Unit 2 – The Data Link Layer & The Medium Access
control Sublayer
2 Marks Questions
1. List out the main functions & the design issues of data link layer?
∙ Providing services to the network layer
∙ Framing
∙ Error Control
∙ Flow Control
2. What is unacknowledged connectionless service?
Unacknowledged connectionless service is a data transmission service provided by the
data link layer where:
∙ No connection is established before sending data.
∙ No acknowledgments are sent or expected.
∙ No error recovery or retransmission is performed by the data link layer.
3. What is acknowledged connectionless service?
Acknowledged connectionless service is a data transmission method where each frame is
sent without establishing a connection, but the receiver sends an acknowledgment for
every successfully received frame.
4. What is acknowledged connection-oriented service?
Acknowledged connection-oriented service is a type of communication where the sender and
receiver establish a logical connection before data transmission, and each frame sent is
acknowledged, ensuring reliable and ordered delivery.
5. Define framing.
Framing in the data link layer separates a message from one source to a destination by
adding a sender address & destination address.
A frame has three parts, namely −
∙ Frame Header
∙ Payload field that contains the data packet from network layer
∙ Trailer
6. Define error. How does an error occur?
An error refers to any alteration of data (bits) during transmission between the sender
and receiver. This means the data received is not identical to the data that was sent. ∙
Noise (Electrical Interference)
∙ Signal Attenuation
∙ Environmental Factors
7. List the types of error?
Single bit error: In the received frame, only one bit has been corrupted, i.e. either
changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.
Multiple bits error: In the received frame, more than one bits are corrupted. Burst
error: In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits are corrupted.
8. What do you mean by channel allocation?
Channel allocation is a process in which a single channel is divided and allotted to
multiple users in order to carry user specific tasks.
9. List out the categories of multiple access protocols.
10. What is Broadband?
Broadband refers to high-capacity transmission techniques that use a wide range of
frequencies to carry data over a communication medium (such as copper wires, fiber optics,
or wireless channels).
11. Define Aloha?
ALOHA is a simple communication protocol developed at the University of Hawaii in
the 1970s for wireless communication. It was designed to allow multiple devices to
share a communication channel in an efficient way.
Types of ALOHA
[Link] ALOHA
[Link] ALOHA
4/5 Marks Questions
1. Write a short note on cyclic redundancy check (CRC)?
The Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) is the most powerful method for Error
Detection and Correction. It is given as a k-bit message and the transmitter creates an
(n – k) bit sequence called frame check sequence. The out coming frame, including n
bits, is precisely divisible by some fixed number. Modulo 2 Arithmetic is used in this
binary addition with no carries, just like the XOR operation.
Redundancy means duplicity. The redundancy bits used by CRC are changed by
splitting the data unit by a fixed divisor. The remainder is CRC.
Qualities of CRC
∙ It should have accurately one less bit than the divisor.
∙ Joining it to the end of the data unit should create the resulting bit sequence
precisely divisible by the divisor.
Process
∙ A string of n 0s is added to the data unit.
∙ The number n is one smaller than the number of bits in the fixed divisor. ∙ The
new data unit is divided by a divisor utilizing a procedure known as binary
division; the remainder appearing from the division is CRC.
∙ The CRC of n bits interpreted in phase 2 restores the added 0s at the end of the
data unit.
2. Check for the error in the transmission: data word to be sent is 100100 and the
key is 1101. (Note any Problem with different numbers can be given in the exam)?
3. Write a short note on static channel allocation.
Static channel allocation is a method used in networking where the available communication
channel (bandwidth or frequency) is divided and assigned to users or devices in a fixed
manner. This allocation does not change dynamically with network conditions.
Key Features:
∙ Fixed Assignment: Each user gets a dedicated portion of the channel, regardless of
whether they are actively transmitting data.
∙ Techniques: Common static allocation techniques include Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
∙ Simplicity: Easy to implement and manage due to its fixed nature.
∙ Inefficiency: Can lead to poor bandwidth utilization, especially when some users are
idle while others need more bandwidth.
4. Write a short note on dynamic channel allocation.
Dynamic Channel Allocation:
Dynamic Channel Allocation is a technique used in networking where communication
channels (like bandwidth or time slots) are assigned to users or devices on demand,
based on current network conditions and traffic needs.
Key Features:
∙ Flexible Assignment: Channels are allocated dynamically as users request them,
allowing better use of available resources.
∙ Efficient Utilization: Unlike static allocation, it avoids wasting bandwidth by
reallocating unused channels to active users.
∙ Adaptive: Responds to traffic fluctuations, making it suitable for environments
with variable or bursty data transmission.
Examples:
∙ Wireless communication systems (e.g., mobile networks)
∙ Packet-switched networks like the Internet
Benefits:
∙ Improved bandwidth efficiency
∙ Scalability for large and dynamic networks
5. Explain Pure Aloha?
Pure ALOHA is a simple random access protocol used in computer networks for managing
how multiple devices share a communication channel. It was first developed at the University
of Hawaii for wireless communication between computers.
Key Features:
∙ Transmission: Devices send data whenever they have data to send, without
checking if the channel is free.
∙ Collisions: Since there's no coordination, collisions can occur when two devices
transmit at the same time. Collided data is considered lost.
∙ Acknowledgment: If an acknowledgment is not received, the device waits a random
time and retransmits the data.
