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Operating Systems

CS2022: Operating Systems

Introduction to Operating Systems

Sandali Goonatilleke
Department of Computer Engineering
General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University
Lecture Objectives
• Describe the general organization of a computer
system
• Describe the components in a modern multiprocessor
computer system
• Illustrate the transition from user mode to kernel mode
• Discuss how operating systems are used in various
computing environments
• Provide examples of free and open-source operating
systems

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What is an Operating System?

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What is an Operating System (OS)?
In simple words…
A software that manages a computer’s hardware

Provides a basis for application programs and acts as an

intermediary between the computer user and the
computer hardware

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What is an Operating System (OS)?
Definition:

Operating system is a program that controls the

execution of application programs and acts as an
interface between the user of a computer and the
computer hardware

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What Operating System Do?
Let’s begin with the computer system…

A computer system can be divided roughly into four

components;
➢ Hardware
➢ Operating system
➢ Application programs
➢ User

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What Operating System Do?
• Hardware: provides the basic computing resources
(Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, input/output
(I/O) devices)
• The application programs: Define the ways in which
these resources are used to solve users’ computing
problems (word processors, spreadsheets, compilers,
and web browsers
• Operating System (OS): Controls the hardware and
coordinates its use among the various application
programs for the various users

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What Operating System Do?

Figure 1: Abstract view of the components of a computer system

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Role of the Operating System
The role of the operating system can be understand from
two viewpoints;
• User view
• System view

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Role of the Operating System
Users View
❑ The operating system is designed mostly for ease of
use, with some attention paid to performance and
security and none paid to resource utilization

System View
❑ The operating system is view as a resource allocator
❑ A computer system has many resources and the
operating system acts as the manager of these
resources

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Computer System Organization
• A modern general-purpose computer system contains
one or more CPUs and a number of device controller

• They are connected through a common bus that

provides access between components and shared
memory

• Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of

device (for example, a disk drive, audio device, or
graphics display)

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Computer System Organization

Figure: Typical PC System

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
• Depending on the controller, more than one device
may be attached

• A device controller maintains some local buffer storage

and a set of special-purpose registers

• The device controller is responsible for moving the

data between the peripheral devices that it controls
and its local buffer storage

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
• Typically, operating systems have a device driver for
each device controller

• This device driver understands the device controller

and provides the rest of the operating system with a
uniform interface to the device

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
Interrupts

What is an interrupt?

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
Interrupts
❖ Consider a typical computer operation: a program
performing I/O

• The device driver loads the appropriate registers in the

device controller

• The device controller, in turn, examines the contents of

these registers to determine what action to take (such
as “read a character from the keyboard”)

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
Interrupts

• The controller starts the transfer of data from the

device to its local buffer

• Once the transfer of data is complete, the device

controller informs the device driver that it has finished
its operation

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
Interrupts

• The device driver then gives control to other parts of

the operating system, possibly returning the data or a
pointer to the data if the operation was a read

• For other operations, the device driver returns status

information such as “write completed successfully” or
“device busy”

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
Interrupts

But how does the controller inform the device driver

that it has finished its operation?

This is accomplished via an interrupt

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Computer System Organization (Cont’d)
Interrupts

Exercise 1: Explore about basic interrupt mechanism and

briefly describe it using your own words

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Storage Structure
• The CPU can load instructions only from memory and
programs must first be loaded into memory to run

• General-purpose computers run most of their

programs from rewritable memory or main memory
(also called random-access memory, or RAM)

• Computers use other forms of memory as well

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Storage Structure (Cont’d)
• Also, the computer uses electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) and other
forms of firmware

• All the programs and data need to reside in main

memory permanently

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Storage Structure (Cont’d)
• This arrangement usually is not possible on most
systems for two reasons:

i. Main memory is usually too small to store all needed

programs and data permanently
ii. Main memory is volatile—it loses its contents when
power is turned off or otherwise lost

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Storage Structure (Cont’d)
• Most computer systems provide secondary storage as
an extension of main memory

• Main requirement: Hold large quantities of data

permanently

• Hard-disk drives (HDDs) and nonvolatile memory

(NVM) devices are most common secondary storage
devices

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Storage Structure (Cont’d)
• Most programs are stored in secondary storage until
they are loaded into memory

