GEOGRAPHY NOTES

SHAPE OF EARTH

Shape: Geoid / Oblate Spheroid

29% land, 71% water

CONTINENTS

7 continents = Large landmasses surrounded by water

1. Asia (Largest)

2. Africa

3. North America

4. South America

5. Antarctica

6. Europe

7. Australia (Smallest continent)

OCEANS

1. Pacific Ocean

Largest & deepest, Mariana Trench (10,902 m)

West of Americas, East of Asia/Australia

2. Atlantic Ocean

Between Americas (west) & Europe/Africa (east)

3. Indian Ocean

South of India & Pakistan

West: Africa
East: Australia

4. Southern Ocean – Around Antarctic Circle

5. Arctic Ocean – Around the North Pole

MOVEMENTS OF EARTH

1. Rotation

Around its own axis

Time: 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds

Causes day and night

Direction: West to East (anticlockwise)

That is why sun appears to rise in east

Venus & Uranus rotate opposite direction (clockwise → retrograde

2. Revolution

Around the Sun

Time: 365 days 6 hours

Causes seasons

Extra 6 hours → forms Leap Year (every 4 years)

LATITUDES (Horizontal lines)

0° = Equator (divides Earth into North & South)

1° latitude ≈ 111–112 km

Important Parallels

49° Parallel → USA–Canada

17° Parallel → North & South Vietnam

38° Parallel → North & South Korea

24° Parallel → India–Pakistan (not official border but close to Tropic of Cancer)

Climate Zones

1. Tropical Zone (Hot)

Between 23.5° N (Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5° S (Tropic of Capricorn)

2. Temperate Zones

Between Tropic & Polar circles

Mild climate

3. Polar Zones

From 66.5° N (Arctic Circle) to North Pole

From 66.5° S (Antarctic Circle) to South Pole

LONGITUDES (Vertical lines)

0° = Prime Meridian OR Greenwich Line (GMT)

Drawn in 1884

Divides Earth into East & West hemispheres

1° = 4 minutes difference

15° = 1 hour difference

Islamabad at 75° East → Pakistan Standard Time = GMT + 5

SIZE OF THE EARTH

Circumference = 40,075 km

IMPORTANT MAP LINES & THEIR DEFINITIONS

1. Isotherm: A line drawn on a map that joins places having the same temperature.
2. Isobar: A line drawn on a map that joins places having the same atmospheric pressure.

3. Isohyet / Isohyetal Line: A line on a map that joins places receiving the same amount of
rainfall.
 ASIA

Largest continent

Area: 44.58 million sq km

Population: 4.7 billion (60% of world)

12 landlock countries

North: Arctic Ocean

East: Pacific Ocean

South: Indian Ocean

West: Europe

🇦🇫 SOUTH ASIA

1. AFGHANISTAN

Basic Details

Old name: Bactria (in Alexander’s time)

Founder: Ahmed Shah Abdali (1747)

3rd Battle of Panipat: 1761 (Marathas vs Abdali)

Shah Waliullah invited Abdali to save Muslims of India

Independence

Independence from UK: 19 August 1919

Leader: King Amanullah Khan

Borders

Durand Line (1893)

Length: 2,640 km
Wakhan Corridor

Separates Pakistan from Tajikistan

Length: 350 km, width 16–64 km

Governments

1973 – Last King Zahir Shah removed; Presidential system; Daud became first president

1979–1989 – Soviet war (to protect Hafizullah Amin govt.)

1996 – First Taliban Govt. (Mullah Omar)

Capital: Kandahar initially, later Kabul

Recognized by: Pakistan, UAE, Saudi Arabia

9/11 & US Invasion

US blamed Osama bin Laden

7 Oct 2001 – America + NATO attacked Afghanistan

Osama killed in Abbottabad (2 May 2011) – Operation Neptune Spear

Doha Agreement (29 Feb 2020)

Between US (Trump govt.) & Taliban

US withdrawal = 14 months timeline

Final withdrawal: 1 May 202

2021 Taliban Return

15 August 2021 – Taliban again took control

PM: Mullah Hasan Akhund

FM: Amir Khan Muttaqi

Supreme Leader: Haibatullah Akhundzada

Ethnic Groups
Pashtuns: ~40%

Tajiks: 2nd largest

Intelligence Agencies

NDS (National Directorate of Security)

KHAD (during Soviet era)

Pakistan–Afghanistan Borders

➢ Torkham / Khyber Pass – connects Peshawar to Kabul

➢ Chaman – connects Baluchistan to Kandahar
2. INDIA

Basic Facts

India = Largest country by population (1.4+ billion)

Borders with 7 countries: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar,

Afghanistan (small border in J&K region)

28 states + 8 Union Territories

Largest state by area = Rajasthan

Largest by population = Uttar Pradesh

Rivers

Brahmaputra River

Origin: Tibet (China) → India (Arunachal/Assam) → Bangladesh

Length ~ 2,900 km

Narmada River

Flows in Madhya Pradesh–Gujarat (NOT Rajasthan)

Length: 1,312 km
One of the few rivers that does NOT form a delta

Flows westward

Yamuna (Jamna)

Tributary of Ganga

Taj Mahal on Yamuna’s bank in Agra, UP

Built in 1653 (not 1638)

Ganga River

Farakka Barrage → water dispute India–Bangladesh

Dhaka is near rivers of Ganges delta, but not directly on Ganga

Borders and Important Lines

McMahon Line between India–China

Drawn in 1914 (Simla Convention)

Length ~ 3,400 km

LAC (Line of Actual Control) = disputed military boundary with China

Nuclear Program

First atomic test: 18 May 1974, Pokhran, Rajasthan

Name: Smiling Buddha

Intelligence Agency

RAW (Research and Analysis Wing) – established 1968

Geographical Features
Deccan Peninsula – 2nd largest peninsula of the world

Surrounded by: Arabian Sea (west), Bay of Bengal (east), Indian Ocean (south)

Railways

First railway service: 1853 (Bombay to Thane)

Government

Parliament:

Lok Sabha (Lower House)

Rajya Sabha (Upper House)

Prime Minister: Narendra Modi

President: Droupadi Murmu (female)

History Figures

Mahatma Gandhi

Left politics in 1934, returned in 1942 for Quit India Movement

Assassinated: 30 Jan 1948 by Nathuram Godse (RSS)

Mountains

Himalayas

Kangchenjunga – world’s 3rd highest peak (8,586 m)

Located on India–Nepal border

Flag

Tiranga (3-color)

Ashoka Chakra (wheel) = represents progress & righteousness

3. BANGLADESH

Independence
Independence Day: 26 March 1971

Operation Searchlight started: 25 March 1971

Surrender of Pakistan: 16 December 1971

Mukti Bahini = Bangladesh liberation force

Pakistan POWs: 93,000

PNS Ghazi submarine sank on 4 Dec 1971 in Bay of Bengal

Recognition

Pakistan recognized Bangladesh in 1974 (OIC Lahore Summit)

POWs released after Simla Agreement 1972

Leaders

First President: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Assassinated 15 August 1975

His daughter Sheikh Hasina ruled long-term;

Resigned: 5 August 2024

Nobel Prize Winner (2006): Dr. Muhammad Yunus

Founder of Grameen Bank

Current President: Mohammad Shahabuddin

Other Info

Parliament = Jatiya Sangsad

Main seaport = Chittagong

National tree = Mango

Airline = Biman Bangladesh Airlines

4. 🇧🇹 BHUTAN
Known as “Land of Thunder Dragon”

Highly prone to natural disasters

Doklam dispute with China (also affects India)

No full national army – India assists in defense

PM: Tshering Tobgay

Capital: Thimphu

5. 🇳🇵 NEPAL

Formerly world’s only Hindu state (now secular but Hindu majority)

Landlocked – depends on India for trade/sea access

SAARC HQ located in Kathmandu

Mount Everest (8,848 m) – highest peak in world

PM: KP Sharma Oli

6. 🇱🇰 SRI LANKA

Old name: Ceylon (changed to Sri Lanka in 1972)

First country which gave “right to vote” to women

Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka

Civil war: LTTE (Tamil Tigers) vs govt

LTTE killed Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi in 1991

LTTE defeated in 2009

Same year → attack on Sri Lankan cricket team in Lahore (3 March 2009)

Hambantota Port leased to China in 2017 for 99 years

Lotus Tower – tallest tower in South Asia

Economic default in 2022 (tea production fall + tourism crash)

President: Anura Kumara Dissanayake

PM: Harini Amarasuriya

7. 🇲🇻 MALDIVES

Smallest Muslim country in area & population

Smallest country of Asia

100% Muslim population

Only South Asian country through which Equator passes

Highest literacy rate in South Asia

Highest per capita income in South Asia

President: Mohamed Muizzu

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)

Founded: 1985 (Dhaka)

Headquarters: Kathmandu (Nepal)

Idea by: Ziaur Rahman (Bangladesh)

Indira Gandhi opposed; SAARC formed after her assassination (1984)

Members

Original 7

8th member: Afghanistan (2007)

4 Muslim countries: Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Maldives

Secretary General

Term: 3 years
First SG: Abul Ahsan (Bangladesh) 1987–1989

Pakistanis:

Naeem U. Hasan (1996–1998)

Ahmed Saleem (2012–2014)

Current SG (2023–present): Golam Sarwar

Summits

Total: 18 summits held

1st Summit: Dhaka, 1985

Held in Pakistan: 1988 and 2004

19th Summit (Islamabad 2016) cancelled → India boycotted

Economics

SAFTA (South Asia Free Trade Area)

Signed: 2004

Came into effect: 2006

CAPITALS AND CURRENCIES

AFGHANISTAN KABUL AFGHANI

India new Delhi rupees narmandy river Brahmaputra river yamna river ganga river farakha dam

BENGLADESH Dhaka Taka

Bhutan Thimphu Ngultru or rupees

Nepal Katmandu nigultrum

Sri Lanka sri Kotte official Colombo commercial rupees Falak straight Hambamtota seaport

MALDIVES MALA RUFIYAA

SEAS AND OCEANS:

ARABIAN SEA PAKISTAN INDIA

Golf Mannar BETWEEN INDIA AD SRI LANKA

BAY OF BENGAL INDIA Bangladesh

SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS

Region Location

North: China

North-West: South Asia

West & South: Indian Ocean

East: Pacific Ocean / South China Sea

Important Seas / Straits / Islands

Gulf of Martaban – Myanmar & Thailand

Johor Strait – Between Malaysia & Singapore

Strait of Malacca – Longest strait in world (800 km)

Between Malaysia & Indonesia

Connects Indian Ocean → Pacific Ocean

80% of world trade passes

Major Islands:

Borneo (shared by Malaysia–Indonesia–Brunei)

Sumatra (Indonesia)

Java (Indonesia)

Bali (Indonesia)

Mekong River:

Origin: China

Largest river of SE Asia

Borders Laos–Myanmar / Laos–Thailand

“Mother of Rivers)
COUNTRY-WISE NOTES

1. Myanmar

Old name: Burma

Name changed: 1989

Capital: Nay Pyi Taw

Religion: Buddhism

Famous place: Golden Pagoda

Gulf of Martaban located here.

