CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of The Study

Poultry production, particularly broiler chicken farming, stands as one of the most important pillars

of the global meat industry, contributing substantially to food security, rural livelihoods, and

economic growth. Globally, poultry meat accounts for nearly 40% of all meat produced, making

it the fastest-growing meat sector over the past few decades (FAO, 2020). The Food and

Agriculture Organization reports that poultry meat output increased from approximately 9 million

tonnes in 1961 to about 133 million tonnes in 2020, while egg production has risen by more than

150% in the last thirty years (FAO, 2020). This surge is especially evident in developing

economies, where rapid production cycles and adaptability to varied feed resources allow the

industry to meet the growing protein demands of rapidly urbanizing populations (Adebayo et al.,

2019). Annually, over 50 billion chickens are reared worldwide for both meat and egg production,

with broilers representing the largest share (Smith et al., 2021). Their dominance is attributed to

their ability to provide high-quality protein quickly and at relatively low cost, a factor that is vital

for addressing malnutrition in lower-income countries (Akinola et al., 2022). In Senegal, for

example, the poultry industry alone accounts for approximately 17% of the animal sector’s GDP

and employs thousands of people, underscoring its economic and livelihood significance (Diouf

et al., 2020).

In many developed economies, broiler production plays a similarly critical role. In the United

States, for instance, poultry sector sales reached $70.2 billion in 2024, up from $67.4 billion in

2023, with broiler production contributing $45.4 billion, reflecting a year-on-year increase of 5.8%

1
(USDA, 2024). This economic weight is mirrored in emerging economies where smallholder

poultry farmers use broilers both for income generation and as a form of “liquid asset” that can be

sold quickly to meet urgent financial needs, thus playing a significant role in household resilience

and poverty alleviation (Adeyemi et al., 2018).

Broilers (Gallus gallus domesticus) are specifically bred for rapid growth, with most commercial

strains reaching slaughter weight within 5 to 7 weeks. Advances in selective breeding, nutrition,

and management practices have dramatically reduced the time needed to reach market size—from

about 70 days in the 1980s for a 2 kg bird to under 30 days in modern commercial systems (Jones

et al., 2018). A major economic advantage of broilers lies in their exceptional feed conversion

ratio (FCR), which can be as low as 1.5, meaning that only 1.5 kg of feed is needed to produce 1

kg of live weight gain (Anderson et al., 2020). This level of feed efficiency is considerably higher

than that of most other meat animals. In many production contexts, broilers require approximately

1.75 kg of feed per kilogram of weight gain and can reach market weight in less than 39 days

(Olawale et al., 2021).

Feed remains the single largest cost component in broiler production, typically accounting for 60–

75% of total production costs (Adeyeye et al., 2019). In some production systems, feed expenses

can rise to as much as 85% of the variable cost (Ibe et al., 2020). This high cost makes feed

efficiency a central focus for producers, since even minor improvements can have a significant

impact on profitability. Feed costs are influenced by the prices of raw ingredients such as maize,

soybean meal, and fish meal, as well as by the cost of vitamins, minerals, and additives. In many

African countries, maize alone constitutes 50–70% of poultry feed, meaning that any price hikes,

import restrictions, or supply chain disruptions can severely affect production capacity and lead to

price volatility in local markets (Oladipo et al., 2022).

2
Beyond production economics, broiler health and productivity can be assessed through

hematological parameters, which serve as sensitive indicators of nutritional status, physiological

function, and disease resistance. Key parameters include hemoglobin concentration (Hb), packed

cell volume (PCV), and red blood cell indices such as mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean

corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC).

Hemoglobin plays a central role in oxygen transport, enabling high metabolic performance and

growth rates, while PCV and red cell indices reflect overall erythropoiesis and blood oxygen-

carrying capacity (Oke et al., 2017). Typical hemoglobin values in broilers range between 7 and

11 g/dL, while PCV levels range from 29% to 33%, depending on diet, age, and supplementation

(Ibrahim et al., 2019).

Nutritional interventions have been shown to influence these hematological parameters

significantly. Studies have reported that partial replacement of maize with alternative energy

sources such as cassava and Indigofera leaves at inclusion levels of up to 40% does not negatively

affect erythrocyte counts or PCV and can even improve hemoglobin levels (Abubakar et al., 2021).

Such findings point to the potential flexibility in feed formulation without compromising

physiological health.

Sexual dimorphism is another important factor influencing hematological profiles in poultry.

Research on Vanaraja chickens has shown that males tend to have higher total erythrocyte count

(TEC), PCV, and hemoglobin than females, while females often exhibit higher MCV and MCH

values (Ahmed et al., 2018). Similarly, in commercial broiler strains such as Arbor Acres and

Cobb-500, males have been observed to have higher hemoglobin levels and RBC counts at six and

eight weeks of age, with significant differences noted between strains (Nwosu et al., 2021). These

3
variations are thought to be related to hormonal influences and differences in metabolic rate

between the sexes (Okonkwo et al., 2020).

Sex differences extend beyond hematological values to immune function and mortality rates. Male

broilers often exhibit higher mortality rates and weaker humoral immune responses than females,

producing lower antibody titers and responding more slowly to pathogens such as Newcastle

Disease virus and Escherichia coli (Eze et al., 2022). This has important implications for

management practices, as nutrition and vaccination strategies may need to be tailored to address

sex-specific vulnerabilities.

Despite the large body of research on broiler growth, feed efficiency, and hematology, relatively

few studies have examined the combined effects of feed type and sex on hematological indices

throughout the growth cycle. This represents a critical knowledge gap, as understanding how these

factors interact could enable more precise nutritional strategies that meet the distinct physiological

needs of male and female broilers, improve immune function, and ultimately enhance production

efficiency and profitability (Usman et al., 2023). The present study is therefore designed to

investigate the interactive effects of feed type and sex on selected hematological parameters in

broilers, with the aim of generating evidence-based recommendations for improved nutritional

management in poultry production.

1.2 Objective of the Study

The main objective of this study is to determine the effect of feed and sex on hemoglobin and

corpuscular values of broiler chickens. Specifically, the study will:

1. To determine the effects of different dietary treatments on the haematological and

biochemical parameters of broiler chickens.

4
2. To assess the influence of sex on haemoglobin concentration, corpuscular values, and

related physiological indices in broiler chickens.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Broiler Chickens

Broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) are domesticated fowl selectively bred for rapid

growth, high meat yield, and efficient feed utilization, making them a cornerstone of global

agricultural production systems. Their relatively short production cycle, adaptability to various

environmental conditions, and superior feed conversion efficiency have positioned them as one of

the most economically important sources of animal protein worldwide (Afolayan et al., 2020).

