INTELLIGENCE

DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence: Individuals’ abilities to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the

environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome
obstacles by careful thought.
Wechsler's foundational definition of intelligence: “Intelligence is the aggregate or global
capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his
(or her) environment” (Wechsler, 1939).

EVOLUTION OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING

Psychological testing, although common today, only began over a century ago. The evolution of
psychological tests started with early pioneers attempting to measure general intelligence.

Galton’s Studies of Hereditary Genius:

● Sir Francis Galton, a British scholar in the late 19th century, initiated the study of
hereditary intelligence. He studied family trees and concluded that success runs in
families due to genetic inheritance of intelligence.
● Galton tried to measure intelligence through sensory processes, such as sensitivity to
sounds, color perception, and reaction time, assuming that bright individuals would show
superior sensory abilities. However, these measures were unsuccessful in predicting
mental ability.
● Despite this, Galton introduced important concepts such as “nature versus nurture,”
correlation, and percentile scores, which paved the way for further research in
intelligence testing.

Binet’s Breakthrough:

● In 1904, Alfred Binet was asked by a French commission to create a test to identify
children who needed special education.
 ● He and his colleague Théodore Simon developed the first useful general mental ability
test in 1905, which focused on abstract reasoning rather than sensory abilities.
● This test, which assessed a child’s mental age, was able to predict school performance
effectively.
● Binet’s scale was revised in 1908 and 1911 before his death, but his work laid the
foundation for future psychological tests.

Terman and the Stanford-Binet:

● Lewis Terman at Stanford University expanded and revised Binet’s test, leading to the
creation of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916.
● Terman introduced the concept of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), calculated by dividing
mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100.
● This allowed for comparisons across different age groups. While Terman’s technical
contributions were modest, his work played a key role in the widespread adoption of IQ
testing in American schools. The Stanford-Binet test has been updated several times since
1916.

Wechsler’s Innovations:

● David Wechsler, who worked as a psychologist at Bellevue Hospital, found the Stanford-
Binet test inadequate for assessing adults.
● In 1939, he developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), the first high-
quality IQ test specifically for adults.

Wechsler introduced two key innovations:

1. He reduced the reliance on verbal ability by including nonverbal reasoning items.

2. He replaced the IQ quotient with a scoring system based on the normal distribution,
which is now used in most IQ tests. He also created separate scores for verbal IQ,
performance IQ, and overall IQ. Wechsler’s tests later expanded to include tests for
children as well.
INTELLIGENCE TESTING TODAY

● Today, IQ tests fall into two categories: individual and group tests.
● Individual IQ tests (e.g., Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales) are administered by
trained psychologists one-on-one, but they are expensive and time-consuming.
● Group IQ tests, like the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test and the Cognitive Abilities
Test, are designed for large groups, offering greater efficiency and cost-effectiveness,
despite differences in time pressure compared to individual tests. Group tests are more
commonly used due to these advantages.

MEASURING INTELLIGENCE

The measurement of intelligence through tests is a concept that emerged in the early 20th
century. It started when educators in France recognized that some students needed more support
than others in learning, and thus, creating a way to identify these students could help provide
appropriate educational interventions.

Earlier Attempts: Early attempts to measure intelligence included methods such as sensory
tests, where researchers like Sir Francis Galton believed that intelligence could be gauged
through sensory abilities, like reaction times or sensitivity to stimuli. However, these early
methods proved ineffective for accurately measuring intellectual ability.

Binet-Simon Scale: The first significant breakthrough in intelligence testing came with the
Binet-Simon Scale developed by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in 1905. They designed the
scale to identify children in need of special educational support. The test assessed various
cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills. Binet’s work
introduced the concept of mental age, where a child’s performance on the test was compared to
the average performance of children of different ages.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient): IQ was introduced by William Stern in the early 20th century as a
way to quantify intelligence. It was based on the ratio of mental age (as determined by the
Binet-Simon test) to chronological age, multiplied by 100. IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological
Age) x 100. The average IQ score was set at 100, with scores above or below indicating above or
below-average intelligence, respectively.
Distribution of IQ: IQ scores follow a normal distribution (bell curve). The majority of people
(about 68%) score within one standard deviation of the mean (between 85 and 115). Fewer
people score very high (above 130) or very low (below 70). This distribution allows for the
classification of scores into categories such as average, above average, or below average. The
standard deviation is typically set at 15 points, meaning that most people fall between 85 and 115
on the IQ scale.

