the hydrological cycle. Cross-disciplinary
sharing of data and information from the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere,
and biosphere is essential. Our modeling and predictions are only as good as the
data we input and continually improving GIS software and remote sensing
technology facilitates the development of numerous cheap and useful sensors
and survey techniques. This offers significant opportunities to improve our
analyses and predictions through data‐model fusion, real‐time learning, and
recursive forecasting into the future
Application of RS and GIS in Ocean and coastal monitoring
Coastal zone is an interface between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. These
are known to be highly productive regions and comprise of mangroves, sea
grasses, coral reefs and sand dunes. These transition zones harbor variety of
floral and faunal species, regulate cycling of nutrients, filter pollutants and help
to protect shorelines from erosion and storms. Because of dynamic interaction
between land and water, coastal zone mark an area of continual change.
Increased anthropogenic activities like industrial development, tourism, growth
of cities, aquaculture and fishing, disposal of wastes have affected these
ecosystems badly as a result of reduction marine bio-diversity and degradation
of coasts.
The five major factors accounting for degradation and depletion of coastal
resources are-
Habitat degradation
Pollution
Population pressure
Overexploitation of marine resources
Multiple resource use conflicts
Among all the above issues, population pressure is often recognized as the most
serious factor affecting the coastal zones. Apart from anthropogenic factors,
episodic events, such as cyclones, tsunamis, floods, pose serious threat to
human life and property in the coastal zone. Considering all the above
mentioned threats to coastal ecosystems, urgent measures are required to be
taken to conserve and protect these region including individual plant species
 and communities, to ensure sustainable development. Issues that are needed to
be addressed in context of coastal zone management
Another set of processes occurring in the coasts like erosion, deposition,
sediment transport and sea level rise also modify the shoreline and affect these
regions. Therefore, in order to protect and restore them from various degrading
factors, periodic assessment and an up-to-date and comprehensive scientific
databases on habitats, protected areas, water quality are required to be
developed. Based on these databases, proper planning and policy decisions can
be framed. Advanced mapping techniques like those comprising remote
sensing, GIS (Geographic Information System) and GPS (Geographic
Positioning System) are considered to be more advantageous in mapping of
coastal zones and preparation of databases.
Steps involved in coastal zone management include-
1. Collecting data concerning Coastal Zone

2. Ranking of data reliability (e.g. with maps depending on scale, source, age
and material)

3. Maintenance of these information (keep it up to date)

4. Monitoring of inventory studies

5. Generate thematic maps

6. Support management and planning activities of by providing necessary and

sufficient information on coastal zone

7. Support the writing policies concerning coastal zone

8. Research to assess the management and planning problem in specific areas.

The study includes

I. Coastal habitat studies
Coastal habitat consists of the coastal reefs, and knowledge of the conditions of
the coastal reefs is useful in protecting the fragile ecosystem through
preventative measures. Coral reef features such as degraded reef can easily be
mapped out by remote sensing. In preserving the ecosystems there are protected
areas. Remote sensors monitor such areas to assess the impact of conservation
measures.
 II. Protecting the shoreline
The major requirements of remote sensing in coastal management are
understanding the coastal processes such as sea-level changes, erosion,
and deposition that modify the shoreline. Thus, accurate information
collected on the changes in the shoreline help in analyzing the coastal.
Processes are occurring.

III. Mapping coastal wetlands and watersheds

Remote sensors can monitor how the land cover is changing in coastal
watersheds. In determining that, it is possible to predict the amount and
type of runoff into rivers, bays, and estuaries and how these ecosystems
will be affected.

4. Ocean chlorophyll and productivity monitoring

Coastal waters are large and complex, making it difficult to monitor them
with ships alone. Remote sensing is cost-effective in such areas where key
properties such as ocean color and productivity are acquired.

5. Monitoring Sea surface temperature

Accurate observations on sea surface temperature are crucial in coastal
management. Sea surface temperature is necessary for the estimation of
the source of heat at the air-sea boundary.

6. Monitoring sea surface salinity

The salinity of the sea surface is crucial in determining the water balance
globally, estimation of the evaporation rates, and understanding ocean
currents. Low sea surface salinity is an indicator of freshwater sources.