Over recent decades, broiler production has expanded significantly across both developed and

developing economies, providing an affordable and reliable source of high-quality protein for

human consumption (Olaniyi and Salau, 2019).

The economic and nutritional importance of broiler chickens extends far beyond meat provision.

In many regions, they serve as a vital source of income for both smallholder and commercial

farmers, with their by-products, including feathers and manure, finding diverse applications in

industries such as textiles, fertilizers, and biogas production (Abioja et al., 2021). In low- and

middle-income countries, broiler farming contributes substantially to food security and poverty

alleviation by supplying an accessible protein source with a shorter turnaround time than most

other livestock species (Yakubu and Abimiku, 2020).

One of the defining strengths of broiler production lies in the birds’ ability to efficiently convert

feed into high-quality protein. They thrive on nutritionally balanced diets formulated from locally

available feed ingredients such as grains, oilseed meals, and agro-industrial by-products. Such

diets can be precisely optimized to meet the nutritional requirements at each growth stage, and

6
their composition directly influences health status, physiological functions, and metabolic

performance. These effects are often reflected in hematological and biochemical parameters,

which serve as valuable indicators of metabolic state, disease status, and overall productivity

(Adeyemo et al., 2020).

Broiler chickens are particularly well suited to intensive and semi-intensive production systems,

which makes them viable for both rural and urban farming contexts. Their production requires less

land and space compared to larger livestock, enabling farmers to maintain higher stocking densities

without significant land expansion (Onunkwo and Okoro, 2019). From an environmental

perspective, poultry farming has a smaller greenhouse gas footprint per kilogram of meat produced

compared to ruminant livestock, aligning with global calls for more sustainable meat production

practices (FAO, 2021).

Broiler production faces persistent challenges, including high feed costs, disease outbreaks, and

environmental stressors. These factors can disrupt physiological and metabolic processes, leading

to alterations in hematological and biochemical profiles, reduced growth performance, and

compromised meat quality (Akinola et al., 2022). Moreover, biological sex has been shown to

influence physiological traits, with male and female broilers often exhibiting measurable

differences in growth rate, metabolic efficiency, and nutrient utilization (Melesse et al., 2017).

Understanding these differences is crucial for developing targeted nutritional and management

strategies that optimize production efficiency while safeguarding bird health.

7
2.2 Importance of Broiler Chickens in Agriculture

Broiler chickens are widely acknowledged as one of the most efficient and versatile sources of

high-quality animal protein, particularly in regions where other livestock production may be

constrained by climatic conditions, resource availability, or land limitations (Olaniyi and Salau,

2019; Afolayan et al., 2020). Their rapid growth rate and short production cycle allow farmers to

achieve quick turnover and steady income, making broiler farming an attractive enterprise for both

smallholder and commercial poultry operations (Yakubu and Abimiku, 2020). Compared to larger

livestock such as cattle or pigs, broiler production requires significantly fewer resources, including

land, water, and labor, rendering poultry farming a sustainable and economically viable activity in

many rural and peri-urban farming systems (FAO, 2021).

Broilers’ adaptability to intensive and semi-intensive housing systems, coupled with their

relatively small space requirements, allows farmers to maintain higher stocking densities without

compromising bird welfare (Oladokun et al., 2018). Their diets can be formulated from a wide

range of locally available feed ingredients, such as maize, soybean meal, and agro-industrial by-

products, which reduces dependency on costly imported feed (Abioja et al., 2021). Furthermore,

the incorporation of alternative feed sources, including cassava peel meal, fermented grains, and

other plant protein sources, has been shown to reduce production costs while ensuring a

nutritionally balanced diet that supports optimal growth and performance (Akinola et al., 2022).

Such dietary flexibility not only improves economic viability but also influences hematological

and biochemical parameters, which are crucial indicators of health, metabolic efficiency, and

overall productivity in broiler chickens (Adeyemo et al., 2020).

The economic contributions of broiler production extend beyond the farm gate. The poultry sector

generates employment opportunities across multiple points in the value chain, including

8
hatcheries, feed mills, processing plants, and marketing networks (Onunkwo and Okoro, 2019).

By integrating broiler farming into existing agricultural systems, households can diversify income

streams while simultaneously contributing to local and regional food security. The sector’s

economic relevance is further underscored by the rising consumer demand for poultry meat, which

is driven by its affordability, consistent availability, and favorable nutritional profile relative to red

meats (Melesse et al., 2017).

Broiler chickens also play a critical role in improving nutrition and food security, particularly in

developing countries where protein-energy malnutrition remains prevalent (Adeyemo et al., 2020;

FAO, 2021). Broiler meat is rich in high-quality protein, essential amino acids, vitamins, and

minerals, providing a vital component of balanced diets. Its lower fat and cholesterol content

compared to many red meats enhances its appeal to health-conscious consumers and those

managing cardiovascular risk (Yakubu and Abimiku, 2020). The short production cycle of broilers

allows for a year-round meat supply, ensuring that households have continuous access to

affordable protein. Additionally, the flexibility in feed formulation, including the use of locally

available grains and agro-industrial by-products, enhances production efficiency and mitigates

vulnerability to feed price fluctuations (Olaniyi and Salau, 2019).

Nutritional management in broiler production directly affects physiological health, as reflected in

hematological and biochemical parameters. Diet composition, nutrient density, and the inclusion

of functional feed additives such as probiotics, enzymes, and phytogenic compounds can enhance

immune function, reduce oxidative stress, and improve metabolic efficiency (Adeyemo et al.,

2020). Research has also demonstrated that sex differences influence nutrient utilization and

physiological responses, contributing to variations in growth rate, carcass composition, and blood

profiles between male and female broilers (Melesse et al., 2017).

9
Broiler production further contributes to environmental sustainability by generating a relatively

low ecological footprint compared to ruminant livestock. Poultry produce significantly less

methane per kilogram of meat, and their land and water requirements are substantially lower (FAO,

2021; Abioja et al., 2021). The integration of broilers into mixed farming systems promotes

nutrient recycling, as poultry manure is a valuable source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium,

which can enhance soil fertility, organic matter content, and crop productivity, thereby reducing

reliance on synthetic fertilizers (Yakubu and Abimiku, 2020). Incorporating poultry into agro-

ecological systems creates a mutually beneficial relationship between crops and livestock: crop

residues can serve as feed, while poultry manure enriches the soil, supporting a circular and

sustainable agricultural model (Akinola et al., 2022). Advances in feed technology, such as

precision feeding and nutrient balancing, further minimize nutrient excretion and reduce

environmental pollution, enhancing the sustainability of broiler production systems (Olaniyi and

Salau, 2019).