History

Last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar died here (1862), buried in Rangoon.

Separated from British India: 1937

Independence: 1948 (UK)

Heavy military rule.

Famous figure

Aung San Suu Kyi

Nobel Peace Prize 1991

Books: Freedom from Fear, Voice of Hope

Worked for democracy

Aung San (her father) — Hero of independence movement, assassinated 1947.

Minority Issue

Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine region → genocide, displacement.

2. Laos

Only landlocked country of Southeast Asia.

Major river: Mekong

Independence

French colony → independence 1953

3. Cambodia

Old name: Kampuchea

French colony along with Laos & Vietnam → “French Indochina”.

Important Treaties & Disputes

Franco-Siam Treaty 1907 (Cambodia–Thailand borders)

Disputed temples:

Preah Vihear Temple – ICJ verdict 1962 → Cambodia

Ta Moan/Ta Krabey Temple – Current dispute (border skirmishes 2008–2011, 2025)

War

Cambodia aligned with China, Thailand with USA

Famous

Angkor Wat – largest religious temple in the world

Khmer Empire ruled historically

Most alphabets in a language: 74 letters

4. Thailand

Old name: Siam

Capital: Bangkok

Religion: Buddhism

King: Vajiralongkorn (Rama X)

Titles
Land of Free People

Land of White Elephants

Land of Smiles

Independence

Never colonized (only major Asian country with this status)

Important

Allied with USA in Cold War

Border disputes with Cambodia

Asian cooperation dialogue (ACD) formed in 2002 idea proposed in 2001 by DR. Surakiart of
Thailand

5. Vietnam

Capital: Hanoi

Religion: Mix of Buddhism, Taoism & Christianity

Vietnam War

Country divided at 17th Parallel

North Vietnam: China + USSR support

South Vietnam: USA support

US involvement: 1964 → 60,000 soldiers

58,000 Americans killed

Peace: Paris Peace Accord 1973

War ended: 1975

Unification: 1976

Independence Leader
Ho Chi Minh – Father of Vietnam, led resistance against France + USA.

6. Malaysia

Independence: 1957

Founder: Tunku Abdul Rahman

Also 1st Secretary General of OIC

Important

Petronas Towers

Famous for palm oil

Mahathir Mohammad (PM for longest time)

Mount Kinabalu highest peak

Crystal Mosque

Flag: 14-pointed star

13 states + 1 federal govt

PM: Anwar Ibrahim

King: Sultan Ibrahim

7. Singapore

Independence:

From UK: 1963

Joined Malaysia, separated 1965

Founder

Lee Kuan Yew – turned Singapore into Asia’s economic hub

PM for 31 years

Important
Strong economy

Construction & technology hub

8. Indonesia

Independence: 17 August 1945 (from Netherlands)

Nickname: Land of Thousand Islands (17,000+ islands)

Capital: Nusantara (new), old capital Jakarta

Religion: Largest Muslim population in world

Island facts:

Borneo – world’s 3rd largest

Sumatra

Java – most populated

Bali – Hindu majority island

Independence Leader

Sukarno – 1st president

Hatta – co-leader of independence

Important

Withdrew from UNO in 1986

Many volcanoes

Equator passes

Sunda Strait – between Java & Sumatra

Current PM: Prabowo Subianto

9. Brunei

Independence: 1 January 1984 (UK)

Religion: Islam

Leader: Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah

One of richest rulers

Largest palace

Oil & natural gas

10. Philippines

Capital: Manila

Religion: Christianity (90%)

Muslim minority: Mindanao Island

Important

Asian Development Bank (ADB) HQ in Manila

Formed 1966, 69 members

Last member: Israel (2024)

11. East Timor (Timor-Leste)

Independence: 2002 (from Indonesia)

Religion: Mostly Christian

ASEAN

Full form: Association of Southeast Asian Nations

Founded: 1967

Headquarters: Jakarta

Observer States:

1. East Timor
2. Papua New Guinea

Muslim members: 3 (Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei)

Capitals AND currencies

Myanmar Naypyidaw Kyat

Laos Vientiane Kip

Thailand Bangkok Baht

Cambodia Phnom Penh Riel

Vietnam Hanoi Dong

Brunei Darussalam Bandar Seri Begawan Dollar

Malaysia Kuala L Lumpur (administrative Putrajaya) Ringgit

Singapore Singapore dollar

Indonesia Jakarta Rupiya

East-Timor Dili US Dollar

Philippine Manila Paisa

NORTHEAST / EAST ASIAN (FAR EAST ASIAN) COUNTRIES

Regional Boundaries

North: Arctic Ocean

North-East: Alaska (USA) across Bering Strait

East: Pacific Ocean

South: South China Sea

West: Central Asia

South-West: South Asia

North-West: Russia–Central Asia region

Important Facts

Russia–USA trade route through Bering Strait (between Siberia & Alaska).

Korean Peninsula lies between China & Russia on the east.

Japan is an island country in Pacific Ocean.

Taiwan & Hong Kong lie near China.

Mongolia sits between Russia & China.

1. MONGOLIA

Only landlocked country of NE Asia

2nd largest landlocked in world

1st Kazakhstan

3rd Chad

Borders: Russia (north), China (south)

Gobi Desert between China–Mongolia

Buffer state between Russia & China

Played role in reducing conflict during “Century of Humiliation”

Capital: Ulaanbaatar

Government: Semi-presidential

Economy: Mining, livestock

2. RUSSIA (Asian Part)

Key Facts

Largest country (1/8 of world land)

Geography in Asia, politics in Europe (capital Moscow in Europe)

25% territory in Europe

Last Tsar: Nicholas II (killed 1918)

Russian Revolution (1917)

Leaders: Lenin & Stalin

March Revolution → October Revolution

Idea by Rousseau

Lenin Prize (1925) — Highest Asian award

Pakistanis who won: Faiz Ahmed Faiz (1962), Abdul Sattar Edhi (1988)

USSR

Formed: 25 Dec 1922 (15 republics)

Dissolved: 26 Dec 1991 (14 republics left)

Last President: Mikhail Gorbachev

Signed Geneva Accords 1988 (Afghan withdrawal)

Government

Parliament: Duma
President Residence: Kremlin

Current President: Vladimir Putin (1999–2036)

Secret agency: KGB (Putin was officer)

Media & Architecture

News agency: Itar-TASS

Buildings: Shukov Tower, Catherine Palace

Wars

Russo–Japan War (1904–05)

Attacked Georgia (2008)

Chechnya captured 1999 (capital Grozny)

Geography

Borders 14 countries

Ural Mountains length ~2,500 km (divide Europe-Asia)

Valdai Hills → Volga River (longest in Europe, 3,530 km)

Lake Baikal – deepest freshwater lake (1642 m), in Siberia

Ussuri River – disputed with China

Sputnik-1 (1957) 1st artificial satellite

Salyut-1 1st space station

Other

Made 1st animal COVID vaccine

Druzhba military exercise with Pakistan (2019–present)

3. TAIWAN

Old name: Formosa

Broke from China: 1950

UN asked it to adopt name Republic of China, it refused → not a UN member

1st Asian country to legalize same-sex marriage (21 May 2021)

Famous for rare earth minerals

Capital: Taipei

Currency: Dollar

4. CHINA

Opium Wars

British captured Hong Kong

1st Opium War: 1839–1842

2nd Opium War: 1856–1860

Hong Kong leased 1898–1997 (returned to China)

Civil War (1912–1949)

Leader: Sun Yat-sen (Father of Nation)

Japan invaded China in 1937

War resumed after WWII

Communists won under Mao Zedong (1949)

Long March: 9,000 km (1934–35)

China in UN

Lost UN seat 1949

Regained 1971 with help of Pakistan

US President Nixon + PM Bhutto helped

Leadership
1st President: Sun Yat-sen

1st PM: Zhou Enlai

Mao (1950–1976)

Current President: Xi Jinping (2013– )

FM: Wang Yi

Development

AIIB HQ Beijing (2016)

Shanghai most populous city

Inventions: paper, paper currency

Grand Canal: 1766 km (largest man-made canal)

One Belt, One Road

Includes CPEC (Pakistan–China)

Geography

Borders 14 countries

Yangtze River: 3rd longest (6300 km)

Three Gorges Dam: 22,500 MW (largest concrete structure)

Yellow River: “Sorrow of China”

Deserts: Taklamakan, Gobi

Great Wall:

Started 6th–7th century BC

Rebuilt 220 BC by Qin Shi Huang

Total length: 21,196 km

Main section: 3,400 km

Disputes

Paracel & Spratly Islands with Taiwan/Philippines/Vietnam

Gulf of Tonkin between China–Vietnam

5. NORTH KOREA

Formal name: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

Nuclear tests: 2006, 2009

Leader: Kim Jong Un

US fears its missile capability

Met Donald Trump in Singapore (2018)

Broke relations with Malaysia (2021)

Pakistan helped in nuclear program; NK gave missile tech

History

Colonized by Japan 1910–1945

Divided at 38th Parallel (US–USSR)

Korean War 1950–1953 (no peace treaty yet)

Ceasefire only

6. SOUTH KOREA

Name: Republic of Korea

UN Sec-Gen Ban Ki-moon (from SK)

Presidential residence: Blue House

Companies: Samsung, Daewoo

Martial arts: Taekwondo

Constitution suspended many times under martial law

Dispute

Kuril / Sakhalin Islands between Russia–Japan–Korea

7. JAPAN

WWII

Called Britain of Pacific

Bombed Pearl Harbour (1941)

US dropped atomic bombs:

Hiroshima (6 Aug 1945) – Little Boy

Nagasaki (9 Aug 1945) – Fat Man

US President: Harry Truman

Dropped by B-29 bombers

Target for 2nd bomb was actually Kokura, not Nagasaki (weather forced change)

Post-War

Japan has no army; US protects it

Spends 1% GDP on defense

3rd largest economy

Facts

Old name: Nippon / Nihon

Parliament: Diet

Stock Exchange: Tokyo

Known as “Land of Rising Sun”

Old capital: Kyoto

Largest city: Tokyo

Religion: Shinto + Buddhism

Oldest monarchy (since 660 BC)

Current Emperor: Naruhito

PM (recently resigned): Fumio Kishida

PM during WWII: Hideki Tojo

Shinzo Abe assassinated 8 July 2022

8. Hong Kong & Macau (China)

Hong Kong:

Returned to China 1997

Special Administrative Region

Macau:

Returned by Portugal 1999

Gambling hub of Asia

Sun Yat Sen Park → Macau–Zhuhai link

SEAS AND RIVERS:

Yellow sea between china and Korean peninsula

South china sea china Taiwan

Yangtze river China longest of Asia 6300km

Yellow river China 5,464km

capitals and currencies

Mongolia Ulaanbaatar Togrog

Russia Moscow ruble

Taiwan Taipei Dollar

south Korea Seoul Won

north Korea Pyongyang Won

China Beijing Renminbi(Yaun)

Japan Tokyo yen

Caspian Sea

World’s largest salty water lake (actually a lake, not a sea).