• Many programs then use secondary storage as both

the source and the destination of their processing

• Secondary storage is also much slower than main

memory

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Storage Structure (Cont’d)
• Tertiary storage is used to store backup copies of
material stored on other devices

• The main differences among the various storage

systems lie in speed, size, and volatility

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Storage Structure (Cont’d)

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Storage Structure (Cont’d)
Exercise 2: Explain the characteristics of the storage
structure using a diagram

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Computer System Architecture
Single Processor Systems

• Many years ago, most computer systems used a single

processor containing one CPU with a single processing
core
• The core is the component that executes instructions
and registers for storing data locally
• The one main CPU with its core is capable of executing
a general-purpose instruction set, including
instructions from processes

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Computer System Architecture
Multiprocessor Systems

• Modern computers (from mobile devices to servers)

use multiprocessor systems
• They have two (or more) processors, each with a
single-core CPU
• The processors share the computer bus and
sometimes the clock, memory, and peripheral devices
• The primary advantage of multiprocessor systems is
increased throughput

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Computer System Architecture
Multiprocessor Systems

• That is, by increasing the number of processors, we

expect to get more work done in less time
• The most common multiprocessor systems use
symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), in which each peer
CPU processor performs all tasks, including operating-
system functions and user processes
• The benefit of this model is that many processes can
run simultaneously

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Computer System Architecture

Figure: Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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Computer System Architecture
Multiprocessor Systems

• Multiprocessor’s definition has evolved over time and

now includes multicore systems, in which multiple
computing cores reside on a single chip
• They are more efficient than multiple chips with
single cores because on-chip communication is faster
than between-chip communication
• one chip with multiple cores uses significantly less
power than multiple single-core chips

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Computer System Architecture
What are the advantages of multi-core systems over
generic multi-processor systems?

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Computer System Architecture

Figure: Dual Core Design with Two Cores on the Same Chip

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Computer System Architecture
Clustered Systems
• Another type of multiprocessor system
• Gathers together multiple CPUs
• Differ from the multiprocessor systems
• They are composed of two or more individual systems
or nodes joined together
• Each node is typically a multicore system
• Clustering provide high-availability service (service
will continue even if one or more systems in the
cluster fail)

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Computer System Architecture
Clustered Systems
• Another type of multiprocessor system
• Gathers together multiple CPUs
• Differ from the multiprocessor systems
• They are composed of two or more individual systems
or nodes joined together
• Each node is typically a multicore system
• Clustering provide high-availability service (service
will continue even if one or more systems in the
cluster fail)

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Computer System Architecture
Clustered Systems
• Clustering can be structured asymmetrically or
symmetrically
• In asymmetric clustering, one machine is in hot-
standby mode while the other is running the
applications
• The hot-standby host machine does nothing but
monitor the active server
• If that server fails, the hot-standby host becomes the
active

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Computer System Architecture
Clustered Systems
• In symmetric clustering, two or more hosts are
running applications and are monitoring each other
• This structure is obviously more efficient, as it uses all
of the available hardware
• However, it does require that more than one
application be available to run

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Computer System Architecture
Clustered Systems
• Clusters are used to provide high-performance
computing environments
• Accordingly, cluster contains several computer systems
connected via a network
• They supply significantly greater computational power
than single-processor or even SMP systems
• Also achieve the technique known as parallelization
(divides a program into separate components that run
in parallel on individual cores in computers in a cluster

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Computer System Architecture
Clustered Systems

Figure: General Structure of a Clustered System

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Operating System Operations
• An operating system provides the environment within
which programs are executed
• When the computer is powered up or rebooted, it
needs to have an initial program to run
• This initial program, or bootstrap program, tends to be
simple
• Typically, it is stored within the computer hardware in
firmware

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Operating System Operations
• The bootstrap program must know how to load the
operating system and how to start executing that
system
• To accomplish this goal, the bootstrap program must
locate the operating-system kernel and load it into
memory
• Once the kernel is loaded and executing, it starts
providing services to the system and its users

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Operating System Operations
• Some services are provided outside of the kernel by
system programs
• These programs are loaded into memory at boot time
to become system daemons
• Once this phase is complete, the system is fully
booted, and the system waits for some event to occur
• If there are no processes to execute, no I/O devices to
service, and no users to whom to respond, an
operating system will sit quietly, waiting for something
to happen