2.3 General Broiler Husbandry Practices

Effective husbandry practices are fundamental for optimizing growth performance, health, and

productivity in broiler production. Proper housing constitutes one of the most critical aspects of

flock management. Broilers require clean, well-ventilated housing that shields them from extreme

weather conditions, predators, and disease-causing organisms. Well-designed housing reduces

stress and supports optimal feed intake and weight gain, which are closely linked to favorable

hematological and biochemical parameters (Olaniyi and Salau, 2019; Adeyemo et al., 2020).

Conversely, poor housing characterized by overcrowding, high ammonia levels, or inadequate

ventilation can increase disease incidence, elevate mortality rates, and impair immune function,

10
ultimately diminishing production efficiency and profitability (FAO, 2021; Yakubu and Abimiku,

2020).

Housing design significantly influences thermal comfort, air quality, and stocking density. Proper

ventilation regulates temperature and humidity while minimizing ammonia and dust accumulation,

which can adversely affect respiratory health (Onunkwo and Okoro, 2019). High stocking

densities, although economically appealing, can result in heat stress, aggressive behavior, and

elevated corticosterone levels, all of which alter hematological parameters, including packed cell

volume (PCV), white blood cell count, and differential leukocyte profiles (Abioja et al., 2021).

Providing adequate floor space per bird supports better feed conversion, reduces stress-related

biochemical changes, and enhances meat quality (Oladokun et al., 2018).

Housing systems should also facilitate efficient feeding, watering, waste management, and health

monitoring. Incorporating features such as nipple drinkers, automated feeders, and slatted or deep-

litter flooring improves sanitation, reduces pathogen spread, and enhances bird comfort (Akinola

et al., 2022). Studies indicate that poor sanitation can elevate biochemical markers of stress and

infection, including plasma total protein levels and heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratios (Adeyemo et

al., 2020). Temperature regulation within broiler housing is equally critical, as thermal stress

negatively impacts feed intake, metabolic processes, and blood chemistry. Heat stress has been

linked to reductions in red blood cell counts, altered electrolyte balance, and elevated plasma

cortisol levels (Melesse et al., 2017; Abioja et al., 2021). In tropical regions, passive cooling

strategies, such as ridge ventilation, reflective roofing, and sidewall curtains, combined with active

systems like fans and evaporative cooling pads, help maintain optimal thermal conditions and

support physiological homeostasis (Olaniyi and Salau, 2019).

11
2.3.2 Nutritional Needs

Nutrition is a primary determinant of broiler chicken performance, directly influencing growth

rate, feed efficiency, immune function, and physiological health, which are often reflected in

hematological and biochemical parameters (Adeyemo et al., 2020; Akinola et al., 2022). Balanced

diets for broilers are carefully formulated to contain optimal levels of energy, crude protein,

essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, tailored to the bird’s age and production stage.

During the starter phase, typically from day 0 to 21, broilers have elevated protein and energy

requirements to support rapid muscle development and organ growth. In contrast, the finisher

phase, from day 22 to 42, emphasizes energy-dense diets to maximize carcass yield, meat quality,

and overall market value (Onunkwo and Okoro, 2019).

Inadequate protein intake during early growth phases can result in reduced growth rate, anemia,

and altered serum protein profiles, while excessive energy provision may predispose birds to

metabolic disorders such as ascites, fatty liver disease, and impaired cardiovascular function

(Melesse et al., 2017). Nutrient composition also directly affects key biochemical markers,

including serum glucose, cholesterol, and liver enzyme activities, which are often used to assess

dietary adequacy and the metabolic status of broilers in research and commercial practice

(Adeyemo et al., 2020).

Sex-specific differences in metabolism and nutrient utilization are increasingly recognized as

important considerations in broiler nutrition. Males generally exhibit higher growth rates and

protein deposition efficiency, whereas females may accumulate more fat and display variations in

lipid metabolism and blood lipid profiles (Yakubu and Abimiku, 2020). Understanding these

physiological variations is crucial for formulating sex-specific diets that optimize growth, feed

conversion efficiency, and health outcomes.

12
Feed additives such as probiotics, prebiotics, enzymes, and phytogenic compounds can further

enhance nutrient digestibility, improve gut health, and strengthen immunity, leading to measurable

improvements in hematological indices (e.g., packed cell volume and hemoglobin concentration)

and biochemical parameters (e.g., serum proteins, lipid profile, and liver enzymes) (Abioja et al.,

2021; Akinola et al., 2022). The incorporation of locally available feedstuffs, such as cassava peel

meal, sorghum, and other plant protein sources, can reduce feed costs while maintaining nutritional

adequacy. However, these alternative ingredients must be carefully evaluated for anti-nutritional

factors, which can impair nutrient absorption and alter biochemical markers such as urea and

creatinine levels, potentially affecting overall bird health (Adeyemo et al., 2020).

2.3.3 Breeding and Healthcare Practices

Effective breeding and healthcare strategies are essential for maintaining high productivity and

optimal physiological status in broiler chickens. Selective breeding for traits such as rapid growth,

superior feed conversion efficiency, and disease resistance is central to improving broiler

performance and maintaining stable hematological and biochemical profiles (Shaahu et al., 2020;

Adebowale, Ogunjimi, and Olayemi, 2018). By prioritizing these traits, breeding programs can

generate birds with enhanced muscle accretion rates, robust immune responses, and improved

metabolic efficiency, all of which contribute to better overall health and performance (Olufemi

and Adewale, 2019).

Understanding genetic lines enables farmers to align breeding strategies with specific production

goals, including optimized carcass quality and resilient immune function. Structured breeding

programs not only enhance productivity but also preserve genetic diversity, which is critical for

long-term sustainability and adaptability to changing environmental and market conditions

(Olusola, Adebayo, and Alabi, 2020).

13
Routine healthcare practices are equally important for ensuring flock health and stability in

physiological parameters. Vaccination schedules, disease monitoring, and strict biosecurity

protocols help prevent outbreaks of common poultry diseases such as coccidiosis, Newcastle

disease, infectious bursal disease, and respiratory infections, all of which can cause significant

alterations in leukocyte counts, plasma protein levels, and serum electrolyte concentrations (Smith

and Sherman, 2021; Peacock, 2020). Preventive measures, including regular sanitation, controlled

access to poultry houses, quarantine of new stock, and thorough cleaning between production

cycles, further reduce pathogen exposure and limit the spread of infectious agents (Gachuiri,

Mwangi, Mbugua, and Ngare, 2017).