Surrounded by 5 countries = T.A.R.I.K

Turkmenistan

Azerbaijan

Russia

Iran

Kazakhstan

CENTRAL ASIA (5 Countries)

North: Russia

East: China

South: Afghanistan

South-East: Pakistan

West: Caspian Sea

All Muslim, all landlocked.

Main crops: Wheat, Cotton

Conquered by Qutaiba bin Muslim in Umayyad era (died 715).

1. Kazakhstan

Largest landlocked country in the world.

Muslim majority.

World’s largest uranium producer.

Russia’s space station Baikonur is here.

Capital: Astana (previously Nur-Sultan).

Currency: Tenge

2. Turkmenistan

TAPI Gas Pipeline Project passes through it.

Famous for the “Gate of Hell” (Darvaza Gas Crater).

Capital: Ashgabat

Currency: Manat

3. Uzbekistan

Double landlocked country (surrounded by landlocked countries).

Famous cities: Fergana, Bukhara, Samarkand

Babar belonged to Fergana

Imam Bukhari belonged to Bukhara

Samarkand = center of Timur (Taimoor Lang) empire

Preserves the oldest manuscript of Qur’an (Hazrat Usman's copy).

Capital: Tashkent

President: Shavkat Mirziyoyev

4. Tajikistan

Separated from Pakistan by Wakhan Corridor.

Smallest country of Central Asia

Nurek Dam = world’s highest dam (≈ 353 m).

Capital: Dushanbe

5. Kyrgyzstan

Tulip Revolution: 27 Feb – 11 Apr 2005

Capital: Bishkek
Important Rivers & Mountains

Pamir Knot: meeting point of

Himalayas

Karakoram

Hindu Kush

Tien Shan

Amu Darya / Oxus River

Starts from Pamir

Forms border of Afghanistan–Uzbekistan & Uzbekistan–Tajikistan

Length: 2450 km

Ends in Aral Sea

Friendship Bridge built over it (Afghanistan–Uzbekistan)

SCO — Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Started as Shanghai Five (1996)

China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan

Added Uzbekistan → SCO (2001)

Pakistan joined: 17 September 2017

India joined: 9 June 2017

Iran joined: 2022

Belarus: 2024

Now 10 members

Observers: Afghanistan, Mongolia

Headquarters: Beijing
Official languages: Chinese & Russian

Turkmenistan is NOT a member.

WEST ASIA / MINOR ASIA

Caucasus Region (Between Black Sea & Caspian Sea)

Countries:

Georgia

Azerbaijan

Armenia

Below them:

Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania

Turkey lies on the Anatolian Peninsula.

CYPRUS

Island in the Mediterranean Sea

Disputed between Greece & Turkey

Conquered: 28 Hijri (Caliph Uthman)

First Muslim naval commander: Abdullah bin Qais

Capital: Nicosia

Important Straits of Turkey

Bosporus → Black Sea → Sea of Marmara

Dardanelles → Sea of Marmara → Aegean Sea

Together they control movement between Black Sea & Mediterranean Sea

AZERBAIJAN

Capital: Baku

President: Ilham Aliyev

Nagorno-Karabakh area disputed with Armenia

Azerbaijan won war in 2020

ARMENIA

Christian country between Turkey & Azerbaijan

Pakistan & Turkey don’t recognize it

Capital: Yerevan

Currency: Dram

🇮🇷 IRAN

Geography & Borders

Zagros Mountains (you wrote Zada Ros → corrected as Zagros).

Lut Desert (Dasht-e-Lut).

Shares border with 7 countries: Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia,

Turkey, Iraq.

Border with Pakistan: “Gold midline settlement” in 1959; total length 909 km; Nasheed and
Kormand border points opened.

Ports

Chabahar Port – India is investing.

Bandar Abbas – major port on Persian Gulf.

Port Al-Said (as you mentioned).

Airlines & Transport

Mahan Airlines (Iranian airline).

Straits & Seas

Strait of Hormuz between Iran & UAE, connects Persian Gulf with Arabian Sea.

40% of the world’s oil passes from here.

Important Cities & Religious Sites

Tabriz – Shah Shams Tabrezi came from here.

Qum/Qom – mosque where Imam Mehdi (A.S) was seen.

Mashhad – resting place of 8th Imam (Imam Ali Raza).

Ancient Empires

Achaemenid Empire (you wrote Aqmeet) – founded by Cyrus the Great, 550–330 BC.

Sassanid Empire (you wrote Cysanids) – 226–651 AD → Conquered by Sadd bin Abi Waqas
(R.A.).

Safavid Dynasty – 1501–1726, founded by Shah Ismail → foundation of modern Iran.

Tahmasp I – helped Sher Shah Suri’s family when Humayun took refuge for 15 years in Iran.

Afsharid Dynasty

Nadir Shah ruler from 1736-47, attacked Delhi in 1739 during Mughal ruler Muhammad Shah
Rangila.

Took Koh-i-Noor diamond.

Involved in the Battle of Karnal.

Pahlavi Dynasty (you wrote Thelvi)

Reza Shah Pahlavi founded the dynasty in 1925.

Secular modernization.

Religious scholars were forced to leave.

His son: Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (last Shah of Iran).

Islamic Revolution

Ayatollah Khomeini led the 1979 Revolution → End of monarchy.

Supreme Leader = head of state → currently Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.

Name Change

In 1935, official name changed from Persia to Iran.

Famous Scholars & Personalities

Imam Ghazali.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) – wrote Kitab al-Fiqh and Al-Shifa.

Sheikh Saadi.

Firdousi – national poet, wrote Shahnama during Ghaznavi period.

Al-Biruni.

Umar Khyyam – wrote Rubaiyat.

🇹🇷 TURKEY

Basic Facts

• 5% in Europe, rest in Asia (Anatolia).

• In 1270, a tribe migrated from Sham (Syria) and settled in Anatolia.
• Ala-ud-Din was the ruler fighting the Mongols.
• That tribe helped the Romans and won the battle.
• Ertugrul Ghazi led the tribe.
• His son Usman was born in 1258.

Ottoman Empire

Duration: 1299–1922 (627 years).

1453: Sultan Muhammad Fatih conquered Constantinople from the Byzantine Empire and ended
it.

During early Islamic period, Abu Ayyub Ansari (R.A.) attacked but could not conquer; he is
buried in Istanbul.

Aya Sofia
Built by Romans in 537 AD.

Converted into a mosque by Sultan Mehmed.

1935: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk made it a museum.

2020: President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan converted it back into a mosque.

Khilafat System

After Ottoman Empire → turned into Khilafat.

Muslim spiritual leadership seat was in Turkey.

Duration: 1517–1924.

First Caliph: Sultan Selim I.

Last Caliph: Abdul Majeed II.

First Sultan: Osman I.

Last Sultan: Mehmet VI.

Treaties

• Treaty of Lausanne (1923) – finalized modern Turkey; restrictions on using natural

resources.
• Treaty of Sevres (1920) – intended to break Ottoman Empire.
• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk – ended WWI on Eastern front
• Treaty of Lausanne 1927– Atatürk’s agreement after independence struggle.

World War I

Sides: UK, USA, France, Russia vs. Ottomans.

Ottomans lost → Treaty of Lausanne 1923.

Restrictions placed on gas and oil use.

Turk-Stream pipeline transports oil and gas from Russia.

Rise of Atatürk
People of Anatolia revolted; Atatürk was sent to calm them but instead led the movement.

Huge public support → expelled British forces.

Abolished position of Caliph (1924).

Abolished Prime Minister post in 2016 → Full Presidential system.

Last PM: Binali Yıldırım.

Modern Politics

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan

Party: Justice and Development Party (AKP).

PM (2003–2014).

President (2014–present).

12th President of Turkey.

Ex-football player.

Name Change

June 2022: Sent request to UN to change name.

July 2022: Official name → Türkiye.

Important Facts

• First Muslim country to recognize Israel in 1950.

• Batman Dam located in Turkey.
• Troy city (ancient).
• Taksim Square.
• T-37 aircraft was brought by Pakistan from Turkey.

Only Muslim Member of NATO.

• Mount Ararat (Koh-e-Judi) – where Hazrat Nuh’s Ark is believed to have stopped.
• Euphrates and Tigris rivers originate here.
 • Maulana Rumi is buried in Konya.

Georgia

Qasqas mountains or Koh-e-Qa’af

capital TIBRIZI

currency Lari
LEVANT (Sham)

General

Dagger (Khanjar)-shaped region.

Lower side touches Sinai (Egypt).

Comprises 5 countries: Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan.

Also called the region where the sun rises (poetic reference)

1. 🇮🇱 ISRAEL

Capital & Cities

Capital: Tel Aviv (international recognition) / Israel claims Jerusalem.

Haifa – major port city.

Currency: Shekel.

Intelligence Agencies

Mossad (foreign intelligence)

Shin Bet (internal security)

Aman (military intelligence)

Parliament: Knesset.

Defense Systems: Iron Dome and Iron Beam anti-missile systems.

Leadership

President: Isaac Herzog.

PM: Benjamin Netanyahu.

Major parties: Likud, Kadima.

2. 🇵🇸 PALESTINE
Regions

Gaza Strip

West Bank (Al-Yarushalem / East Jerusalem)

Religious Importance

Land of prophets – around 70,000 prophets buried here.

Jews consider it “Promised Land.”

Prophet Ibrahim (A.S.) first arrived here.

Masjid Aqsa / Bayt al-Maqdis built by Hazrat Suleman (A.S.).

Jews call it Temple of Solomon.

Temple Destructions

1. 570 BC – Babylonian king Bakht Nasr (Nebuchadnezzar) destroyed Masjid Aqsa (1st
Temple).

2. 70 years later – Iranian king Cyrus the Great allowed Jews to rebuild (2nd Temple).

3. After 430 years, Roman commander Titus destroyed the 2nd Temple and massacred Jews.

Under Muslim Rule

638 AD – Came under Muslims.

Crusades

1. 1095–1099 – 1st Crusade, Christians captured Jerusalem.

2. 1145–1150 – 2nd Crusade; Nur-ud-Din tried but failed.

3. 1187–1192 – 3rd Crusade; Salah-ud-Din Ayyubi recaptured Jerusalem (Movie: Kingdom of

Heaven).

Ottoman to British Period

Later part of Ottoman Empire.

WW1 (1914–18): UK, USA, France VS Ottomans & Germany.

UK convinced Sharif of Makkah to rebel.

Balfour Declaration (1917)

Britain promised Jews a homeland → allowed land purchase.

Creation of Israel

14 May 1948 – Israel declared independence.

Arab–Israel Wars

1st War (1948–49)

Arab states + Ikhwan-ul-Muslimeen (founded 1928 by Hassan al-Banna).

Arabs lost; Hassan al-Banna killed in 1949.