7. Detecting and tracking oil spills

Oil spills are destructive to both marine life and wetlands habitat. Remote
3sensors provide information for tracking and predicting the future
movement of oil spilled reliably, helping rescue efforts that include
skimming vessels and protective booms.
8. Modelling coastal process

Remote sensors monitor and evaluate coastal changes and come up with
interventions within and across the shore to arrive at more desirable ends
while managing the coastal zones.

9. Assessing marine water quality

Remote sensors detect discharge of sewage, land use, sea dumping, and
maritime transport. This helps the remote sensors father the nutrient load
in the coastal waters and the possibility of pollutants in the water.

10. Tracking Marine fishery

Remote sensors provide a basic understanding of aquatic systems. This

can track marine animal movements and migration. Fishing is also
important, and the assessment of stock is crucial in conserving marine
living resources. Accurate information on marine living resources is
required in achieving the full potential of the commercial fishery.

Application of RS and GIS watershed management

A watershed is a hydrological unit where all the water from precipitation in the
form of rain and snowfall are drained into a common area and from where it is
drained off to a common outlet. The mechanism of watershed displays a basin
topography which can be as small as a footprint or large enough to encompass
all the land that drains water into a river and finally enters sea and ocean. The
watershed comprises of one large river or streams that would be connected with
several other smaller streams or tributaries. The large stream or river get its
source of water from all the smaller streams as all the surrounding water flows
to accumulate in the larger stream under the influence of slope and gravity. The
picture shows watershed and the catchment areas.

There are several watershed represented by their location and the

topographic feature in a particular region. Two watershed basins are separated by
ridges and hills that are called as the drainage divide. It depends on the slope of
basin that from different watershed in a particular area. The drainage divide is
responsible for draining surface run-off water under the influence of slope thereby
creating basin topography. The surface water flows to meet another stream and
tributaries and finally making a watershed of the particular place. The watershed
consists of surface water like, lakes, streams, reservoirs, and wetlands as well as
all the underlying ground water.
A watershed is a precipitation collector and feeds the river life. It is not simply the
hydrological unit but also socio-political-ecological entity which plays crucial role
in determining food, social, and economical security and provides life support
services to rural people.

Applications of Remote sensing and GIS in Watershed

Management
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology
plays very important role in watershed management in assessing watershed
conditions through various modeling. Through the use of computer aided
software and availability of huge resources of digital data, mapping of
watershed have proven tremendously much easier for a researcher in the field of
GIS technology. Due to this fact, the use of RS and GIS in the application of
watershed management has changed from operational support (e.g., inventory
management and descriptive mapping) to prescriptive modeling and tactical or
strategic decision support system. The application has enabled mapping giving
accurate information through many multi resolution data that has helped in
delineation of ridge line, stream flow, erosion prone areas, etc.
Some of the features of remote sensing and GIS in the study of watershed are as
follows;
1. Watershed Characterization and Assessment: The available Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) and USGS’s National Hydrography Dataset (NHD)
and EPA (environment protection agency) BASIN database provides
enormous water quality data relating to watershed that helps in demarcation
of watershed boundary, drainage network system, flow accumulation, and
drainage density.
 2. Management Planning: The analysis of characterization and assessment
studies could generate understanding of the complex relationships between
natural and human systems by looking at water quality. Many factors like
drought, flood and water degradation could be studied through proper
planning and utilization of resource. Thus GIS provide a common
framework for watershed management by providing a platform for
assessment of data for analyzing spatial dimensions that are important for
understanding impacts of human activities.
3. Watershed Restoration (Analysis of Alternative Management
Strategies): GIS helps in water assessment programs that include total
maximum daily load (TMDL). The watershed ranging from small rural
watersheds to heavily urbanized landscapes GIS provide framework for
restoration the watershed is studied by creating digital maps showing the
existing conditions of drainage pattern and thereby comparing to maps that
could possibly represent alternative scenarios. It acts as a platform by
integrating the complexities of a real world system within the confine of a
digital world accurately and efficiently, thus providing a platform for
collaborative functions among researchers, watershed stakeholders, and
policy makers.
Factors that determine the watershed monitoring
1. Precipitation: The greatest factor controlling stream flow is the amount of
precipitation that is in the form of rain or snow. This fed the river and the
streams down flow along the path, serving as the main source. Thus the
change in the amount of precipitation will affect the characteristics of
watershed.
2. Infiltration: The amount of water that soaks or seeps inside the soil also
determines the watershed. When rain water soaks in (other than surface run
off) and infiltrates the soil it remain in the shallow soil layer, where it will
gradually move downhill, through the soil, and eventually enters the stream
by seepage into the stream bank. Water that infiltrate enters much deeper,
recharging groundwater aquifers. Water may travel long distances or remain
in storage for long periods before returning to the surface.
3. Soil characteristics: The type of soil characteristics also determines the
watershed as clayey and rocky soils absorb less water at a slower rate than
sandy soils. Soil saturation happens where like wet sponge, soil already
saturated from previous rainfall cannot absorb water and result in surface
runoff.
4. Land cover: Land covers have a great impact on infiltration and rainfall
runoff affecting the watershed where impervious surfaces leads to flooding
of areas.
5. Slope of the land: The angle of the surface determines the amount of run off where
water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more quickly than water falling on flat
land.
 6. Evaporation: The watershed also depends on the amount of evaporation
determined by temperature, solar radiation, wind, atmospheric pressure, and
other factors.
7. Water use by people: Anthropogenic factor plays an important role as
water resource is usage varies from one place to the other. This greatly have
an impact on the characteristic of watershed that varies accordingly from
upper stream and lower stream river flow.