Farmer education and capacity building are vital for effective broiler management. Training

programs that emphasize early disease detection, accurate vaccine administration, hygiene

maintenance, and symptom recognition empower poultry keepers to safeguard flock health,

stabilize haematological and biochemical parameters, and optimize economic returns (Adebowale,

Ogunjimi, and Olayemi, 2018; Shaahu et al., 2020). Implementing proactive health monitoring

allows for early intervention, minimizing disruptions to metabolic homeostasis and ensuring

consistent growth performance, feed efficiency, and meat quality across production cycles.

2.4 Nutritional Requirements of Growing Broiler Chickens

Understanding the nutritional requirements of broiler chickens is central to optimizing growth

performance, feed efficiency, and overall physiological well-being. From hatch to market weight,

broilers require carefully formulated diets that meet their rapidly evolving needs for protein,

energy, vitamins, and minerals (Fadare et al., 2021; Eze et al., 2021). Protein is particularly critical,

as it supports skeletal and muscle development, immune competence, and haematopoiesis.

Research has shown that diets containing 20–23% crude protein during the starter phase optimize

14
growth and maintain normal serum total protein levels (Moller et al., 2021). High-quality protein

sources, including soybean meal, groundnut cake, and fish meal, improve both performance and

biochemical stability, enhancing feed conversion and overall health (Adeyemi et al., 2020; Akinola

et al., 2021).

Carbohydrates, primarily sourced from maize, sorghum, and wheat, provide the energy required

for basal metabolic activities, thermoregulation, and locomotion. Energy imbalances, whether

deficits or surpluses, can significantly affect blood glucose levels, liver enzyme activity, and lipid

profiles, thereby impacting growth efficiency and health (Gachuiri et al., 2017; Peacock, 2020).

Although fiber is required in relatively small amounts, it supports digestive health and nutrient

absorption, indirectly influencing metabolic and biochemical outcomes (Alam et al., 2021).

Micronutrients, including vitamins and minerals, exert profound effects on haematological and

biochemical parameters. Calcium and phosphorus are essential for bone mineralization, with

deficiencies leading to hypocalcemia and alterations in alkaline phosphatase activity (Adebayo

and Johnson, 2020). Vitamins A, D, and E enhance immune responses and antioxidant capacity,

influencing leukocyte counts, plasma protein levels, and markers of oxidative stress such as serum

malondialdehyde (FAO, 2020; Smith and Sherman, 2021). Balanced inclusion of these nutrients

ensures both optimal performance and physiological stability across growth stages.

The economic implications of nutrition are equally significant. While high-quality protein sources

enhance growth and maintain haematological indices, they also substantially increase production

costs (Adebayo et al., 2019; FAO, 2020). Studies indicate that locally available feed resources,

such as cassava peels, maize bran, and sorghum offal, can partially replace expensive imported

ingredients without compromising growth performance or serum biochemical stability (Gonzalez

et al., 2016). Efficient feed formulation reduces input costs while maintaining competitive feed

15
conversion ratios (FCR), which reflect the efficiency of nutrient utilization and are closely

associated with stable blood glucose, total protein, and lipid levels (Adebowale et al., 2018).

Aligning feed composition with both economic and physiological objectives allows producers to

achieve sustainable profitability while supporting optimal haematological and biochemical health

(Gachuiri et al., 2017).

Sustainable feeding practices emphasize nutrient-use efficiency while minimizing environmental

and economic costs. Incorporating agricultural by-products such as rice bran, cassava peels, and

brewer’s grains reduces dependence on costly commercial feeds and promotes circular agricultural

practices (Akinola et al., 2021; Bardhan et al., 2012). Proper storage and handling of feed are

critical to prevent nutrient losses, contamination, and subsequent declines in performance or

adverse biochemical effects. Precision feeding, which adjusts nutrient supply according to growth

phase and sex, ensures that male and female broilers receive diets tailored to their metabolic

requirements, maintaining physiological stability and supporting optimal growth and health

(Gachuiri et al., 2017; Gonzalez et al., 2016).

2.5 Haemoglobin and Erythrocyte Indices in Broiler Chickens

Haemoglobin concentration and erythrocyte indices, including Mean Corpuscular Volume

(MCV), Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH), and Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin

Concentration (MCHC), are essential hematological parameters in broiler management. These

markers provide critical insight into oxygen-carrying capacity, red blood cell morphology, and

overall physiological status, making them sensitive indicators of nutritional adequacy, disease

status, and stress conditions (Abdelrahman et al., 2023; Kim et al., 2022). Evaluating these

parameters allows for the assessment of dietary interventions, sex differences, and genetic

influences on broiler health and performance.

16
2.5.1 Haemoglobin (Hb)

Haemoglobin is an iron-containing metalloprotein within erythrocytes that binds oxygen at

respiratory surfaces and delivers it to metabolically active tissues. It is central to aerobic

metabolism and energy production, processes that are crucial for the rapid growth observed in

modern broiler strains. Haemoglobin synthesis is influenced by dietary iron, protein quality, and

the presence of anti-nutritional factors in feed (Olawale et al., 2023). Insufficient haemoglobin

levels can result in hypoxia, reduced feed efficiency, and impaired weight gain (Ebeid et al., 2022).

Recent studies indicate that dietary substitutions of conventional maize-soybean meal with agro-

industrial by-products can either enhance or depress haemoglobin concentrations depending on

nutrient balance (IOSR-JAVS, 2023). Sex-specific differences have also been observed, with male

broilers typically exhibiting higher haemoglobin values compared to females, likely due to

differences in metabolic rate and erythropoietic activity (Ahmed et al., 2021).

2.5.2 Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV)

MCV represents the average volume of individual erythrocytes and is calculated from packed cell

volume (PCV) and red blood cell count (RBC). It helps distinguish microcytic, normocytic, and

macrocytic anemia, providing clues to nutritional deficiencies or pathological conditions. In

broilers, MCV can fluctuate with diet composition, environmental stress, and developmental stage

(IJSRA, 2024). Age significantly influences MCV, with early growth stages typically showing

higher values that stabilize with maturity (EKB Journals, 2023). While phytobiotic

supplementation may not significantly alter MCV, genotype-dependent variations and interactions

with sex have been reported, indicating that both genetic background and sex influence erythrocyte

morphology (Hossain et al., 2022).

17
2.5.3 Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH)

MCH quantifies the average haemoglobin mass per erythrocyte and is derived from total

haemoglobin relative to RBC count. It reflects the efficiency of haemoglobinization during

erythropoiesis and can indicate deficiencies in iron, copper, or protein. Maintaining optimal MCH

is critical for oxygen delivery to rapidly growing muscle tissue, supporting carcass yield and

overall health (Ebeid et al., 2022). While some studies show no significant dietary effect on MCH,

genotype and sex have been reported to influence MCH values in commercial broiler flocks,

suggesting that both nutritional and genetic factors contribute to variation (Academia, 2022; UGM

Bulletin Peternakan, 2024).