2nd War (1956 – Suez Canal Crisis)

Egypt under Jamal Abdul Nasser.

3rd War (1967 – Six-Day War)

5–10 June

Israel captured:

One side of Suez

Sinai mountains

Aqaba port of Jordan

Golan Heights (Syria)

Largest funeral of Nasser; 5 million attended in 1970.

4th War (1973 – Yom Kippur / Ramadan War)

No decisive result.

Camp David Agreement 1979 mediated by Jimmy Carter:

Egypt became first country to accept Israel.

Anwar Sadat got Nobel Prize.

Aftermath

1985 – Aqaba port returned to Jordan.

Syria did not sign → Golan Heights still with Israel.

Palestinian Groups

Al-Fateh (1959).

PLO (1964) – Yasser Arafat.

Hamas (Gaza based) founded 1987 by Sheikh Ahmed Yasin (blind).

First Intifada (1987)

Started after Israeli truck killed Palestinians.

Hamas emerged strongly.

Oslo Accords (1993)

Yasser Arafat (PLO) & Yitzhak Rabin.

Religious groups on both sides rejected → failed.

Arafat died 2004 (mysteriously).

Rabin assassinated.

Second Intifada (2000–2005)

Ismail Haniyeh (Hamas) leading.

Killed in 2024 (you wrote in Iran).

Current Leadership

Mahmoud Abbas – President (Fateh).

News agency: WAFA.

Jericho – oldest city in the world.

3. 🇱🇧 LEBANON

Titles

“Switzerland of the East.”

“Land of Milk and Honey.”

Capital: Beirut (also called Paris of the East).

Independence

1942 from France.

Beirut Blast

4 Aug 2020 – Massive explosion of ammonium nitrate.

Israel Attacks

1978 – Israel attacked; Arafat was in Lebanon.

Remained until 2000.

Hezbollah

Formed 1982.

Leader Hassan Nasrallah killed in 2024

Taif Agreement (1989)

Power sharing:

President → Christian

Speaker → Shia

PM → Sunni

Current
Speaker: Nabih Berri (since 1992, elected 6 times).

President: Joseph Khalil

PM: Nawab Salam

Others

Poet Khalil Jibran.

Litani River flows here.

4. 🇸🇾 SYRIA

History

Conquered by Muslims in 7th century; Damascus became a major province.

From 16th century until WW1, part of Ottoman Empire.

Sykes–Picot Agreement

Divided Middle East between France & UK.

Syria under French control until 1946 independence.

Political Rule

Hafiz al-Assad (Ba’ath Party) ruled 1971–2000.

Succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad.

Collapse (December 2024) (as per your notes)

Regime collapsed.

Main rebels: Hayat Tahrir al-Sham.

Their former leader Muhammad al-Julani (nicknamed Ahmad al-Sharaa) became President
leading 12 rebel forces

Current Setup (per your notes)

PM: Muhammad al-Basheer (since 13 March 2025).

5-year transitional period in place.

Ports & Water Bodies

Ports: Haribo (Harap) & Latakia.

Sea of Galilee – between Israel & Syria.

Dead Sea – between Jordan & Israel; 420m deep; 2nd saltiest after Lake Asal.

Arab Spring

Reached Syria in 2011 → Civil war begins.

5. 🇯🇴 JORDAN

Hashemite Kingdom.

King: Abdullah II (41st descendant of Prophet Muhammad ‫)ﷺ‬.

Official residence: Basman Palace.

Capital: Amman.

News agency: Petra News.

Port: Aqaba.

Independence: 1946.
ARABIAN PENINSULA

General Overview

Largest peninsula in the world: 3.2 million sq km.

2nd largest: Deccan Peninsula (India).

1916: Broke away from the Ottoman Empire → Came under British influence

1. 🇾🇪 YEMEN

Independence: 1967 from British rule.

Ancient name: Kingdom of Saba (Sheba).

News agency: SABA.

Capital: Sana’a.

Major port: Aden.

Houthi Conflict

Houthis (fiqh-e-Jafariya tribe).

2011: Crisis begins during Arab Spring.

Govt: Ali Abdullah Saleh (in power since 1990).

Saudi Arabia supported Saleh; Iran supported Houthis.

2012: Ali Saleh removed → Mansoor Hadi becomes President.

2014: Houthis capture capital and 80–90% of Yemen.

Saudi Arabia forms an alliance of 9 countries (including the USA) to attack Houthis.

Recent

28 August 2024: Israel attacked and killed Ahmed al-Lahawi, PM of Houthis.

2. 🇴🇲 OMAN
Independence: 1951.

Capital: Muscat.

Gwadar was gifted by Khan of Kalat to Oman in 1784.

Pakistan purchased Gwadar back in 1958 for 3 million dollars under King Zaid.

Sultan Qaboos died 2019.

Sports

Hosted 2024 Hockey World Cup.

Winner: Netherlands.

Runner-up: Malaysia.

Pakistan Hockey World Cups

4-time champions:

1974 (Spain)

1978 (Argentina)

1982 (India)

1994 (Sydney)

3. 🇦🇪 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

7 Emirates (Acronym: FURSAAD)

➢ Fujairah
➢ Umm al-Quwain
➢ Ras al-Khaimah
➢ Sharjah
➢ Ajman
➢ Abu Dhabi
➢ Dubai
Key Facts

Independence: 1971.

Capital: Abu Dhabi.

Current King/President: MBZ – Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan.

Foreign Minister: Abdullah bin Zayed (ABZ).

International Relations

15 September 2020 – Abraham Accords signed → UAE accepts Israel.

Achievements

World’s first camel hospital.

2018 – First nuclear power plant.

2020 – “Hope Probe” to Mars & “Al-Amal” mission.

Burj Khalifa: 829 m, opened 2010, tallest in the world.

Jeddah Tower (Saudi, but you mentioned here) planned to be 1100 m.

Important

Strait of Hormuz lies between Persian Gulf & Gulf of Oman.

20–30% of world oil passes through it.

Disputed Islands

Abu Musa – disputed among Iran, UAE, Oman

4. 🇶🇦 QATAR

Doha Agreement: Taliban–USA negotiation

29 Feb 2020, signed by Mullah Abdul Ghani Baradar & Zalmay Khalilzad.

Taliban office opened in Qatar in 2013.

Al Jazeera news channel: established 1996.

Hosted FIFA World Cup 2022 → Argentina won.

2026 World Cup: USA, Canada, Mexico.

5. 🇧🇭 BAHRAIN

Island nation; also called Pearl Island.

Capital: Manama.

1985: Linked to Saudi Arabia via King Fahd Causeway.

Flag: 5 triangles → represent 5 pillars of Islam.

6. 🇰🇼 KUWAIT

News agency: KUNA (Kuwait News Agency).

2nd most powerful currency in Arab region (after Bahrain).

Dasman Palace – official residence of the Emir (King).

Independence: 1961.

7. 🇮🇶 IRAQ

Ancient name: Mesopotamia – “land between rivers.”

Major Rivers

Euphrates (Furat / Ufrat) and Tigris (Dajla):

Originate in Turkey.

Flow through Syria.

Enter Iraq.

Meet in Basra → form Shatt al-Arab River (200 km).

Independence
1932.

Key Cities

Baghdad – on Tigris.

Karbala, Najaf, Kufa – on Euphrates.

History

762: Caliph Abu Ja’far Mansoor built Baghdad → Capital of Abbasids.

Abbasid rule till 1258 → Halaku Khan (Mongols) destroyed it.

Saddam Era

Saddam supported by America initially.

Became President 1979.

1980–88 Iran–Iraq war (8 years).

1990 invaded Kuwait (1 year).

America demanded withdrawal; Saddam refused.

2003: US invasion over “chemical weapons” allegation.

Saddam jailed → executed 30 December 2006.

2011: US forces withdrew.

Current Leadership

PM: Mohammed Shia al-Sudani.

Other

Mosul Dam – most dangerous dam (on Tigris).

Abu Ghraib – Saddam’s notorious prison.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon – ancient wonder.

8. 🇸🇦 SAUDI ARABIA
No natural river.

Rab-al-Khali 2nd largest desert in the world.

Before 1932: called Kingdom of Hejaz & Najd.

History

Hussain bin Ali (Sharif of Makkah) rebelled against Ottomans with British support.

Fakhruddin Pasha – last Ottoman commander defending Medina.

1925: Al-Saud (Najd tribe) captured all regions.

Kings Timeline

1. Abdulaziz (Ibn Saud) – Founder (till 1953).

2. Saud – till 1964.

3. Faisal – killed in 1975.

Faisalabad (Lyallpur) renamed after him.

Visited Pakistan after 1965 war (1967 & 1974 OIC Summit).

4. Khalid (1975–82)

5. Fahd (1982–2005)

6. Abdullah (2005–2015)

7. Salman (2015–present)

MBS = Crown Prince & PM (nephew/son depending on context).

Projects

NEOM City – futuristic city in Tabuk.

Oil

Discovered in 1938.

Important Organizations
GCC – Gulf Cooperation Council

Formed: 1982 by Saudi Arabia after Iranian Revolution.

Members: Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait (6 countries).

HQ: Riyadh.

OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

Founded: 1960.

HQ: Vienna, Austria.

Qatar left in 2019.

Angola left in 2023.

Currently 12 members.

8dec2024 Bashar government ended

Seas and oceans:

Mediterranean sea Cyphrus turkey Syria Lebanon Israel

Aegean sea between turkey and Greece part of mediterranean

Red sea Saudi Arabia and Yemen

Arabian sea Oman yemen Iran Pakistan

Persian golf Iran Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia Bahrain Qatar UAE

Black sea Bulgaria Russia turkey Georgia Romania Ukraine

Capitals and currencies

Iran Tehran riyal

Qatar Doha riyal

Lebanon Beirut riyal

Iraq Baghdad dinar

SAUDI ARABIA Riad Riyal

Oman Muscaat riyal

Yemen Sana’a riyal

Acronym IQLISOY

Bahrain Manama dinar

Jordon Amman Dinar

Kuwait Kuwait city dinar

ACRONYM BJK

Israel Jeruselam shekels

Syria Damascus pound

UAE Abu Dhabi Dirham

Turkey Ankara lira

Asian games

First Asian game played in 1951 in delhi, Pakistan won first hockey medal in 1958 tojyo ,
Headquarter Olympic world cup, 1991 shelter yea, When Pakistan hosted, Pakistan won 4
hockey medals
 SOUTH AMERICA — COMPLETE NOTES

Basic Facts

12 countries, called Bird Continent as most number of birds in it

Isthmus of Panama connects North & South America

Atlantic Ocean (East) and Pacific Ocean (West)

Both oceans meet through:

Panama Canal (North)

Strait of Magellan (South) → 570 km, mostly in Chile

PANAMA (North of South America)

Panama Canal connects the Pacific & Atlantic

Panama Papers leak: 2 April 2016

Nawaz Sharif disqualified July 2017 by Supreme Court

MAP SHAPE (with ELEPHANT EXAMPLE)