∙ Efficiency: The maximum efficiency of Pure ALOHA is about 18.4%, meaning only
this fraction of the channel's capacity is used for successful transmissions.
Advantages:
∙ Very simple and easy to implement
∙ Suitable for low-traffic networks
Disadvantages:
∙ High chance of collisions
∙ Low throughput
6. Explain Slotted Aloha?
Slotted ALOHA:
Slotted ALOHA is an improved version of the Pure ALOHA protocol, designed to reduce
collisions and improve network efficiency.
Key Features:
∙ Time Division: The time is divided into equal-sized slots, and devices are allowed to
transmit only at the beginning of a time slot.
∙ Collision Reduction: Since transmissions are synchronized to slots, collisions only
occur when two or more devices transmit in the same slot, reducing the chance of
overlap.
∙ Acknowledgment & Retransmission: If no acknowledgment is received, the device
waits for a random number of slots before retrying.
Efficiency:
∙ Slotted
ALOHA can achieve a maximum efficiency of about 36.8%, which is twice
that of Pure ALOHA.
Advantages:
∙ Lower collision probability than Pure ALOHA
∙ Better channel utilization
Disadvantages:
∙ Requires time synchronization among all devices
∙ Still not optimal for high-traffic networks
10 Marks Questions
1. Write a short note on stop & wait protocol.
The Stop-and-Wait protocol is a simple and fundamental data link layer protocol
used for reliable data transmission between two devices.
Working Principle:
1. Sender Side:
o The sender transmits one data frame at a time.
o After sending the frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiver.
o If the ACK is received within a timeout period, the sender sends the next
frame.
o If no ACK is received (due to a lost frame or ACK), the sender retransmits
the same frame after the timeout.
2. Receiver Side:
o The receiver receives the frame and checks for errors (using methods like
CRC).
o If the frame is error-free and not a duplicate, the receiver processes it and
sends back an ACK.
o If a duplicate frame is received (due to retransmission), the receiver discards it
but resends the ACK to avoid confusion.
2. Discuss controlled access protocols.
Controlled Access Protocol – Detailed Explanation
Controlled Access Protocol refers to a class of media access control (MAC)
protocols used in computer networks where devices coordinate access to the
communication channel, rather than trying to access it randomly (as in ALOHA or
CSMA). This coordination prevents collisions, improves efficiency, and ensures fair
use of the channel.
�� Why Controlled Access?
In a shared communication medium (like in LANs or wireless networks), multiple
devices may want to send data at the same time. Without coordination, this leads to
collisions and data loss.
Controlled Access ensures that only one device transmits at a time, using an
organized method to decide who gets to send next.
�� Types of Controlled Access Protocols:
There are three main types of controlled access methods:
1. Reservation
∙ How it works:
o Time on the channel is divided into slots.
o Devices reserve slots in advance before transmitting.
o A reservation frame is used where each device indicates whether it wants to
send data.
∙ Example Use: Satellite communication
∙ Advantage: Efficient when traffic is predictable or steady
∙ Disadvantage: Idle slots if some devices don’t have data after reserving
2. Polling
∙ How it works:
o A central controller (master) asks each device (slave) one by one if it wants to
send data.
o If the device has data, it sends; otherwise, the controller polls the next device.
∙ Example Use: Mainframe terminals, some wireless systems
∙ Advantage: No collisions, fair access
∙ Disadvantage: Delay in polling, inefficient if many devices are idle.
3. Token Passing
∙ How it works:
o A special data packet called a token circulates among the devices.
o A device can transmit only when it holds the token.
o After transmitting, it passes the token to the next device.
∙ Example Use: Token Ring networks, FDDI
∙ Advantage: No collisions, predictable performance
∙ Disadvantage: Token loss or failure needs recovery mechanisms
3. Explain wireless LAN. Also write a short note on IEEE 802.11 architecture.
Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing technologies. The demand for
connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs
can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and in many public areas. There
are two promising wireless technologies for LANs:
∙ IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, sometimes called wireless Ethernet, and ∙
Bluetooth, a technology for small wireless LANs
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers
the physical and data link layers.
IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio waves
instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move
around within the area of network coverage.
802.11 networks can be used in two modes: infrastructure mode and
ad-hoc mode
Infrastructure mode uses an AP (Access Point) that is connected to the network. Clients send
and receive packets via the AP. Several APs can be connected to form an extended network.
Ad-hoc mode is a collection of computers connected to each other so that they can send
frames to each other. There’s no AP.
4. Explain Bluetooth and its architecture in detail.
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions
such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee
makers, and so on.
∙ A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed
spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a
network called a piconet.
∙ A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this
capability. A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. If there are many gadgets
that try to connect, there is chaos.
∙ Bluetooth technology has several applications. Peripheral devices such as a wireless
mouse or keyboard can communicate with the computer through this technology. ∙ Today,
Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15
standard. The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN) operable in an
area the size of a room or a hall.
Bluetooth Architecture
∙ Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet.
Piconets
∙ A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A piconet can have up to eight ∙
stations, one of which is called the primary; the rest are called secondaries. ∙ All the
secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the primary.
∙ A piconet can have only one primary station.
∙ The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one
to-many. Figure 14.19 shows a piconet.
A Scatternet is a type of Bluetooth network architecture that consists of multiple
interconnected piconets, allowing more devices to communicate beyond the limit of a single
piconet.
5. Write a short note on Hamming Code?
Refer PPT.