Applications of Remote sensing and GIS in Soil mapping

The GIS software arc info and arc view are used to create soil database attribute
data of soils can be depth, texture, pH, drainage, salinity, alkalinity conditions,
run off, erosion, nutrient availability etc. Attribute data linked with spatial data
hence linking special information with non spatial information from soil model.
Through soil models thematic Maps could be easily generated. Sharing and
spreading information is easier when information is stored in digital form. Soil
survey data can be made use of in the development of agriculture, irrigation
purposes, forestry, several engineering purposes and so on.
1. Soil Type Classification
Soil Type Classification is crucial for several reasons, including agriculture,
construction, and water conservation. Using remote sensing, we can differentiate
between types of soil, such as sandy, loamy, clayey, or silty. By analyzing the
spectral signatures, the technology can discern unique characteristics of each soil
type, such as color, moisture content, and organic matter. This precision enables
better crop selection, efficient water use, and more informed civil
engineering decisions.
2. Soil Moisture Monitoring
The ability to accurately determine soil moisture is invaluable. It impacts
everything from predicting droughts to strategizing irrigation. Remote sensing
satellites equipped with specific sensors capture data reflecting the amount of
moisture in the [Link] is paramount for agriculture, as soil moisture directly
influences crop growth and health. With real-time moisture data, farmers can
make timely irrigation decisions, conservationists can monitor drought
conditions, and policymakers can manage water resources adeptly.
3. Soil Erosion Assessment
Erosion poses a significant threat to fertile lands. Soil Erosion Assessment using
remote sensing monitors topographical changes over periods. By comparing
sequential images, areas prone to or undergoing erosion become evident. The
causes might range from water (rivers, rainfall) to wind. Early detection using
remote sensing can result in timely interventions, saving valuable land from
degradation and preventing sedimentation in water bodies.
4. Soil Fertility Analysis
Understanding soil fertility is paramount for robust crop yields. Remote sensing
analyzes the spectral data from soils to deduce its nutrient content, including
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium levels. With this data, farmers can make
informed decisions on the type and amount of fertilizers required, ensuring
optimal yields. This not only boosts productivity but also minimizes the chances
of over-fertilization, protecting aquatic ecosystems from nutrient runoffs.
5. Crop Health Monitoring
Crop Health Monitoring through remote sensing is revolutionizing agriculture.
By analyzing the reflected light from crop fields, especially using indices
like NDVI, we can gauge the health and vigor of crops. Healthy vegetation
reflects more near-infrared light compared to unhealthy or sparse vegetation.
Hence, discrepancies in these reflections can indicate issues like water stress,
diseases, or pest infestations, enabling farmers to take corrective actions
promptly.
6. Land Use Planning
Efficient Land Use Planning is critical for sustainable development. Remote
sensing aids in this by providing detailed soil and topographical maps.
Policymakers and urban planners can ascertain which areas are best suited for
agriculture, which for construction, and which to be preserved as green zones. By
basing decisions on accurate soil data, we can ensure the optimal use of land
resources, balancing economic growth with environmental conservation.