Chile = trunk of elephant

Argentina = body of elephant

Uruguay & Paraguay = two eyes

Bolivia = landlocked in middle

Peru = on west side

Colombia = northwestern country

Ecuador = named after “Equator,” lies between Colombia & Peru

Venezuela = north, large oil reserves

Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana = 3 “sandwich” countries

Brazil = 47% of continent

Falkland Islands = UK control

REGIONAL IMPORTANT FACTS

Landlocked Countries (2)

1. Paraguay

2. Bolivia

Equator passes through (EBC)

Ecuador

Brazil

Colombia

Andes Mountains

Longest mountain range in world — 7,000 km

Starts Venezuela → ends Argentina

Highest Point: Aconcagua (6,700 m) Argentina

Highest capital city: La Paz (Bolivia) — 3,869 m

Lakes & Falls

Lake Titicaca (Peru–Bolivia border) – highest navigable lake (3810 m)

Angel Falls (Venezuela) – highest waterfall (979 m)

Forests & Deserts

Amazon Rainforest — Lungs of the world (60% in Brazil)

Atacama Desert — Driest desert — in Chile (not Colombia)

Lut Desert — Hottest desert (Iran, comparison

Major Rivers

Amazon River — 6,400 km, flows mostly in Brazil

Paraná River — in Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina

SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES

1. Brazil

• 5th largest country in world (area)

• 47% of South America
• Capital: Brasília
• Ports: Santos (coffee export), also “centos” correction
• Copacabana Beach – famous
• Hosted 2016 Olympics (Rio de Janeiro)
• Amazon Forest & River
• President: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (Lula)
• FIFA World Cup wins: 5 times (most)
• Pelé → legendary player (recently died)
• BRICS 2024–25 meetings hosted recently

2. Argentina

• Former Spanish colony

• Independence: 1816 (you wrote 1957; corrected)
• President (2025): Javier Milei
• Pampas Plains — important agricultural region
• Aconcagua — highest peak
• FIFA World Cup hosted 1930? No you mentioned Uruguay; Argentina hosted 1978
• Che Guevara born here
• Che → doctor, Marxist revolutionary,
• Travelled South America
• Later joined Cuban revolution 1959
 • Visited Pakistan (Ayub era)
• Caught in Bolivia 1967 and executed
• Buried in Cuba

3. Chile

• Capital: Santiago
• Largest copper producer in the world
• Strait of Magellan — connects Atlantic & Pacific
• Atacama dryest Desert (Chile–Argentina border)
• Valparaíso beach
• Chile’s current president (2025): Gabriel Boric

4. Uruguay

• Capital: Montevideo
• Hosted 1st FIFA World Cup in 1930 and also won
• Pampas also extend here partly

5. Paraguay

• Landlocked
• Paraná River flows here
• Capital: Asunción

6. Bolivia

• Landlocked
• Lake Titicaca border with Peru
• Highest capital La Paz (3,869 m)
• Che Guevara was captured here

7. Peru

• Capital: Lima
• Lake Titicaca (border with Bolivia)
 • Andes Mountains run through
• Ancient Inca civilization (Machu Picchu)

8. Venezuela

• Largest proven oil reserves in world

• Angel Falls
• Andes Mountains begin here
• Capital: Caracas
• President (2025): Nicolás Maduro
• Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) died 2013

9. Colombia

• Named after Christopher Columbus

• Equator passes partly through southern Colombia
• Border with Panama
• Capital: Bogotá

10. Ecuador

• Named after Equator

• Equator line passes through country
• Julian Assange (WikiLeaks founder):
• Took asylum in Ecuadorian Embassy London (2012)
• Arrested in London after asylum withdrawn

11. Guyana

• Capital: Georgetown
• English-speaking
• Former British colony

12. Suriname

• Capital: Paramaribo
 • Dutch-speaking
• Between Guyana & French Guiana

French Guiana (Territory)

• Not a country
• Controlled by France
• Space launch base at Kourou

Falkland Islands

• British territory
• Falkland War 1982 — UK vs Argentina
• Agreement for shared cooperation (not alternating rule)
• 2019: talks with Pakistan for JF-17 purchase if war situation emerges

Other Important Points

• Pope Francis
• Real name: Mario Bergoglio
• From Argentina
• First non-European Pope
• 266th Pope
• Died 21 April 2025 (your point)
• New Pope: Robert Francis (Leo XIV) from USA

Capitals and currencies

Argentina Vuenos Aires Peso

Chile Santiago Peso

Colombia Bogota Peso

Uruguay Montevideo peso

Acronym ACCU
Guyana Georgetown dollar

Ecuador Quito US Dollar

Suriname Paramaribo dollar

Acronym GES

Bolivia Sucre (constitutional) la Paz (administrative) boliviano

Brazil Brazilea real

Paraguay Asuncion Guarani

Peru Lema Sol

Venezuela Caracas Bolivar

 AFRICA

54 countries – 16 landlocked

Shape: Skull-shaped

Called Dark / Black Continent → Black ring of Olympics

Boundaries

North: Europe

Northeast: Asia (via Sinai), Red Sea

Northwest: Strait of Gibraltar (Spain–Morocco)

East: Indian Ocean

South: Southern Ocean (Cape side)

West: Atlantic Ocean

Important Water Bodies

Strait of Gibraltar – between Spain & Morocco

Red Sea – separates Africa & Asia

Bab-ul-Mandab (Al-Mandab Strait) – connects Red Sea to Gulf of Aden

Mozambique Channel – between Madagascar & Mozambique

Robben Island – South Africa (Nelson Mandela prison)

Saint Helena – island where Napoleon died

Major Mountain Ranges

Atlas Mountains

Largest of Africa → in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia (MAT)

NORTH AFRICA
Acronym [Link]

1. MOROCCO

Independence from France: 1956

Capital: Rabat

First OIC meeting held in Rabat in 1969

Ibn-e-Batuta belonged to Morocco

Fes city built by Abbasids (871)

First university: Al-Qarawiyyin (878 AD)

Berber tribes

Currency: Dirham

Main Points

OIC started here (1969)

Ibn-e-Batuta

Oldest university (Qarawiyyin)

2. ALGERIA

Largest country of Africa by area

Independence from France 1962 (war 1956–1962)

“Land of Fertile Fields”

Capital: Algiers

Currency: Dinar

Main Points

Largest country of Africa

French rule → independence 1962

 3. TUNISIA

Independence from France 1956

Capital: Tunis

Habib Bourguiba (first PM)

City of Carthage – Roman Empire

Arab Spring (Jasmine Revolution) started here (2010)

Mohamed Bouazizi self-immolation

Ibn-e-Khaldun belonged to Tunisia

Uqba bin Nafi founded Kairouan

4. LIBYA

93% desert

Hottest point: Al-Azizia

Independence from Italy 1947

Omar Mukhtar – Lion of Desert

General Erwin Rommel: “Fox of Desert”

Muammar Gaddafi dictator 1969–2011

Operation Odyssey Dawn by USA (2011)

Capital: Tripoli

Gulf of Sidra (seaport)

Benghazi = major city

Currency: Dinar

5. EGYPT

Independence from UK 1922

Capital: Cairo

Currency: Pound

Sinai in Asia (Mount Sinai/Koh-e-Toor)

Suez Canal:

Built 1859–1869

Nationalized by Nasser in 1956

Length: 193.1 km

Entry: Port Said → Suez

Pyramids of Giz

Aswan Dam

MENA News Agency in Cairo

Nobel winners mostly from Egypt

Anwar Sadat got Nobel Prize 1978 (Camp David Accord)

SUDAN & SOUTH SUDAN

SUDAN

• Rich in diamonds & gold

• Nile mainly flows through Sudan
• Proxy wars
• RSF / Janjaweed activities
• Capital: Khartoum

SOUTH SUDAN

Independence from Sudan: 2011

 • Christian majority
• Helped by USA
• 193rd UN member (latest)
• Capital: Juba

HORN OF AFRICA (SEED) – 4 Countries

Somalia

Eritrea

Ethiopia

Djibouti

1. SOMALIA

Lowest per capita income in world

Terrorist group: Al-Shabaab

Capital: Mogadishu

2. ETHIOPIA (ABYSSINIA)

Capital: Addis Ababa

African Union HQ here

Lake Tana → source of Blue Nile

3. ERITREA

Capital: Asmara

Currency: Nakfa

4. DJIBOUTI

Capital: Djibouti City

Lake Assal – saltiest lake of Africa

WEST AFRICA

NIGERIA

Largest population in Africa

Terrorist group Boko Haram

Capital: Abuja

EAST AFRICA (The Legs)

1. KENYA

Days & nights equal (Equator passes)

Arshad Sharif murdered here (Oct 2022)

Capital: Nairobi

Lake Victoria partly here (TUK: Tanzania–Uganda–Kenya)

2. TANZANIA

Mount Kilimanjaro: highest point in Africa (5895m)

Capital: Dodoma (Dar es Salam major city)

1983 famine

3. UGANDA

Idi Amin dictator 1971–1979

Known as “Butcher of Uganda”

Zika virus originated in its forests

Capital: Kampala

4. RWANDA
Hutus vs Tutsis tribes

1994 genocide

8–10 lakh killed in 100 days

Capital: Kigali

5. BURUNDI

Independence from Belgium 1962

Capital: Gitega

LAKE VICTORIA (TUK)

Shared by Tanzania–Uganda–Kenya

Source of White Nile (longest river)

Length of Nile: 6650 km approx.