2.5.4 Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC)

MCHC measures the average haemoglobin concentration per unit volume of packed erythrocytes

and serves as an indicator of hypochromia and erythrocyte function. MCHC is generally less

sensitive to short-term dietary changes than Hb or MCH but can be affected by chronic nutritional

deficiencies or disease conditions (EKB Journals, 2023). Age-related declines in MCHC have been

noted in breeder birds, with minimal sex effects observed; however, genotype-by-sex interactions

can alter MCHC profiles in commercial strains, highlighting the need for breeding programs to

consider hematological resilience alongside production traits (Academia, 2022; UGM Bulletin

Peternakan, 2024).

18
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Experimental Site

The experiment was conducted at the Poultry Unit of the Livestock Teaching and Research Farm,

Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. Makurdi is located in the north-

central region of Nigeria, within the Guinea Savannah Zone. The region experiences a tropical

savanna climate characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Rainfall occurs between March and

October, lasting between 6–8 months, with an annual range of 508 mm to 1016 mm. The minimum

and maximum temperatures are 22.8 °C and 40.03 °C, respectively, while the relative humidity

ranges between 37.3% and 59.2% (TAC, 2021).

3.2 Experimental Birds

A total of 204 day-old mixed-sex broiler chicks were purchased from a reputable hatchery. The

chicks were brooded for two weeks and acclimatized before the commencement of the feeding

trial. During brooding, birds were provided with commercial starter diets and clean drinking water

ad libitum.

Prophylactic treatments included:

• Lasota vaccine against Newcastle disease.

• Gumboro vaccine for Infectious Bursal Disease.

• Multivitamins administered at 10 g per 20 L of water to boost immunity and reduce stress.

• Electrolytes administered at 5 g per 15 L of water to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance.

19
These treatments were administered according to recommended schedules and under strict hygiene

protocols to ensure optimal health prior to the trial.

3.3 Experimental Design

The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design (CRD). The birds were divided

into 26 partitions, with 8 birds in each partition. Each partition represented a replicate within the

experimental layout. The four dietary treatments used in the experiment are presented in Table 1.

20
Table 1: Experimental Feed Treatments

Treatment Feed Type Brand Name

T1 Pre-Lay Mash (Chikun Feed) Premier Feed Mills

T2 Ultima Feed Olam Animal Feed Mill

T3 Vital Feed Grand Cereals Limited

T4 Top Feed Premier Feed Mills

21
3.4 Housing and Management of Experimental Birds

The chicks were housed in deep-litter pens partitioned to accommodate the treatment replicates.

Wood shavings were used as litter material and were regularly stirred to prevent caking. Each

partition was equipped with a feeder and drinker, cleaned daily to maintain hygiene. Fresh feed

and clean drinking water were provided ad libitum, with daily records kept for both feed and water

intake. Feed quantities were adjusted as the birds aged to meet their changing nutritional needs.

In addition to vaccines, multivitamins and electrolytes were periodically added to drinking water

throughout the trial following the dosage rates stated in section 3.2. The poultry house was well-

ventilated, and artificial lighting was provided for 23 hours daily to encourage feed intake and

growth. Routine biosecurity measures were strictly observed, including controlled access,

disinfection of equipment, and regular monitoring for disease symptoms.

3.5 Experimental Diet

All four feeds were formulated to meet the nutrient requirements of growing broilers. Maize served

as the primary energy source in all diets, with soybean meal and other protein sources balanced

with appropriate vitamins and minerals. Total feed quantities consumed across the experimental

period were recorded for subsequent performance analysis.

3.6 Blood Sample Collection and Haematological Analysis

At the end of the experimental period, blood samples (5 ml) were collected from the wing vein of

each bird using sterile syringes and needles. Equal numbers of males and females were sampled

from each replicate. Blood was divided into two portions:

22
Haematological Analysis: One portion was collected into EDTA bottles for the determination of

haemoglobin concentration (Hb), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular

haemoglobin (MCH), and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC). These analyses

were performed following standard laboratory procedures as described by Jain (1993).

Serum Biochemical Analysis: The second portion was placed in plain bottles, allowed to clot,

and centrifuged to obtain serum for possible biochemical analysis (not the primary focus of this

study).

3.7 Statistical Analysis

Data on haematological parameters (Hb, MCV, MCH, MCHC) were analyzed using Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) in SPSS version 23. The model used was:

Yijk = μ + Si + Dj + (SD)ij + eijk

Where:

• Yij = observation on the kth replicate of sex ii and diet jj

• μ = overall mean

• Si = effect of the ith sex (male or female)

• Dj = effect of the jth diet (CFS, CFF, TPS, TFF, UFS, UFF)

• (SD)ij = interaction effect between sex and diet

• eijk = experimental error

Significant means were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% level of

probability.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results in Table 1 present the effect of dietary treatments on the haematological parameters of

broiler chickens.

Packed Cell Volume (PCV) ranged from 21.00% in female broilers fed diet T3F2 to 38.00% in

female broilers on diet T1F2, with no significant differences (p > 0.05) among treatments. Most

values were within the normal physiological range of 22–35% for healthy broilers (Jain, 2015).

The higher PCV in female broilers on T1F2 suggests improved oxygen-carrying capacity, possibly

due to the diet’s nutrient profile.

Red Blood Cell (RBC) counts varied between 2.7 × 10¹²/L (observed in female broilers on T2F1

and T4F1) and 3.8 × 10¹²/L (in female broilers on T2F3). Although differences were not

statistically significant, the higher RBC count in female broilers on T2F3 may indicate enhanced

erythropoiesis linked to better micronutrient availability (Etim et al., 2014).

White Blood Cell (WBC) counts ranged from 4.8 × 10⁹/L in male broilers on T3M2 to 8.6 × 10⁹/L

in both male broilers on T1M1 and T4M3. All values were within reference limits for healthy

broilers (Coles, 1986), suggesting the absence of acute pathological infections in either sex.

Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) values ranged between 62.8 fL in female broilers on T3F1 and

133.3 fL in female broilers on T1F2. The higher MCV in female broilers on T1F2 may indicate

macrocytic erythrocytes, possibly influenced by vitamin supplementation or higher dietary energy

(Borges et al., 2017).

24
Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH) ranged from 13.1 pg in female broilers on T4F1 to 16.8

pg in female broilers on T1F2. Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) was stable

(33.2–33.4 g/dl) across all treatments and both sexes, showing consistent haemoglobin saturation.