INTELLECTUAL DEFICIENCY

● Intellectual disability (ID), also known as intellectual developmental disorder, is a

condition where a person's cognitive and behavioral skills are significantly below what is
typical for their age.
● It was previously referred to as "mental retardation" and can vary from mild to
profound.

● Individuals with ID typically have an IQ below 70 and struggle with adaptive behavior,
which includes skills for independent living, like communication, self-care, and social
interactions.
● Diagnosis involves assessing intellectual functioning and adaptive skills across three
domains: conceptual (e.g., memory, reasoning, academic skills), social (e.g.,
communication, empathy, social judgment), and practical (e.g., self-management, job
responsibilities).
● Symptoms must manifest during the developmental period. The severity of ID ranges
from mild (often not noticeable until school age) to profound (involving total dependence
on others for care).
● ID can be caused by various factors, including genetic conditions (Down syndrome,
fragile X syndrome), prenatal exposure to toxins (e.g., alcohol), and environmental
factors like malnutrition, poor healthcare, or lack of stimulation. Brain damage from birth
complications or childhood illnesses can also contribute.
● Despite intellectual limitations, individuals with ID are responsive to affection and
require love and friendships, as emotional connection is vital for their well-being. ID
 should not overshadow their humanity, as warmth, compassion, and care are equally
important.

Giftedness: At the other end of the intelligence scale are those who fall on the upper end of the
normal curve, above an IQ of 130 (about 2% of the population). The term applied to these
individuals is gifted, and if their IQ falls above 140 to 145 (less than half of 1% of the
population), they are often referred to as highly advanced or [Link] by Terman
showed that gifted children tend to be socially mature and well adjusted

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT AS DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE

● The debate over the role of heredity and environment in intelligence continues, as both
factors play significant roles.
● Early views suggested intelligence is primarily inherited, but research now shows that
both genetic and environmental factors influence intelligence.
● Some argue intelligence is largely inherited, downplaying the importance of educational
programs for disadvantaged groups, while others contend that even traits influenced by
genetics can be changed through the environment, advocating for better education and
support.
● Twin studies provide evidence of heredity’s influence, showing identical twins, who
share more genetic material, are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins. This supports the
idea that genetics play a significant role, though environmental factors like upbringing
also influence intelligence.
● Adoption studies also suggest a genetic link, as adopted children show some
resemblance in IQ to their biological parents, despite being raised apart.
● Estimates of the heritability of intelligence vary but typically suggest a mix of genetic
and environmental influence. Some estimates place heredity’s role at around 50%, with
the rest influenced by environmental factors.
● Evidence of environmental influence comes from studies showing that children raised
in deprived environments tend to have lower IQ scores, while those in enriched
environments show improvement.
● The Flynn Effect by James Flynn (1998) has demonstrated that performance on IQ tests
around the world has been increasing throughout most of the century. The IQ scores have
 risen globally over generations, likely due to factors like better nutrition, education, and
technology.
● Sandra Scarr's model suggests that heredity sets upper and lower limits on intelligence,
with environmental factors determining where an individual's IQ falls within these limits.
Genetic makeup establishes a maximum IQ that cannot be surpassed, even in ideal
environments, and a minimum IQ, though extreme conditions could lower it. This
concept is known as the "reaction range," referring to the genetically determined
boundaries for traits like IQ.

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

● Intelligence helps individuals adapt to their environment, with culture providing the
context for its development.
● Vygotsky argued that culture shapes how people grow and understand the world. In less
technologically developed societies, social and emotional skills are valued, while in more
advanced societies, reasoning and judgment are prioritized. Intelligence is often shaped
by cultural norms.
● Vygotsky believed that cultures, like individuals, evolve and influence intellectual
development. While basic mental functions are universal, higher functions like problem-
solving are culture-dependent.
● In technologically advanced societies, child-rearing practices emphasize skills like
abstraction, speed, and mental manipulation, fostering a type of "technological
intelligence." Western intelligence tests focus on these skills.
● In contrast, many Asian and African cultures do not prioritize technological intelligence,
valuing instead relational skills, self-reflection, and collectivism. While these differences
persist, globalization is gradually blending cultural values, influencing how intelligence is
defined across societies.