🗺 SUMMARY OF MAIN POINTS

North Africa

Morocco: OIC created here, Ibn-e-Batuta

Algeria: Largest African country, independence 1962

Tunisia: Arab Spring, Kairouan, Ibn-e-Khaldun

Libya: 93% desert, Gaddafi 1969–2011

Egypt: Suez Canal, Sinai, Sadat Nobel 1978

Horn of Africa

Somalia: Lowest per capita income

Ethiopia: AU HQ, Lake Tana

Djibouti: Lake Assal

Eritrea: Asmara

East Africa

Kenya: Equator

Tanzania: Kilimanjaro

Uganda: Idi Amin

Rwanda: 1994 genocide

Burundi: Belgium colony

CENTRAL AFRICA

1. Chad

Largest landlocked country of Africa

3rd largest landlocked country of the world (also listed as 16th and 44th in different rankings)

Current Secretary General of OIC: Hussain Ibrahim Taha (belongs to Chad)

Pakistani Sharif ud Din Pirzada served as OIC Secretary General (1995–1998)

2. Central African Republic (CAR)

Capital: Bangui

3. Cameroon
4. Congo (Republic of Congo)

Old name: Zaire / Republic of Zaire

Most populated (in region)

Equator passes through Congo

Congo River:

Equator crosses it two times

Deepest river of the world → 230 meters deep

 5. Angola

Independence from Portugal in 1975

FOUR CORNERS OF AFRICA

Four countries touching at a single point:

1. Botswana

2. Namibia

3. Zambia

4. Zimbabwe

This point is known as Four Corners of Africa

Southern Africa

NAMIBIA

Kalahari Desert shared with Botswana

BOTSWANA

Independence from UK in 1966

Largest population of elephants in Africa

Kalahari Desert shared with Namibia

ZAMBIA

Old name: North Rhodesia

Victoria Falls located between Zambia & Zimbabwe

ZIMBABWE

Old name: South Rhodesia / Southern Rhodesia / Robisia

Old name of capital Harare: Salisbury

Has 16 official languages

MADAGASCAR

Old name: Malagasy Island

Located in Indian Ocean

4th largest island of the world

Opposite side of Mozambique

Strait between them = Mozambique Strait (widest strait of the world)

MOZAMBIQUE

LESOTHO

A country completely inside South Africa—

SWAZILAND (ESWATINI)

Located between South Africa and Mozambique

SOUTH AFRICA

Won World Champion League from Pakistan

Nelson Mandela:

Born: 18 July 1918

Died: December 2013

President: 1994–1999

Leader of anti-apartheid movement

Imprisoned 27 years (1962–1990) on Robben Island

Awards:

• Lenin Prize (1990)

• Nishan-e-Pakistan (1992)
• Nobel Peace Prize (1993)
 • UN declared Nelson Mandela Day on 18 July (declared in 2009; first celebrated 2010)

Party: African National Congress (ANC)

Books: Conversations with Myself, Long Walk to Freedom

Famous places:

• Table Mountain
• Orange River
• Tugela Waterfall (you wrote ugaila)
• Cape of Good Hope
• Cape of Agulhas → where Indian and Atlantic Oceans meet
• Vasco da Gama passed this route to reach Hindustan in 1498 (Portuguese)

Current President: Cyril Ramaphosa

NORTHWEST AFRICA

1. Western Sahara

Region in NW Africa

2. Mauritania
3. Mali

City Timbuktu on Niger River

3rd largest country of Africa

GMT line passes through Mali

City: Dabako

THE FOUR “G” COUNTRIES

1. Guinea

2. Guinea-Bissau

3. Gambia
 • Removed “Islamic Republic” from its name
• Filed ICJ case against Myanmar genocide
• 2024 OIC meeting held here
• Capital: Banjul

4. Ghana

• Old name: Gold Coast

• Kofi Annan, 7th UN Secretary General (1997–2006)
• Nobel Peace Prize (2001)
• Supported India, Brazil, Germany, Japan for permanent UN seats → formation of G4 in
2005

BURKINA FASO

President: Ibrahim Traoré

SIERRA LEONE

Capital: Freetown

LIBERIA

Capital: Monrovia

SÃO TOMÉ & PRÍNCIPE

Small island country in Atlantic Ocean

GABON

Located between Nigeria and Congo

MAURITIUS

Capital: Port Louis

Currency: Rupee (you spelled pot loyas)

SEYCHELLES
Smallest African country

Currency: Rupee

EQUATOR REGION COUNTRIES

Equator passes through:

São Tomé

Gabon

Republic of Congo (RC)

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Kenya

Uganda

Somalia

Total: 7in Africa

Total worldwide countries: 13

Day and night equal on equator

SAINT HELENA

• Located in Atlantic Ocean

• Site where Napoleon was exiled
• Battle of Waterloo in 1815 (UK vs France)
• UK led by Duke of Wellington
• France led by Napoleon
• Napoleon died in 1821 and buried here

RIFT VALLEY

A major geological split in East Africa

Earth is separating → may form a new continent in future

SEVEN GREAT LAKES OF AFRICA

1. Lake Tana (Ethiopia)

2. Lake Turkana (Ethiopia–Kenya border)

3. Lake Albert (Uganda–Congo)

4. Lake Edward (Rwanda–Congo)

5. Lake Kivu (Tanzania–Congo)

6. Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania–Zambia)

7. Lake Malawi (Mozambique–Tanzania)

LINES & SPECIAL POINTS

Tropic of Capricorn

Tropic of Cancer

Equator passes Africa

Sahara Desert: largest hot desert

Savanna: special grass region

HIGHEST POINT OF AFRICA: Mount Kilimanjaro → 5895 m Located in Tanzania

DESERTS

Sahara → Largest hot desert (North Africa)

Kalahari Desert → Namibia & Botswana

RIVERS

Nile River → 6650 km (White + Blue Nile)

Congo River → deepest in world

Niger River → West Africa

Orange River → South Africa

LAKES

Lake Victoria → Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya

World’s 2nd largest freshwater lake

Lake Tana → Source of Blue Nile (4700 km)

Capitals and currencies

Sudan Khartoum pound

South Sudan Juva pound

Somalia Mogadishu shilling

Uganda Kampala shilling

KENYA Nairobi shilling

Tanzania Dodoma shilling

ACRONYM SUKT

Ethiopia Addis Ababa Birr

Eritrea Asmara nakfa

Burundi Gitega franc

Chad N’Djamena franc

CONGO KINSHASA FRANC

DJIBOUTI Djibouti Franc

Rwanda Kigali franc

Acronym BCCDR

Nigeria Abuja naira

BOTSWANA Gaborone Pula

Zimbabwe Harare dollar

South Africa Pretoria(administrative) cape town (legislative) blue fountain (judiciary) Rand

Madagascar Antananarivo Ariary

Ghana Accra Cedi

 AUSTRALIA / OCEANIA CONTINENT

Basic Facts

Located between Indian Ocean (west & north) and Pacific Ocean (east & south)

Total area: 9 million sq km (~90 lakh sq km)

14 countries, 13 are island nations

No glaciers; deserts cover parts of Australia

Smallest republic: Nauru (3rd smallest country; Vatican 1st, Monaco 2nd)

OCEANS, SEAS & STRAITS

Australian Bight → largest bight in world

Coral Sea → Queensland, contains Great Barrier Reef

Arafura Sea → between Northern Australia & Papua New Guinea, connects Timor Sea & Coral
Sea

Bass Strait → separates Tasmania from mainland, connects Indian Ocean to Pacific

Torres Strait → separates New Guinea & mainland Australia, connects Coral Sea to Arafura Sea

Tasman Sea → between Australia & New Zealand

Gulf of Carpentaria → Indian Ocean

MAJOR ISLANDS

Papua New Guinea → 2nd largest island in world (after Greenland, 3rd largest Borneo, 4th
Madagascar)

Tasmania → island state of Australia

Solomon Islands → under China influence, Quad nations aim to protect (India, Japan, Australia,
US)

Guam → originally Japan, after WWII under US control

AUSTRALIA

Area: 7 million sq km (70 lakh)

6 states + federal territories:

Western Australia – Perth

South Australia – Adelaide

Queensland – Brisbane

New South Wales – Sydney

Victoria – Melbourne

Tasmania – Hobart

Capital: Canberra

Northern Australia → federal territory, not part of any state

Discovered by James Cook (1770), colonized by Britain, independent 1901

Sheep farming → largest wool producer → “Land of Golden Fields”

Largest city: Sydney

Bondi Beach, Pondi Beach (artificial)

National Animal: Kangaroo → cricket team called Kangaroos

National Bird: Emu (2nd largest bird; ostrich largest in world)

Platypus → egg-laying mammal

Rivers

Murray River → 2,508 km, longest

Darling River → 1,472 km, joins Murray

Mountains

Great Dividing Range → 3,500 km, QLD → Victoria

Highest: Mount Kosciuszko (2,228 m)

Deserts

Simpson, Gibson, Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Great Red

Lakes

Lake Eyre (Kati Thanda) → 16 m depth, mostly dry

Lake Wheeler (Victoria)

Lake Disappointment (Victoria)

Lake Hillier → Pink Lake

Beaches

Cable Beach (WA)

Whitehaven Beach (Queensland)

Bondi Beach (NSW)

Other Facts

World’s largest uranium reserves

Melbourne Cricket Ground → 2nd largest cricket stadium in world, hosted 1992 WC final

Head of State: Charles III

PM: Anthony Albanese

National Airline: Qantas

NEW ZEALAND

North & South islands, separated by Cook Strait → connects Tasman Sea to South Pacific

Capital: Wellington (Northern NZ)

PM: Chris Hipkins

Christchurch Al-Noor mosque attack: 15 March 2019, 51 Muslims died

First PM to give birth during term: Jacinda Ardern

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Second largest island in Oceania

Capital: Port Moresby

Currency: Kina

Languages: >740 spoken, most in the world

Fiji Sova capital

Palao independence in 1994 after which UN Trustee ship council got dis-functional

Kiribati last country from where equator pass

Summary Notes

Oceania contains: Australia + 13 island nations

Important seas & straits: Coral, Tasman, Bass, Torres, Arafura

Major mountains: Great Dividing Range

Major rivers: Murray, Darling

Major deserts: Simpson, Gibson, Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Great Red

Lakes: Eyre, Hillier, Disappointment, Wheeler

Beaches: Bondi, Cable, Whitehaven, Pondi

 NORTH AMERICA CONTINENT

General Facts

Shape: Dragon-shaped

23 countries-no landlock

Largest island: Greenland (controlled by Denmark)

Oceans & Seas:

Pacific Ocean → West

Atlantic Ocean → East

Arctic Ocean → North

Caribbean Sea → Southeast

Bering Strait → separates Russia & Alaska; connects Arctic & Pacific

Gulf of Mexico → South; largest gulf in world, renamed Gulf of America by Trump

Hudson Bay → Atlantic Ocean

Ring of Fire: 4 parts, Pacific Ocean near International Date Line

Rocky Mountains: Alaska → Mexico, 2nd largest in world, 4,800 km, highest peak Mount
McKinley / Denali (6,190 m)

BORDERS & LAKES

USA–Canada border: Longest in world, 8,891 km

49th Parallel

5 Great Lakes on border: Superior (largest freshwater lake in world), Michigan, Huron, Erie,
Ontario

Acronym: “Super Man Helps Everyone” → forms Saint Lawrence River

Niagara Falls → between Ontario & Erie, most beautiful falls in the world
Canada: Upper Canada, USA → Lower USA

Mexico: South of USA, Florida & small islands form West Indies (not countries)

Devis Strait: Separates Greenland from Canada; connects Arctic & Atlantic

COUNTRIES & CAPITALS / CURRENCIES

Country Capital Currency

USA Washington DC USD

CanadaOttawa CAD

Cuba Havana Peso

Haiti Port-au-Prince Gourde

Jamaica Kingston Dollar

CANADA

Independence: 1 July 1866 from UK

Famous city: Montreal → ICAO head office

Second largest country by area

Longest coastline in world: ~2 lakh km

Nicknames: Land of Lilies, Land of Maple Leaves

Quebec province: “Gibraltar of the West,” wants independence

Major rivers: Mackenzie River, Golden River

Major lakes: Great Bear Lake, Great Trout Lake

Mountains: Mount Logan → highest 5,959 m

Horse Shoe Bay

G7 summit held recently; Russia excluded after 2014 (Crimea conflict)