7. Precision Agriculture
Precision Agriculture is the future of farming. Remote sensing plays a pivotal role
here by furnishing detailed data on soil health, moisture levels, and crop
conditions. With such information, farmers can tailor their practices, ensuring that
each part of their land receives the exact care it needs. This could mean specific
irrigation levels for different patches or varied fertilizer applications. Such
precision boosts yields, reduces resource use, and minimizes environmental
impacts.
8. Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment is a process to evaluate the potential
environmental impacts of a proposed activity or development. Remote sensing
offers tools to monitor and assess the state of the environment before, during, and
after an activity. Whether it’s a new mining project or a dam construction, remote
sensing provides the data to ensure that the project aligns with environmental
conservation standards.
9. Soil Carbon Mapping
Carbon sequestration in soil plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change. Soil
Carbon Mapping through remote sensing helps in quantifying the carbon content
in different soils. By identifying areas rich in organic carbon, conservationists can
prioritize them for protection, ensuring they continue to act as carbon
[Link], areas with declining carbon can be restored, reinforcing our fight
against global warming.
10. Disease and Pest Detection
Unexpected diseases or pest infestations can devastate crops. Through remote
sensing, minute changes in plant coloration or growth patterns can be detected,
often the first signs of such issues. Early Disease and Pest Detection can lead to
timely interventions, whether it’s altering irrigation, applying specific treatments,
or adjusting cultivation practices, ensuring crop health and minimizing losses.
11. Soil Contamination Detection
Industrialization and intensive agriculture have led to soil contamination in
several regions. Soil Contamination Detection using remote sensing identifies
pollutants or contaminants in the soil, be it heavy metals, chemicals, or other
harmful substances. Early detection can trigger remediation efforts, safeguarding
public health and preventing further environmental degradation.
12. Geological Exploration
Geologists and mineralogists have found a valuable tool in remote sensing.
Through Geological Exploration using this technology, they can identify mineral
deposits, study geological formations, and even predict seismic [Link]
spectral data can distinguish between rock types and mineral compositions,
making exploration more efficient and reducing the environmental footprint of
such activities.