For differential leucocyte counts, lymphocyte percentages ranged from 44% in female broilers on

T2F3 and T3F1 to 55% in female broilers on T4F1. Heterophil percentages varied from 40% in

female broilers on T4F1 to 49% in male broilers on T1M1, T2M2, and T4M3. The lymphocyte–

heterophil ratios in all cases were within stress-free thresholds (Gross and Siegel, 1983), indicating

stable immune function in both male and female broilers.

Eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes remained low across all groups. The slightly higher

monocyte count (5%) observed in female broilers on T3F2 may be linked to normal immune

system activation without signs of disease (Campbell and Ellis, 2007).

25
Table 1: Effect of dietary treatments on haematological parameters of broiler chickens

PCV RBC WBC Hb MCV MCH MCHC Lymphocytes Heterophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes
Treatment
(%) (×10¹²/L) (×10⁹/L) (g/dl) (fL) (pg) (g/dl) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

T1M1 29 3.4 8.6 9.6 85.2 14.2 33.4 47 49 1 0 3

T1M2 24 2.9 7.4 8.0 84.2 14.0 33.3 50 46 2 0 4

T1F1 26 3.4 6.8 8.7 76.4 16.0 33.4 45 48 2 1 4

T1F2 38 2.9 8.2 12.2 133.3 16.8 33.2 49 45 2 0 5

T2F1 28 2.7 7.0 9.3 103.7 14.3 33.3 46 48 3 1 2

T2F3 25 3.8 6.4 8.3 66.6 13.2 33.2 44 46 4 0 6

T2M1 27 3.3 6.8 9.0 83.0 14.0 33.3 48 47 2 0 3

T2M2 28 3.2 6.0 9.3 88.8 13.3 33.2 46 49 2 1 2

T3F2 21 3.2 7.2 7.0 65.6 13.2 33.3 47 43 3 2 5

T3F1 22 3.5 6.4 7.3 62.8 13.3 33.2 49 44 2 0 5

T3M2 23 2.7 4.8 7.7 86.7 14.1 33.3 51 43 2 0 4

T3M3 23 2.8 5.4 7.6 83.6 13.6 33.4 45 46 4 0 5

T4F1 26 2.7 5.8 8.6 96.2 13.1 33.4 55 40 2 0 3

T4F3 30 2.8 6.6 10.0 107.1 14.0 33.3 49 42 3 0 5

T4M1 26 3.3 7.6 8.6 78.7 14.1 33.4 51 43 3 1 5

T4M3 29 3.4 8.6 9.7 85.2 13.6 33.2 47 49 1 0 3

26
The biochemical parameters in Table 2 show that total protein ranged from 4.44 g/dl in male

broilers on T3M2 to 8.44 g/dl in female broilers on T4F3. The higher protein level in female

broilers on T4F3 may reflect improved dietary amino acid balance and protein metabolism (Abdel-

Fattah et al., 2016).

Albumin levels ranged from 2.98 g/dl in male broilers on T3M2 to 5.67 g/dl in female broilers on

T4F3, with higher levels suggesting more efficient liver protein synthesis (Kaneko et al., 2008).

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values ranged from 135.85 U/L in male broilers on T2M2 to

227.38 U/L in male broilers on T3M2. While these differences could reflect varying metabolic

activity, all values were within acceptable physiological limits.

Total bilirubin ranged from 2.04 µmol/l in male broilers on T2M2 to 5.74 µmol/l in male broilers

on T3M3, indicating no evidence of impaired liver function in either sex.

Creatinine levels were low in all treatments (0.034–0.072 mg/dl), suggesting normal kidney

function across both sexes. Urea ranged from 2.99 mg/dl in male broilers on T3M2 to 5.98 mg/dl

in female broilers on T4F3, with higher values possibly reflecting greater dietary protein

breakdown and metabolism in female broilers on this treatment.

Lipid profile variations were also observed. Cholesterol levels ranged from 99.33 mg/dl in female

broilers on T1F4 to 167.67 mg/dl in female broilers on T3F1. Triglycerides were lowest (75.68

mg/dl) in female broilers on T2F4 and highest (190.67 mg/dl) in male broilers on T3M4. HDL

values ranged from 44.67 mg/dl in male broilers on T3M2 to 84.35 mg/dl in female broilers on

T3F3, while LDL values varied between 30.74 mg/dl in female broilers on T4F4 and 97.34 mg/dl

in female broilers on T1F1.

27
These lipid variations may be attributed to differences in fat metabolism, hormonal influence, and

dietary energy composition (Leeson and Summers, 2001). Female broilers generally showed

higher HDL levels, which may be beneficial for cardiovascular health, while male broilers tended

to have higher triglyceride values in certain treatments, indicating possible differences in lipid

storage and mobilization between sexes.

28
Table 2: Effect of dietary treatments on biochemical parameters of broiler chickens

Total Total
Albumin AST ALT ALP Creatinine Urea Cholesterol Triglycerides HDL LDL
Treatment Protein Bilirubin
(g/dl) (U/L) (U/L) (U/L) (mg/dl) (mg/dl) (mg/dl) (mg/dl) (mg/dl) (mg/dl)
(g/dl) (µmol/l)

T1M1 5.12 3.43 184.31 59.60 56.8 2.89 0.047 3.59 169.78 130.54 40.95 102.72

T1M2 5.89 3.95 194.31 39.95 167.6 3.52 0.041 4.18 103.11 133.05 21.00 55.50

T1F1 7.16 4.81 165.08 35.04 74.8 5.37 0.062 5.08 159.11 123.01 22.47 112.04

T1F2 5.71 3.83 159.69 32.93 91.2 3.15 0.051 3.89 150.22 136.40 22.05 100.89

T2F1 4.82 3.23 184.31 32.05 146.8 2.78 0.048 3.21 92.44 149.79 27.30 35.19

T2F3 5.25 3.52 153.54 28.54 67.6 3.52 0.039 3.59 130.67 123.85 28.77 77.13

T2M1 5.50 3.69 162.00 31.70 48.8 2.41 0.043 3.89 119.11 121.34 31.50 63.34

T2M2 5.37 3.61 135.85 31.00 52.8 2.04 0.053 3.59 94.22 145.61 40.74 24.36

T3F2 5.76 3.86 182.00 31.18 62.0 2.78 0.042 4.18 214.22 117.99 26.46 164.16

T3F1 6.40 4.29 199.69 37.49 86.8 3.89 0.063 4.48 89.78 105.44 28.56 40.13

T3M2 4.44 2.98 227.38 39.42 48.4 3.15 0.034 2.99 263.11 161.51 20.58 210.23

T3M3 5.71 3.83 165.08 31.35 48.5 5.74 0.046 3.89 240.89 159.00 26.88 182.21

T4F1 6.53 4.38 194.31 51.35 54.3 2.96 0.053 4.48 95.11 182.43 46.62 12.01

T4F3 8.44 5.67 148.15 26.79 155.2 2.78 0.072 5.98 108.44 107.11 31.29 55.73

T4M1 4.61 3.09 170.46 35.04 164.4 2.67 0.036 3.26 205.33 122.18 26.46 154.44

T4M3 4.90 3.29 160.46 29.07 211.2 3.52 0.040 4.48 89.78 131.38 39.27 24.23

29
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This study evaluated the combined the effect of feed and sex on haemoglobin and corpuscular

values of broiler chickens. The haematological indices assessed included packed cell volume