PM (from 14 March 2025): Mark Carney, succeeding Justin Trudeau, Liberal Democratic Party
USA

Discovered by Columbus: 1492

Named “America” after Amerigo Vespucci, 1502

Vice President: JB Vace

Political parties: Republican → elephant, Democratic → donkey

Democratic Party: founded by Jefferson, 1792

Independence: 4 July 1776

50 states → Alaska & Hawaii separate from mainland

Alaska: Purchased from Russia in 1867 (~$7 million), largest by area and has largest number of
lakes in USA

Hawaii: Last joined USA

Constitution: Briefest in world → 7 Articles

California: Largest population

Silicon Valley, Death Valley → hottest point 57°C, deepest 86 m

Golden Gate Bridge → San Francisco

Los Angeles → Hollywood industry

Miami Beach → Florida

New York City → Big Apple Stock Exchange name, Hudson River, UN headquarters, Statue of
Liberty, Google HQ, Yankee Stadium

Washington DC: Capital

42nd state on Potomac river called city of magnificent distance

White House → President’s residence

Capitol Hill → Congress

Oval Office → official meetings

Princeton University

Bering Strait: Pacific Ocean; separates North America & Asia (Alaska & Russia)

NAFTA (1992) → USMCA (2020): Free trade agreement between USA, Mexico, Canada

MAJOR RIVERS

Mississippi → originates from Lake Itasca largest of north America

Missouri River → originates from Rocky Mountains → joins Mississippi River

Gulf of Mexico → into Atlantic Ocean, southern border includes Central America

CUBA

Revolutionary leader: Fidel Castro → PM 1959–1976, President 1976–2008

Guantanamo Bay: Leased by USA for 100 years, dangerous jail

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Russia tried to attack USA, 13 days conflict

President John F. Kennedy → youngest US President

Nikita Khrushchev: USSR

Airport named after him

JAMICA Sports: Usain Bolt → sprinter, world record 100 m (9.58 sec, 2009 Berlin)

Kriss Gail

MEXICO

Chichen Izza wonder of world Shape → symmetrical

Central America: 7 countries in a line below Mexico

1. Belize
2. Costa Rica
3. El Salvador
 4. Guatemal
5. Honduras
6. Nicaragua
7. Panama

Panama Canal → 1914, 82 km, connects Pacific → Atlantic/Caribbean

Pan-American Highway: longest road in world, Canada → Panama, 30,000 km

OTHER FACTS

Smallest river: Roe River → 61 m

Smallest bird: Hummingbird

Caribbean islands: Revolutions frequent

Puerto Rico (under US) Bermuda and Bahamas islands (Florida state) on Caribbean sea and
Atlantic ocean make Bermuda triangle
 EUROPE CONTINENT

Location & Surroundings

North: Arctic Ocean

West & Southwest: Atlantic Ocean

East: Russia

South: Mediterranean Sea

North: North Sea

Northeast: Baltic Sea

Shape: Looks like a dog facing backward

Total countries: 46-14 landlock

Special fact: No major deserts in Europe

SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES (SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA)

DNS = Denmark, Norway, Sweden

(Although Finland is often grouped, the true peninsula includes Norway & Sweden; Denmark is
culturally Scandinavian.)

NORDIC COUNTRIES (Northern Europe)

Norway

Sweden

Finland

Denmark

Iceland

🇫🇮 FINLAND
 • Known as Land of Thousand Lakes
• Helsinki capital
• Became independent from Russia in 1917
• Youngest PM Sana Marin – served 2019–2023
• Joined NATO in 2023 (31st member)
• Called “City of Lakes” sometimes compared with Venice

🇳🇴 NORWAY

• Called Land of Midnight Sun

• Parliament: Stortin
• Abel Prize for mathematics started 2001 (named after Niels Henrik Abel)
• Nobel Peace Prize awarded in Oslo (10 December)
• One of the northernmost countries of the world

🇮🇸 ICELAND

• Parliament: Althing, oldest parliament in world (est. 930 AD)

• Island country in the Atlantic Ocean
• Volcanic + geysers, tectonic plate boundary

🇩🇰 DENMARK

• Parliament: Folketing
• Danish–Prussian War 1864 against Germany
• Also known for Viking Empire

🇸🇪 SWEDEN

• Parliament: Riksdag
• Alfred Nobel belonged to Sweden
• Nobel prizes given in Stockholm (5 categories)
• Famous Göta Canal (190 km)
• Joined NATO 2024 (last member)
 CAPITALS & CURRENCIES (Nordic + Scandinavia)

Country Capital Currency

Denmark Copenhagen Krone

Norway Oslo Krone

Sweden Stockholm Krone

Iceland Reykjavik Króna

Finland Helsinki Euro

BALTIC REGION

Baltic Sea: Small, cold sea in NE Europe

Three Baltic States (ELL):

1. Estonia – Tallinn
2. Latvia – Riga
3. Lithuania – Vilnius
• All three got independence from USSR (1991)

🇬🇧 ISLAND COUNTRIES OF THE ATLANTIC

1. England
2. Wales
3. Scotland
4. Ireland (capital Dublin, on River Liffey
5. 🇬🇧 UNITED KINGDOM (UK)

Great Britain

Includes 3 countries:

1. England
2. Scotland
3. Wales
Formed in 1707

🇬🇧 United Kingdom (UK)

Official name: United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland

Includes:

1. England
2. Scotland
3. Wales
4. Northern Ireland (joined 1801)

Acronym: NEWs

IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT ENGLAND / UK

• Blue Book – official book of UK government

• Magna Carta (1215) – signed by King John, foundation of British democracy
• Booker Prize – literary prize (first awarded 1969)
• 🏛 UK Parliament
• House of Lords
• House of Commons
• UK Leaders
• PM: Keir Starmer (Labor Party)
• King: Charles III
• Residence: Buckingham Palace
• Downing Street (10 Downing Street) – PM office

Famous Institutions

• MI5, MI6 – Secret agencies

• Scotland Yard – UK Police HQ
• Fleet Street – Media & newspapers
• FAMOUS PLACES IN LONDON
 • Big Ben (1859)
• London Bridge
• Tower Bridge
• Westminster – Parliament
• Greenwich Village – GMT line passes
• Heathrow Airport – major hub

Other Famous UK Cities

• Cardiff – Wales
• Liverpool – on River Mersey
• Glasgow – Scotland
• Manchester – textile industry

🏔 ENGLAND–FRANCE GEOGRAPHY

• English Channel – between England & France

• Dover Strait (or Strait of Dover) connects Channel to North Sea
• 100 Years War (1337–1453) between England & France
• Between UK & Ireland:
• St. George’s Channel

IBERIAN PENINSULA (2 Countries)

1) Spain

• Capital: Madrid
• Touches the British territory of Gibraltar
• Tariq bin Ziyad entered Europe through Gibraltar in 711
• Muslim rule lasted in Spain from 711 to 1492
• Last Muslim ruler: Muhammad XII (Boabdil)
• Christian rulers after that: King Ferdinand II and Isabella
• They sent Christopher Columbus in 1492

Major cities:
 • Córdoba
• Granada (Gharnata)
• Valencia
• Barcelona
• Famous for olive oil production

Bay of Biscay lies between Spain & France

Strait of GibraltarSeparates Spain (Europe) from Morocco (Africa) And Connects Atlantic
Ocean and Mediterranean Sea

2) Portugal

➢ Capital: Lisbon

Andorra

• Small landlocked country

• Between Spain & France

ITALIC PENINSULA — ITALY

➢ Capital: Rome — “City of 7 Hills”

Vatican City inside Rome

Area: 0.44 km²

Population: ~800–1000

River: Tiber

Shape: Boot of Europe

PM: Giorgia Meloni

In World War II, Italy was under Benito Mussolini (you wrote Mesoloni)

Venice

• Consist of 118 islands

 • Nearly 400 bridges
• Called “City of Canals”
• Also “Queen of Adriatic”

Ports

• Genoa
• Naples

Sicily

• Largest island of Mediterranean

• Strait of Messina separates Sicily from Italy
• Below Sicily lies Malta (island country)

Adriatic Sea

• On right/east side of Italy

• Part of Mediterranean Sea

BALKAN PENINSULA (9 Countries)

1. Slovenia (SLO) – Ljubljana

2. Croatia (CRO) – Zagreb

3. Bosnia & Herzegovina (BO) – Sarajevo

4. Serbia (SE) – Belgrade

5. Montenegro (MO) – Podgorica

6. Kosovo (KO) – Pristina

7. North Macedonia (ME) – Skopje (Country of Alexander the Great region)

8. Albania (AL) – Tirana

9. Greece

🇬🇷 GREECE
Origin of Olympics

First Olympics: 776 BC, in Olympia

Modern Olympics revived by Pierre de Coubertin in 1896 (Athens)

Olympic Rings (1913 colors represent continents):

Red – Americas

Yellow – Asia

Green – Australia

Blue – Europe

Black – Africa

Olympic Torch tradition began 1936 (Berlin)

Winter Olympics began 1924 in France

Summer Olympics:

2020: Tokyo

2024: Paris

2028: Los Angeles

Mediterranean Sea surrounds southern Greece

🇩🇪 COUNTRIES ON EAST SIDE OF EUROPE

Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, France

1. 🇩🇪 GERMANY

• Capital: Berlin (on River Spree)

• Berlin Wall built 1961, fell 1989, reunification 1990
• West Germany capital: Bonn
• Brandenburg Gate
 • Black Forest on border of Germany–France–Switzerland

Rivers from Black Forest: Danube, Rhine, Rhone

Rhône River

• Flows into France

• Lyon on its bank
• Interpol founded 1923; HQ in Lyon

Leadership

• Angela Merkel
• Chancellor 2005–2021 for 16 years
• Party: Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
• Current Chancellor: Olaf Scholz

Kiel Canal

• Connects North Sea to Baltic Sea

• Length 98 km
• Built 1895

Alps

• Largest mountain range of Europe

• Highest peak: Mont Blanc (4808 m) between France–Italy
• Mount Elbrus (5642 m) is highest in Europe but in Caucasus (Russia–Georgia)

World Wars

• Hitler (from Austria)

• Became Chancellor 1933
• WW2 began 1939 with attack on Poland
• Died 30 April 1945
• Book: Mein Kampf (My Struggle)
• Holocaust: 6 million Jews murdered
2. 🇵🇱 POLAND

• Capital: Warsaw
• Warsaw Pact (1955–1991) – USSR military alliance

3. HUNGARY

➢ Capital: Budapest
4. 🇦🇹 AUSTRIA
➢ Capital: Vienna
5. SWITZERLAND
• Capital: Bern
• Geneva = City of Conferences
• UN & Red Cross headquarters located here
6. Liechtenstein
• Double landlocked
• Between Austria & Switzerland
7. 🇫🇷 FRANCE
• French Revolution began 1789, not “1989”
• King Louis XVI executed in 1793
• Ideology by Rousseau
• Slogan: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
• Started at Tennis Court Oath