Application of RS and GIS in Natural Disaster Management

India is vulnerable to natural and manmade disasters. All disasters are spatial in
nature. GIS techniques act as a decision support tool. Decision-making can
possible by the analysis of different GIS layers. Various departments and
agencies are stakeholders using GIS in the disaster management process. GIS, RS
& GPS is useful in disaster management applications & for decision making.
GIS is useful for hazard zone mapping and during emergency conditions
mitigation of people can easily possible using these maps. GIS and RS are much
beneficial in mitigation strategies and preparedness plans. Real-time geographic
data can improve the allocation of resources for response. GIS technologies are
much useful in the modeling of disaster risks and human adaptations to hazards.
It also provides a decision support system in disaster management.
Disaster Management System
Mitigation: Emergency is the discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks. It is
a discipline that involves, steps taken to contain or reduce the effects of an
anticipated or already occurred disastrous event.
Preparedness: It is how we change behavior to limit the impact of disaster
events on people.
Response: An effective plan for public health and other personnel during a
disaster would outline activities designed to minimize the effects of the
catastrophe. These efforts can be summarized as closely situation analysis and
response.
Disaster Recovery: The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area
to its previous state. Recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions
that must be made after immediate needs are addressed.
Disaster Management is done by following steps
a) Planning and Analysis
b) Situational Awareness
c) Data Management
d) Field Operations
Planning and Analysis
GIS is the most complete information system for modeling, analyzing spatial
data, and displaying community vulnerability. When we identify hazard
locations with critical infrastructure. Processed GIS Models can be useful for
the determination of event impact and necessary mitigation requirements.
Preparedness is important when a disastrous event occurs. An analysis of risk
and hazards is beneficial in an emergency management program.
Situational Awareness
Disaster and emergency management in situational awareness is an essential
thing. GIS techniques play a vital role to provide locational information of the
event, that is, where does the event happens and what happening exactly in real-
time. Also by linking people, processes spatial information situational
awareness established. GIS map interfaces important in handling emergency
conditions.
Data Management
To the achievement of preparedness, a gathering of information and its
advanced data storing is important. In GIS, the integration of information from
other sources is possible. GIS solution is standards-based. Accurate cataloging
of GIS data provides useful information during emergency conditions.
Field Operations
Field data is very important in GIS applications and Mobile GIS provides
crucial information. Field teams capture information and sent it back to the user.
So ground information useful for recognizing actual event conditions. Then new
data can be sent to operation teams in the field (where the disaster occurs), so
they have the information possible for protecting lives and providing safety to
people. Whether it’s a response or recovery phase, Mobile GIS provides the
right information.
GIS solutions for different hazards
1. Earthquake
 GIS can be useful for monitoring historical sites of the earthquake
also for Response & data management for recovery.
 It’s also useful for Impact assessment.
2. Flood
 Flood mapping from Macro level to Micro level.
 Flood Zone mapping.
 Detecting Potential Site of Flood in reference with rainfall
 Elevation Mapping
 Preparing Response map in response to managing after flood
situations
Application of RS and GIS in water quality assessment
Water quality is the process to determine the chemical, physical and
biological characteristics of water bodies and identifying the source of any
possible pollution or contamination which might cause degradation of the water
quality. These water quality indicators can be categorized as:
(i) Biological: bacteria, algae,
(ii) Physical: temperature, turbidity and clarity, color, salinity,
suspended solids, dissolved solids,
(iii) Chemical: pH, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand,
nutrients (including nitrogen and phosphorus), organic and
inorganic compounds (including toxicants) and
(iv) Aesthetic: odors, taints, color, and floating matter.
Remote sensing techniques depend on the ability to measure changes in the
spectral signature scattered from water and relate these measured changes by
empirical or analytical models to a water quality parameter. The optimal
wavelength used to measure a water quality parameter is dependent on the
substance being measured, its concentration, and the sensor characteristics.
Major factors affecting water quality in water bodies across the landscape
are suspended sediments (turbidity), algae (i.e., chlorophylls, carotenoids),
chemicals (i.e., nutrients, pesticides, metals), dissolved organic matter (DOM),
thermal releases, aquatic vascular plants, pathogens, and oils. Suspended
sediments, algae, DOM, oils, aquatic vascular plants, and thermal releases change
the energy spectra of reflected solar and/or emitting thermal radiation from
surface waters which can be measured using remote sensing techniques.
Suspended sediments are the most common pollutant both in weight and
volume in surface waters of freshwater systems. Suspended sediments increase
the radiance emergent from surface waters in the visible and near infrared
proportion of the electromagnetic spectrum . Remote sensing of monitoring water
quality has been started in the early 1970’s.
Monitoring the concentrations of chlorophyll (algal/phytoplankton) is
necessary for managing eutrophication in lakes. Remote sensing has been used to
measure chlorophyll concentrations spatially and temporally. As with suspended
sediment measurements, most remote sensing studies of chlorophyll in water are
based on empirical relationships between radiance/reflectance in narrow bands or
band ratios and chlorophyll. Thus field data are collected to calibrate the
statistical relationship or to validate models developed. Periodic evaluation of
sediment deposition pattern and the assessment of available live storage capacity
in a reservoir is an integral component of the optimum water resources
management.
Thermal pollution exists when biological activities are affected by