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Multiprogramming and Multitasking
Multiprogramming
• Multi-programming increases CPU utilization by
organizing jobs (code and data)
• Therefore, the CPU always has one program to execute
• The idea is to keep multiple jobs in main memory
• If one job gets occupied with IO, CPU can be assigned
to other job

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Multiprogramming and Multitasking
Multitasking
• It is a logical extension of multiprogramming
• Multitasking is the ability of an OS to execute more
than one task simultaneously on the CPU
• These multiple tasks share common resources (like
CPU and memory)
• In multi-tasking systems, the CPU executes multiple
jobs by switching quickly among them using a small
time quantum, so that the users feel like interact with
each executing task at the same time

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Multiprogramming and Multitasking
Exercise 3: Compare and contrast multiprogramming
and multitasking

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Resource Management
• An operating system is a resource manager
• Operating system manage the system’s CPU, memory
space, file-storage space, and I/O devices

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Resource Management
Process Management
• A process is a program in execution
• Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task : CPU,
memory, I/O, files and Initialization data
• Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion

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Resource Management
Process Management
• Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute and
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
thread

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Resource Management
Process Management Activities:

• Creating and deleting both user and system

processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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Resource Management
Memory Management
• All data should be in memory before and after
processing
• All instructions should be in memory in order to
execute
• Memory management determines what is in memory
when to optimize CPU utilization and computer
response to users

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Resource Management
Memory Management Activities :
• Keep track of which parts of memory are currently
being used and by whom
• Decide which processes and data to move into and
out of memory
• Allocating and de allocating memory space as
needed

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Resource Management
File System Management
• A file is a collection of related information defined by
its creator
• Represent programs (both source and object forms)
and data
• File management is one of the most visible
components of an operating system
• Files usually organized into directories for ease of use

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Resource Management
File-System Management Activities :
• Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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Resource Management
Mass Storage Management
• Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in
main memory or data that must be kept for a “long”
period of time
• Entire speed of computer operation is on disk
subsystem and algorithms
Mass-Storage Management Activities :
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling

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Resource Management
Mass-Storage Management Activities :
• Free-space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling
• Mounting and unmounting
• Partitioning
• Protection

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Resource Management
Cache Management
• Caching is an important principle of computer systems
• Information is normally kept in some storage system
(such as main memory)
• As it is used, it is copied into a faster storage system the
cache on a temporary basis
• When a particular piece of information is needed, first
check whether it is in the cache. If it is, use the
information directly from the cache

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Resource Management
Cache Management
• If not, data will be copied to cache and will be used
from cache

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Characteristics of Various Types of Storage

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Resource Management
I/O System Management
• One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide
the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the
user
Example: In UNIX, the peculiarities of I/O devices are
hidden by the I/O subsystem

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Resource Management
I/O System Management

The I/O subsystem consists of several components

• A memory-management component that includes
buffering, caching, and spooling
• A general device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices

Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of the

specific device to which it is assigned

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Security and Protection
Protection
Mechanism for controlling the access of processes or users
to the resources defined by a computer system

Security
Defense of the system against internal and external attacks

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Security and Protection
Systems generally first distinguish users, to determine who
can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) associated with
all files, processes of that user to determine access
control

• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be

defined and managed, then also associated with each
process, file

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Virtualization
• A technology that allows us to abstract the hardware
of a single computer into several different execution
environments

• Creating the illusion that each separate environment is

running on its own private computer

• These environments can be viewed as different

individual operating systems that may be running at
the same time and may interact with each other

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Virtualization
• A user of a virtual machine can switch among the
various operating systems in the same way a user can
switch among the various processes running
concurrently in a single operating system

• Virtualization allows operating systems to run as

applications within other operating systems

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Distributed Systems
• A distributed system is a collection of physically
separate, possibly heterogeneous computer systems
that are networked to provide users with access to the
various resources that the system maintains

• Access to a shared resource increases computation

speed, functionality, data availability, and reliability

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Distributed Systems
• A network is a communication path between two or
more systems
• Distributed systems depend on networking for their
functionality
• Networks vary by the protocols used, the distances
between nodes, and the transport media
• TCP/IP is the most common network protocol, and it
provides the fundamental architecture of the Internet
• Most operating systems support TCP/IP, including all
general-purpose ones

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Distributed Systems
• Networks are characterized based on the distances
between their nodes