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Emperor from 1804–1815

• Lost Battle of Waterloo (Belgium) in 1815
• Died in 1821 on island of St. Helena
• Belgium called “Battlefield of Europe” / “Cockpit of Europe”

Paris

• Capital of France
 • On River Seine
• City of Perfumes
• Eiffel Tower
• Louvre Museum
• Notre Dame

BENELUX countries (3)

Belgium
Capital Brussels (HQ of EU and NATO)
Netherlands
• Old name Holland
• Capital Amsterdam
• Has flooding from sea
5. Luxumberg
Has free public transport

🇺🇦 UKRAINE

• Joined USSR in 1922

• Russia views NATO expansion as threat

Zelensky:

• Actor/comedian
• Became President 2019

Crimea

• Belonged to Ukraine
• Annexed by Russia in 2014 (still under Russia)
• 2022 Attack
• Began 24 Feb 2022

Regions occupied/declared independent:

 • Donetsk
• Luhansk
• Zaporizhzhia
• Kherson

Capital: Kyiv (Kiev)

• Nickname: Breadbasket of Europe

• “Sick Man of Europe”
• Historical nickname for Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

NATO

Formed: April 1949 (not 1948)

Started with 12 countries

Current members: 32

HQ: Brussels

Only Muslim-majority member: Turkey

Latest:

Finland (31st, 2023)

Sweden (32nd, 2024)

Secretary General: Mark Rutte

EUROPEAN UNION (EU)

Started as economic cooperation: Treaty of Rome (1957)

Became EU via Maastricht Treaty 1993

Members: 27

Last to join: Croatia (2013)

HQ: Brussels

Court: Luxembourg

Nobel Peace Prize: 2012

Euro Currency

Introduced to governments: 1999

In public circulation: 1 Jan 2002

Used by 20 countries

Brexit

UK referendum: 23 June 2016

UK left EU: 31 January 2020

Transition ended: 31 December 2020

PMs who resigned due to Brexit:

David Cameron (2016)

Theresa May (2019)

COMMONWEALTH

Formed 1931

56 member countries

Head: King Charles III

Focus: peace, development, cooperation

Representatives are High Commissioners (not ambassadors)

Commonwealth Games started 1930

G7

Formed 1975
Members: US, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Japan

No HQ

Russia joined for some years → G8

Removed in 2014 after Crimea attack

Latest meeting: Canada

Rivers:

Bolga 3530km Russia

Danube 2850km 10 countries

Rhine 1230km Bonn(Germany) Lyon (France)

Spree 400 km berlin

Saine 770km Paris

Thames 346km London

Mountain ranges:

Alps 1200km mount Blanc 4808m

Seas and oceans

Atlantic west Portugal France Spain UK Norway

Norwegian sea Norway Iceland

north sea

Norway Denmark Germany Netherlands Belgium France

Baltic(Danish straight) sea

mediterranean sea (Gibraltar straight)

black sea (Bosporus straight) Bulgaria Romania Russia Ukraine Georgia turkey

Far north arctic far north of Russia and Norway parents sea
Antarctica

5th largest by area

no city only for experiment

white continent

-89.2 degree centigrade 128.6 farenhight minimum temperature maximum -12.3 Centrigate

largest glacier lumbhard

1 lakh 98 thousand total in world most in north belt

penguins most

98 percent snow

ozone whole seen in 1985

Jinnah station made in 1991

1959 Antarctic treaty signed between 42 countries

lake vistok largest of it below vistok station of Russia

on south pole, north Atlantic Indian pacific

Continents by area

Asia 44.58 million sq km

Africa 33.37

North America 24.71

South America 187.84

Antarctica 14.00

Europe 10.18

Australia 8.56

By population

Asia 4.78 billion

Africa 1.50

Europe 745

North America 615

South America 442

Australia 46 million

Antarctica 5000 temporary researchers

Countries by population

India 1.44billion

China 1.41 billion

USA 341 million

By area

Russia 17.1million sq km

Canada 9.98
China 9.60

Rivers

Nile 6650 km

Amazon 6400

Yangtzi 6300

Lakes freshwater

Lake superior

Lake Victoria

Lake Hurone

Deepest lakes

Baikal

Tanganyika

Salty lakes by area

Caspian sea

Urmia iran

Great salt lake

Salty lakes by salt composition

Gaet’al pond Africa

Don Juan pond antarctica

Lake Assal Africa

Highest mountains

Everest 8849 m 29,o32 feet Himalayas

K2 mount Godwin Austen 8611m 28,251 feet Karakoram

Kangchenjunga 8586 m 28,169 feet Himalayas

Longest mountain ranges

Andes 7000km Venezuela to Chile and Argentina highest point Aconcagua 6961m Argentina

Rocky 4800 km Canada to USA highest point mount Elbert 4401m USA\Himalayas 2400
Everest highest 8849

Glaciers

Lambert

Siachen

Biafo
1. Global Organizations

United Nations (UN) 1945 193 Maintain peace, cooperation, development

World Trade Organization (WTO) 1995 164 Regulate international trade

International Monetary Fund (IMF) 1944 190 Economic stability, loans

World Health Organization (WHO) 1948 194 Global public health

International Criminal Court (ICC) 2002 123 Prosecute genocide, crimes against
humanity

Interpol 1923 196 Global police cooperation

2. Europe-focused Organizations

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 1949 32 Military defense alliance

European Union (EU) 1993 27 Economic & political integration

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 1975 57 Peace, human
rights, democracy

Council of Europe 1949 46 Human rights, democracy, law

3. Asia & Pacific

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 1967 10 Regional stability &

economic growth

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 2001 8 Security & economic cooperation

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) 1985 8 Economic &
cultural cooperation in South Asia

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 1989 21 Free trade & investment

Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) 1971 18 Regional cooperation in Oceania

4. Africa
African Union (AU) 2002 55 Political & economic integration

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 1975 15 Economic integration

in West Africa

Southern African Development Community (SADC) 1992 16 Economic & security

cooperation

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) 1994 21 Free trade area

5. Americas

Organization of American States (OAS) 1948 35 Political cooperation in Americas

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) → USMCA 1994 / 2020 3 Trade
agreement (USA, Canada, Mexico)

Mercosur 1991 4 full + 7 associates South American trade bloc

Andean Community 1969 4 Economic integration in Andes region

6. Middle East

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) 1981 6 Political & economic union of Gulf states

Arab League 1945 22 Cooperation among Arab states

Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) 1969 57 Political, economic & cultural

cooperation of Muslim-majority states

UN secretory generals

Term length 5 years

1 Trygve Lie 2 Feb 1946 – 10 Nov 1952 Norway

2 Dag Hammarskjöld 10 Apr 1953 – 18 Sep 1961 Sweden

3 U Thant 30 Nov 1961 – 31 Dec 1971 Burma (now Myanmar)

4 Kurt Waldheim 1 Jan 1972 – 31 Dec 1981 Austria

5 Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1 Jan 1982 – 31 Dec 1991 Peru

6 Boutros Boutros-Ghali 1 Jan 1992 – 31 Dec 1996 Egypt

7 Kofi Annan 1 Jan 1997 – 31 Dec 2006 Ghana

8 Ban Ki-moon 1 Jan 2007 – 31 Dec 2016 South Korea

9 António Guterres 1 Jan 2017 – Present Portugal

Secretaries-General of the OIC

1 Tunku Abdul Rahman Malaysia 1971 – 1973

5 Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada Pakistan 1985 – 1988

12 Hissein Brahim Taha Chad 29 Nov 2020 – Present

The OIC Secretary-General is elected by the Council of Foreign Ministers and serves a five-year
term,

SAARC (Secretary-General)

Term length rule: Usually three years per term (can vary if someone resigns or is replaced early).
The Secretary-General post rotates alphabetically among member states.

1 Abul Ahsan Jan 1987 – Dec 1989 Bangladesh

5 Naeem U. Hasan Jan 1996 – Dec 1998 Pakistan

13 Amjad Hussain B. Sial Mar 2017 – Feb 2020 Pakistan

14 Esala Ruwan Weerakoon Mar 2020 – present Sri Lanka

Commonwealth of Nations – Secretary-General

Term length rule: Traditionally 4 years per term (renewable). However, reappointments can vary;
some served longer due to re-election or exceptional circumstances.

1 Arnold Smith Canada1965 – 1975

2 Sir Shridath Ramphal Guyana 1975 – 1990

3 Chief Emeka Anyaoku Nigeria1990 – 2000

5 Kamalesh Sharma India 2008 – 2016

6 Patricia Scotland Dominica 2016 – present (re-elected in 2022)

NATO Secretaries-General

1 Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay United Kingdom 24 March 1952 – 16 May
1957

2 Paul-Henri Spaak Belgium 16 May 1957 – 21 April 1961

14 Mark Rutte Netherlands 1 October 2024 – Present

Term Length Notes

The standard term length for the NATO Secretary-General is 4 years, which is renewable.

m Ghebreyesus
GAMES

1. Olympic Games (Summer)

Last held: 2024 – Paris, France

Winner of last edition (most gold medals): United States

Next scheduled: 2028 – Los Angeles, USA

Pakistan 1 gold medal Arshad Nadeem

2. Olympic Games (Winter)

Last held: 2022 – Beijing, China

Winner of last edition (most gold medals): Norway

Next scheduled: 2026 – Milan–Cortina, Italy

3. South Asian Games

Last held: 2019 – Kathmandu & Pokhara, Nepal

Winner of last edition (most gold medals): India

Next scheduled: 2025 – Lahore, Pakistan (planned)

4. Asian Games

Last held: 2023 – Hangzhou, China

Winner of last edition (most gold medals): China

Next scheduled: 2026 – Nagoya, Japan

Pakistn got 1 silver 2 bronze

5. Commonwealth Games

Last held: 2022 – Birmingham, England

Winner of last edition (most gold medals): Australia

Next scheduled: 2026 – Victoria, Australia

Pakistan got 2 gld 3 silver 2 bronze

6. FIFA World Cup (Football)

Last held: 2022 – Qatar

Winner of last edition: Argentina (beat France in final)

Next scheduled: 2026 – USA, Canada & Mexico

7. ICC Cricket World Cup (Men’s)

Last held: 2023 – India

Winner of last edition: Australia (beat India in final)

Next scheduled: 2027 – South Africa, Namibia & Zimbabwe

8. ICC Cricket World Cup (Women’s)

Last held: 2022 – New Zealand

Winner of last edition: Australia (beat England in final)

Next scheduled: 2026 – India

9. Hockey World Cup (Men’s)

Last held: 2023 – Bhubaneswar & Rourkela, India

Winner of last edition: Germany (beat Belgium in final)

Next scheduled: 2026 – Belgium & Netherlands

10. Asian Cup (Football)

Last held: 2024 – Qatar

Winner of last edition: Qatar (beat Jordan in final)

Next scheduled: 2027 – Saudi Arabia

11. South Asian Football Federation (SAFF) Championship

Last held: 2023 – India

Winner of last edition: India (beat Kuwait in final)

Next scheduled: TBA