changing the temperature of a water body by anthropogenic activity. Remotely
sensed data have been used to map thermal discharge into streams, lakes, and
coastal waters from electrical power plants. Thermal plumes in river and coastal
waters can be accurately estimated by remote sensing techniques. Mapping of
absolute temperatures by remote sensing provides spatial and temporal patterns
of thermal releases that is useful for managing thermal releases.
Thermal remote sensing is a useful tool for monitoring freshwater systems
to detect thermal changes that can affect biological productivity. These
techniques allow the development of management plans to reduce the effect of
manmade thermal releases. Satellite imagery has been used to delineate lake
margins, a technique particularly useful in remote areas or in shallow- water
systems having fluctuating margins.
Water turbidity is an expression of the optical properties of water, which cause
the light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines. It
is therefore commonly regarded as the opposite of clarity. As water turbidity is
mainly caused by the presence of suspended matter, turbidity measurement has
often been used to calculate fluvial suspended sediment concentrations.
Application of RS and GIS in Precision Agriculture
Precision agriculture is a farming management approach that uses technology to
improve efficiency, reduce waste, and increase productivity. It involves the use
of various technologies, such as GPS, GIS, remote sensing, and sensor-based
systems, to collect and analyze data about soil, crops, weather, and other factors
that influence crop growth and yield. This data is then used to make more
informed decisions about crop management, resource allocation, and precision
application of inputs.
GIS (Geographic Information System) technology is widely used in
precision agriculture for collecting, analyzing, and visualizing spatial data. Here
are some of the specific uses of GIS in precision agriculture:
Crop management: GIS can be used to collect data on soil characteristics,
weather conditions, topography, and other factors that affect crop growth. This
information can be used to make informed decisions about planting, fertilizing,
and harvesting crops.
Precision irrigation: GIS can be used to map soil moisture levels and create
irrigation zones based on the specific water requirements of different areas of
the field. This helps to minimize water waste and reduce irrigation costs.
Soil analysis: GIS can be used to analyze soil samples and create maps of soil
characteristics such as pH, nutrient levels, and texture. This information can be
used to create customized fertilizer plans for specific areas of the field.
Yield mapping: GIS can be used to collect data on crop yield and create maps
of the yield variability across a field. This information can be used to identify
areas of the field that may require different management practices.
Pest and disease management: GIS can be used to track the spread of pests
and diseases across a field and identify areas that require targeted treatment.
This can help to reduce the use of pesticides and minimize the risk of resistance
developing.
Overall, GIS technology can help farmers to make more informed decisions
about crop management, reduce waste, and increase yields. By using GIS to
collect and analyze spatial data, farmers can tailor their management practices
to the specific needs of their crops and maximize their productivity.
During the last two decades, remote sensing techniques are applied to explore
agricultural applications such as crop discrimination, crop acreage estimation,
crop condition assessment, soil moisture estimation, yield estimation, precision
agriculture, soil survey, agriculture water management, agro meteorological and
agro advisories. Remote-sensing technology provides many advantages over the
traditional methods in agricultural resources survey
Application of RS and GIS in Monitor Crop Health
Crop development monitoring and crop production estimate data is very
important for all country in case of decision making on the food supply of the
day-by-day growing population.
The use of remote sensing to assess plant health through spectral information can
be beneficial in agriculture. It is possible to detect stress in plants by using remote
sensing techniques due to physiological changes caused by stress . Monitor crop
growth at regular intervals in order to take appropriate actions and also to
determine whether any stress factor is likely to affect production. A variety of
factors contribute to the growth stages and development of crops, including soil
moisture, date of planting, air temperature, and day length. The conditions and
productivity of plants are influenced by these factors. Too high temperatures at
pollination, for example, can negatively impact corn crop yields. Forecasters may
be able to better predict corn yields if they know the temperature when pollination
occurs. Drought monitoring through satellite data has been widely accepted now
and the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) and Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI) are widely used to identify agricultural drought in regions with
different ecological conditions. Many vegetation indices are used to measure crop
growth and condition, such as reflectance ratios, NDVIs, PVIs, transformed
vegetation indexes, and greenness indices.
Pest and disease infestation
Crop stress caused by biotic and abiotic factors can be monitored and quantified
with remote sensing. To prevent the spread of insects and take effective control
measures, remote sensing methodologies need to be perfected for identifying
insect breeding grounds. For detecting specific insect pests and identifying
disease damage on oat, they used remote sensing techniques. It is suggested that
remote sensing can be used to measure canopy characteristics and spectral
reflectance differences in oat crop canopies in order to assess insect infestation
damage and disease infection damage. Wheat Streak Mosaic disease management
in the wheat crop can be supported by accurate detection and quantification of
disease using the Landasat 5TM image
Management Decision Support Systems
Decision Support System is computer based software, which supports in taking
decisions for an ill-structured problem. It can be defined as follows: “A DSS is
an interactive, flexible and adaptable computer based information system,
specially developed for supporting the solution of a particular ill-structured
problem for improved decision making. It utilizes data provides easy user