• A local-area network (LAN) connects computers

within a room, a building, or a campus

• A metropolitan-area network (MAN) could link

buildings within a city

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Distributed Systems
• A wide-area network (WAN) usually links buildings,
cities, or countries

• BlueTooth and 802.11 devices use wireless technology

to communicate over a distance of several feet

• They help to create a personal-area network (PAN)

between a phone and a headset or a smartphone and
a desktop computer

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Distributed Systems
• A network operating system is an operating system
that provides features such as file sharing across the
network, along with a communication scheme that
allows different processes on different computers to
exchange messages

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Computing Environments
• It is important to discuss how operating systems are
used in a variety of computing environments

1. Traditional Computing
• A possess of using physical data centers for storing
digital assets and running complete networking
system for daily operations
• In this, access to data, or software, or storage by users
is limited to device or official network they are
connected with

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Computing Environments
2. Mobile Computing
• Refers to computing on handheld smartphones and
tablet computers
• These devices share the distinguishing physical
features of being portable and lightweight
• Today, mobile systems are used not only for e-mail and
web browsing but also for playing music and video,
reading digital books, taking photos, and recording and
editing high-definition video

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Computing Environments
2. Mobile Computing
• Two operating systems currently dominate mobile
computing: Apple iOS and Google Android
• iOS was designed to run on Apple iPhone and iPad
mobile devices
• Android powers smartphones and tablet computers
available from many manufacturers

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Computing Environments
3. Client-Server Computing
• Contemporary network architecture features
arrangements in which server systems satisfy requests
generated by client systems
• This form of specialized distributed system, called a
client–server system
• Server systems can be broadly categorized as compute
servers and file servers

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Computing Environments
3. Client-Server Computing
Compute Servers
• Provides an interface to which a client can send a
request to perform an action (for example, read data)
• In response, the server executes the action and sends
the results to the client
File Servers
• Provides a file-system interface where clients can
create, update, read, and delete files (a web server
that delivers files to clients running web browsers)

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Computing Environments
3. Client-Server Computing

Figure: General Structure of Client-Server System

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Computing Environments
4. Peer-to Peer Computing
• Another structure for a distributed system
• In this model, clients and servers are not distinguished
from one another
• All nodes within the system are considered peers, and
each may act as either a client or a server, depending
on whether it is requesting or providing a service
• Peer-to-peer systems offer an advantage over
traditional client–server systems

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Computing Environments
4. Peer-to Peer Computing
• In a client–server system, the server is a bottleneck;
but in a peer-to-peer system, services can be provided
by several nodes distributed throughout the network
• Skype is another example of peer-to-peer computing
• It allows clients to make voice calls and video calls and
to send text messages over the Internet using a
technology known as voice over IP (VoIP)
• It uses a hybrid peer-to-peer approach

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Computing Environments
4. Peer-to Peer Computing

Figure: General Structure of Peer-to-Peer Computing System

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Computing Environments
5. Cloud Computing
• A type of computing that delivers computing, storage,
and even applications as a service across a network
• It’s a logical extension of virtualization, because it uses
virtualization as a base for its functionality
• There are many types of cloud computing

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Computing Environments
5. Cloud Computing
• Public cloud—a cloud available via the Internet to
anyone willing to pay for the services
• Private cloud—a cloud run by a company for that
company’s own use
• Hybrid cloud—a cloud that includes both public and
private cloud components
• Software as a service (SaaS)—one or more
applications (such as word processors or spreadsheets)
available via the Internet

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Computing Environments
5. Cloud Computing
• Platform as a service (PaaS)—a software stack ready
for application use via the Internet (for example, a
database server)
• Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)—servers or storage
available over the Internet (for example, storage
available for making backup copies of production data)

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Computing Environments

Figure: Cloud Computing

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Computing Environments
6. Real-Time Embedded Systems
• Embedded computers are the most prevalent form of
computers in existence
• These devices are found everywhere, from car engines
and manufacturing robots to optical drives and
microwave ovens
• They tend to have very specific tasks
• The systems they run on are usually primitive, and so
the operating systems provide limited features

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Computing Environments
6. Real-Time Embedded Systems
• Usually, they have little or no user interface, preferring
to spend their time monitoring and managing
hardware devices, such as automobile engines and
robotic arms

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Free and Open-Source Operating Systems
❑ Assignment 1

Explore free and open-source operating systems and

submit a report

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Homework
• Complete the tutorial 1

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