(PCV), red blood cell count (RBC), white blood cell count (WBC), mean corpuscular volume

(MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), and mean corpuscular haemoglobin

concentration (MCHC), in addition to differential leucocyte counts. All values obtained fell within

the normal physiological ranges for healthy broilers, indicating that the dietary treatments did not

compromise blood health status.

Although the differences observed among treatments were not statistically significant (p > 0.05),

certain trends emerged. Female broilers on specific diets, such as T1F2 and T4F3, recorded higher

PCV, MCV, MCH, and total protein values, suggesting improved haemoglobin concentration,

oxygen-carrying capacity, and enhanced protein metabolism. In contrast, male broilers in groups

such as T3M4 exhibited relatively higher triglyceride concentrations, which may reflect sex-

related variations in lipid metabolism.

The biochemical profiles further highlighted treatment-related trends. Female broilers generally

exhibited higher levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, while male broilers

consistently recorded higher triglyceride values. Across all treatments, creatinine, urea, and

bilirubin levels remained within normal limits, implying that neither feed nor sex exerted adverse

effects on kidney or liver function.

30
These findings suggest that while dietary treatments and sex may influence haemoglobin indices

and corpuscular values in broilers, such effects are subtle and largely within healthy physiological

limits.

5.2 Conclusion

The study demonstrated that dietary treatments influenced some haematological and biochemical

parameters in broiler chickens, though changes were not statistically significant. All values

recorded fell within the physiological ranges for healthy birds, indicating that none of the dietary

treatments had adverse effects on health status.

Sex-related differences were evident, with female broilers in certain treatments displaying higher

protein metabolism indicators and HDL cholesterol levels, while male broilers in some treatments

had higher triglyceride concentrations. These differences highlight the importance of considering

sex when formulating broiler diets for optimal performance and health.

31
 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Diet formulations could be optimized separately for male and female broilers to maximize

nutrient utilization, considering the observed metabolic differences.

2. Longer-term studies should be conducted to determine whether the trends observed here

could lead to performance differences in growth rate, carcass yield, or reproductive

performance.

3. Since male broilers tended to have higher triglyceride levels in some treatments, dietary fat

sources and energy levels should be carefully balanced to avoid excessive fat deposition.

4. Female broilers showing higher total protein levels in some treatments may benefit from

slightly higher dietary protein or improved amino acid balance to support metabolic

activity and muscle growth.

5. Periodic haematological and biochemical monitoring is recommended in broiler

production to detect early signs of nutritional imbalances or health issues.

32
 REFERENCES
Abdelrahman, M. M., Ahmed, S. M., and El-Sayed, H. A. (2023). Hematological assessment of
broiler chickens under varying dietary treatments. Poultry Science Journal, 102(2), 1125–
1134.
Abioja, M. O., Ogundimu, K. B., and Osinowo, O. A. (2021). Utilization of broiler by-products in
agro-industrial applications. Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, 48(2), 65–74.
Abubakar, M., Sulaiman, A., and Musa, H. (2021). Effects of partial replacement of maize with
cassava and Indigofera on growth and blood parameters of broiler chickens. Nigerian
Journal of Animal Production, 48(2), 95–103.
Academia. (2022). Genotype and sex effects on erythrocyte indices in commercial broilers. Poultry
Research Review, 8(3), 55–63.
Adebayo, O. O., and Johnson, T. A. (2020). Mineral and vitamin requirements of poultry:
Implications for growth and health. International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(4), 145–
154.
Adebayo, O. O., Adeyemi, F. T., and Olaleye, A. K. (2019). Economic evaluation of feed
formulation in broiler production. African Journal of Agricultural Economics, 11(3), 85–
94.
Adebayo, O. O., Balogun, O. S., and Adeola, A. (2019). Poultry production in sub-Saharan Africa:
Current status and future outlook. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 75(1), 151–164.
Adebowale, O. F., Ogunjimi, A. O., and Olayemi, T. (2018). Genetic improvement and health
management strategies for broiler chickens in Nigeria. African Journal of Poultry Science,
10(3), 45–58.
Adeyemi, K. D., Sani, R., and Yakubu, M. (2018). Socio-economic importance of poultry
production to rural households in Nigeria. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 50(4),
897–904.
Adeyemi, O. A., Adeyemo, G. O., and Olaniyan, T. B. (2020). Dietary protein sources and
hematological stability in broilers. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 52(4), 1872–
1880.
Adeyemo, G. O., Adeyemi, O. A., and Olaniyan, T. B. (2020). Hematological and biochemical
responses of broiler chickens to dietary manipulation. Tropical Animal Health and
Production, 52(4), 1863–1871.
Adeyeye, A. O., Olanrewaju, H. A., and Ojo, O. A. (2019). Cost structure analysis of broiler
production in Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Economics and Development, 8(2), 23–30.
Afolayan, M., Alabi, O., and Salawu, T. (2020). Genetic improvement and production performance
of broiler chickens in Nigeria. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 76(3), 521–533.
Ahmed, F., Karim, R., and Hossain, M. (2021). Sex differences in hematological parameters of
broilers under controlled diets. Poultry Research International, 7(3), 210–218.