interface and it allows for the decision maker’s own insights. Most sophisticated
DSS also utilizes models the phases of the decision making and includes a
knowledge base.
The main objectives of Decision Support Systems are:
(i) Effective generation of information on the decision problem from
available data and ideas.
(ii) Effective generation of solutions (alternatives), and
(iii) To provide a good understanding of the structure and content of
decision problem. Characteristics of Decision Support System
In general, a decision support system requires an online access to data base
through interactive programs and proper data communications. As the
informational needs are not known, thus it requires an incremental design method.
So in decision support system decision emphasizes its attention on decision
making rather providing a simple information retrieval. Support highlights the
role of computer as an aid and not as an replacement to the decision making,
while system identifies the integrated nature of users, machine, and decision
making environment.
The main characteristics of DSS are:
i. To assist managers in their Decision Making Process for un-
structured/semistructured problems.
ii. To support and enhance rather than replace managerial judgments.
iii. To improve the use of models or analytical techniques with data access
functions.
iv. To emphasize flexibility and adaptability to respect changes in the context
of decision making process and
v. To focus on features, which make them easy to be used interactively by
nonexperienced users?
Supplementary characteristics of the DSS are:
(i) Enabling an intuitive approach towards a solution.
(ii) Helping in tentative procedures as they could be supported by fast
proto type environment.
(iii) Including trial and error procedures
(iv) Allowing the introduction of subjective judgments.
Architecture of a DSS
The conceptual architecture of a DSS can be explained through the following
three different approaches.
(I) A functional approach
(II) A tool based approach
(III) A combined approach Functional Approach In functional approach,
conceptual architecture is explained as combination of
(a) language system
(b) Knowledge system and
(c) Problem processing system.
Language system deals with the basic interaction of computers and human beings.
It deals with menus, command languages fill in form and natural language
interface.
Tool Based Approach In tools based approach, the architecture of a typical Dss
contains a database, model base and dialogue module.
In this approach user communicates through a dialogue module, which then
accesses the database and the model to provide a solution.
A Combined Approach In this approach the user interacts through a well defined
user interface which sends requests to system controller.
Depending upon the type to query, access to information to either database, model
or a knowledge base is made.
Operational Structure of a DSS The final product of finished DSS that
accomplishes a task is called a specific DSS (SDSS).
It is used to support a specific application for example indentifying wasteland in
order to provide best possible routs within a given network of roads, etc.
Application of RS and GIS in wildlife habitat mapping
Wildlife resources constitute a vital link in the survival of the human species and
have been a subject of much interest and research all over the world. Presently,
wildlife habitats are under severe pressure and a large number of species of wild
fauna have become endangered. Wildlife is treated as an inexhaustible genetic
resource; the conservation of which becomes essential. Human induced
undesirable changes such as land encroachments leading to wildlife habitat loss,
pollution and introduction of invasive species pose serious threat to wildlife
health and richness. Hence in order to restore wildlife habitat, fragmentation and
to prevent further local and global extinction of any species, it is imperative to
understand and carry out comprehensive study of the wildlife population and
pattern. But most of the wildlife habitats are located in those areas where
accessibility is not easy because of difficult terrain.
Application of remote sensing in wildlife mapping Human induced undesirable
changes such as land encroachments leading to wildlife habitat loss, pollution and
introduction of invasive species pose serious threat to wildlife health and
richness. Hence in order to restore wildlife habitat, fragmentation and to prevent
further local and global extinction of any species, it is imperative to understand
and carry out comprehensive study of the wildlife population and pattern. But
most of the wildlife habitats are located in those areas where accessibility is not
easy because of difficult terrain. Also the study of wildlife conservation and
management including wildlife densities, living pattern, population and habitat
with the help of conventional methods happens to be tough, time taking, risky
and requires lot of resources. Also expressing and measuring biodiversity
including study of organisms and their biotic and abiotic components happens to
be intricate because of the versatile nature of biodiversity. Remote sensing can
answer these problems as the number of strategies for wildlife studies including
investigation of biodiversity, wildlife habitation mapping and animal movement
modeling can be executed with the help of remote sensing and inventory database.
Remote sensing is a computer based software application which obtains and
processes geographic information from satellite or air born sensors. Remote
sensing measures the reflected and emitted electromagnetic radiations from the
objects. The spatial coverage provided by the remote sensing occurs across wide
range of electromagnetic wavelength. Remote sensing is capable of providing
uniform consistent spatial observation data at wide scale domain. The images and
photographs obtained from the remote sensing helps greatly in the investigation
of physical conditions. It can be further enhanced for better accuracy using
remotely sensed data and field study (multi stage approach). Remote sensing can
be classified based on either direct approach or indirect approach
Some of the areas where remote sensing can be useful for wildlife studies are:
o Revision and updating of stock maps
o Fire risk Zonation
o Planning response routes
o Protected area management
o Site suitability analysis for Afforestation
o Soil and water conservation
o Mapping wildlife corridors
o Habitat suitability Mapping
o Prediction Analysis
o Change Detection Analysis
o Mapping Required Resources for Wildlife
o Real time tracking
o Population Mapping
o Developing and updating Web Portal of particular Wildlife