33
Ahmed, R., Khan, M. S., and Reddy, K. (2018). Hematological and biochemical profile of
Vanaraja chickens: Effect of age and sex. Veterinary World, 11(1), 43–47.
Akinola, L. A., Adeoye, O. A., and Oladipo, J. A. (2021). Sustainable feeding strategies for broiler
production in Nigeria. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 16(6), 813–823.
Akinola, L. A., Ojo, A. M., and Lawal, O. (2022). Poultry meat production and its role in
addressing protein malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Agricultural
Research, 17(6), 853–860.
Alam, M. R., Hossain, S., and Rahman, M. (2021). Role of dietary fiber in broiler nutrition.
Journal of Poultry Nutrition, 8(1), 12–20.
Anderson, P. R., Wallace, R., and Nelson, C. (2020). Feed efficiency and genetic improvement in
broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 99(4), 2050–2060.
Bardhan, D., Sarkar, S., and Ghosh, S. (2012). Agro-industrial by-products in broiler feeding.
Journal of Animal Feed Science, 21(2), 105–112.
Diouf, A., Ndoye, S., and Faye, M. (2020). Economic contribution of the poultry sector to
Senegal’s GDP. African Livestock Review, 12(3), 44–51.
Ebeid, T., El-Tarabily, K., and Abdelrahman, M. (2022). Haematological and biochemical
responses of broilers to alternative feed sources. Journal of Applied Poultry Research,
31(1), 78–90.
Eze, C. U., Chukwu, O., and Umeh, I. (2021). Nutritional strategies for improving broiler
performance. African Journal of Livestock Science, 12(2), 45–58.
Eze, R. E., Uche, O. E., and Nwachukwu, C. (2022). Sex-based differences in immune response
and mortality in broiler chickens. Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Welfare, 14(2),
65–73.
Fadare, O., Olayemi, T., and Adeyemi, F. (2021). Nutritional requirements and feed efficiency in
broilers. International Journal of Poultry Science, 20(3), 101–112.
FAO. (2020). Nutrition and feeding of poultry: Guidelines for sustainable production. Rome: Food
and Agriculture Organization.
FAO. (2020). Poultry production and products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.
FAO. (2021). Poultry production and sustainable meat systems. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
Gachuiri, C. K., Mwangi, S., Mbugua, P., and Ngare, S. (2017). Biosecurity measures in poultry
production and their impact on flock health. International Journal of Poultry Science,
16(4), 157–166.
Gonzalez, R., Lopez, M., and Perez, J. (2016). Cost-effective feed formulation using local agro-
residues in broilers. Journal of Animal Production, 12(3), 56–65.

34
Hossain, S., Rahman, M., and Alam, M. (2022). Genetic influences on broiler erythrocyte
morphology. Asian Journal of Poultry Science, 16(2), 123–134.
Ibe, S. N., Uzochukwu, M., and Obi, A. (2020). Economic analysis of feed cost in poultry
production. Nigerian Journal of Animal Science, 22(1), 43–52.
Ibrahim, U., Mohammed, A., and Garba, S. (2019). Hematological reference values for broiler
chickens fed varying protein diets. International Journal of Poultry Science, 18(5), 221–
228.
IOSR-JAVS. (2023). Effects of agro-industrial feed substitutes on broiler hematology. IOSR
Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 16(2), 44–55.
Jones, D. R., Musgrove, M. T., and Northcutt, J. K. (2018). Advances in broiler breeding and
production efficiency. Poultry Science, 97(1), 1–7.
Kim, J., Lee, S., and Park, H. (2022). Hematological and biochemical assessment in commercial
broiler strains. Poultry Science Review, 101(5), 2010–2022.
Melesse, A., Maak, S., and Schmidt, R. (2017). Sex differences in growth performance and nutrient
utilization efficiency of broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 96(2), 453–460.
Moller, K., Hansen, T., and Nielsen, C. (2021). Starter phase protein requirements for broilers.
Journal of Poultry Nutrition, 7(1), 34–42.
Nwosu, C. C., Obi, U. J., and Ubah, S. A. (2021). Comparative hematology of Arbor Acres and
Cobb-500 broilers: Influence of age and sex. African Journal of Poultry Farming, 9(3),
145–153.
Oke, O. E., Idowu, O. M., and Akintunde, O. O. (2017). Blood biochemical and hematological
profile of broilers as influenced by dietary protein level. Journal of Animal Physiology and
Animal Nutrition, 101(5), 1124–1132.
Okonkwo, C. J., Eze, C. C., and Ugochukwu, F. C. (2020). Hormonal influence on hematological
parameters of broilers. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 52(7), 3819–3827.
Oladipo, T. A., Bello, A. R., and Shittu, A. (2022). Impact of maize price volatility on poultry
production in Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, 10(1),
34–41.
Oladokun, V., Afolabi, T., and Olayemi, F. (2018). Growth and physiological responses of broiler
chickens fed diets containing agro-industrial by-products. Nigerian Poultry Science
Journal, 15(2), 56–64.
Olaniyi, O. A., and Salau, E. S. (2019). Socio-economic analysis of broiler production in Nigeria.
Journal of Agricultural Economics and Development, 8(4), 92–101.
Olawale, O. A., Fashina-Bombata, H. A., and Adewumi, A. A. (2021). Growth performance and
feed conversion efficiency of commercial broilers. Nigerian Poultry Science Journal,
18(2), 45–53.
Olawale, O., Adedayo, T., and Johnson, P. (2023). Influence of dietary iron on haemoglobin
synthesis in broilers. Poultry Research Journal, 17(2), 98–109.

35
Olufemi, B., and Adewale, F. (2019). Breeding strategies for optimized performance and disease
resistance in broilers. Journal of Animal Genetics and Breeding, 8(2), 75–86.
Olusola, A., Adebayo, T., and Alabi, K. (2020). Genetic diversity and sustainable breeding
practices in Nigerian poultry. African Journal of Livestock Research, 11(1), 22–34.
Onunkwo, D. N., and Okoro, J. I. (2019). Comparative assessment of intensive and semi-intensive
poultry production systems. Journal of Rural Development and Agriculture, 4(1), 45–52.
Peacock, R. S. (2020). Blood biochemical markers in poultry nutrition research. Veterinary
Research Communications, 44(3), 185–197.
Shaahu, M., Usman, A., and Ibrahim, B. (2020). Advances in broiler breeding and management
for improved productivity. Poultry Science Research Journal, 14(1), 33–47.
Smith, J., and Sherman, D. (2021). Poultry health and nutrition: Integrating diet and immunity.
Veterinary Medicine International, 2021, Article 555512.
Smith, J., Thompson, P., and Walker, L. (2021). Global poultry industry trends and statistics.
World’s Poultry Science Journal, 77(4), 729–745.
UGM Bulletin Peternakan. (2024). Hematological indices of broilers under different feeding
regimes. UGM Bulletin of Animal Science, 19(1), 67–76.
USDA. (2024). Poultry and egg sector at a glance. United States Department of Agriculture,
Economic Research Service.
Usman, M. B., Adegoke, S. A., and Bello, Y. A. (2023). Interactions of feed type and sex on
hematological indices in broiler chickens: A review. Journal of Animal Science Research,
15(2), 201–212.
Yakubu, A., and Abimiku, H. G. (2020). The contribution of broiler production to household food
security and income generation in rural Nigeria. Tropical Agriculture, 97(3), 210–218.

36