Application of RS and GIS in bio diversity characterization

The world’s biodiversity is under threat like never before, with climate change,
habitat loss, and human activities contributing to the decline of species at an
alarming rate.

Applications of Remote Sensing In Biodiversity Conservation

1. Habitat Mapping and Monitoring

Habitat mapping is the process of identifying the spatial distribution of habitats
in a specific area. Remote sensing technology can provide high-resolution images
of the study area that enable the identification of different types of vegetation
and land cover. This information is useful for developing habitat maps that can
be used to identify and manage critical habitats for various species. In addition to
habitat mapping, remote sensing can be used for habitat monitoring. By regularly
monitoring changes in habitat, conservationists can detect any threats to
biodiversity and implement necessary actions. Remote sensing technology can
detect changes in land cover and vegetation, which may indicate habitat
degradation or fragmentation.

2. Species Distribution Modeling

Remote sensing can also be used to develop species distribution models, which
can be used to predict the spatial distribution of species based on environmental
variables. This information is valuable for biodiversity conservation efforts
because it enables conservationists to identify areas that are important for the
survival of specific species. By combining remote sensing data with field data on
species occurrence and environmental variables, conservationists can develop
accurate species distribution models. These models can then be used to develop
conservation plans that target critical habitats for specific species.

3. Monitoring of Invasive Species

Invasive species are a major threat to biodiversity, and remote sensing can be
used to monitor their spread and distribution. Remote sensing technology can
detect changes in vegetation patterns and identify areas where invasive species
are becoming established. This information is useful for developing strategies to
control invasive species and prevent their spread.

4. Assessment of Forest Cover Change

Forests are critical habitats for many species, and remote sensing can be used to
monitor changes in forest cover over time. By comparing satellite images from
different time periods, conservationists can assess the extent and rate of forest
cover change. This information is useful for developing conservation plans that
aim to protect forest habitats and the species that depend on them.

5. Monitoring of Wetland Ecosystems

Wetland ecosystems are important habitats for many species, but they are also
threatened by human activities such as land use change and pollution. Remote
sensing can be used to monitor changes in wetland ecosystems, including changes
in vegetation, water quality, and water levels. This information is useful for
developing conservation plans that aim to protect wetland habitats and the species
that depend on them.

6. Monitoring of Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are important habitats for many marine species, but they are also
threatened by climate change and human activities such as pollution and
overfishing. Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in coral reefs,
including changes in coral cover and water temperature. This information is
useful for developing conservation plans that aim to protect coral reef habitats
and the species that depend on them.

7. Detection of Wildlife Poaching

Remote sensing can also be used to detect illegal activities such as wildlife
poaching. By monitoring changes in vegetation patterns, conservationists can
identify areas where poaching may be occurring. This information can then be
used to target anti-poaching efforts and prevent further damage to wildlife
populations.

8. Assessment of Land Use Change

Human activities such as agriculture and urbanization can have a significant
impact on biodiversity.
Remote sensing can be used to assess changes in land use over time, including
changes in vegetation patterns and the extent of urbanization. This information is
useful for developing conservation plans that aim to mitigate the negative impacts
of human activities on biodiversity.

9. Monitoring of Water Bodies

Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans are important habitats for many
species. Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in water quality, water
levels, and vegetation patterns in and around water bodies.
This information is useful for developing conservation plans that aim to protect
aquatic habitats and the species that depend on them.

10. Monitoring of Grassland Ecosystems

Grassland ecosystems are important habitats for many species, including large
herbivores such as bison and [Link] sensing can be used to monitor
changes in grassland ecosystems, including changes in vegetation patterns, land
use, and water availability. This information is useful for developing conservation
plans that aim to protect grassland habitats and the species that depend on them.

11. Detection of Forest Fires

Forest fires can have a significant impact on biodiversity, and remote sensing can
be used to detect and monitor forest fires. By monitoring changes in vegetation
patterns and temperature, conservationists can identify areas where forest fires
may be occurring or are at risk of occurring. This information is useful for
developing early warning systems and responding to forest fires quickly, thereby
minimizing their impact on biodiversity.