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Types of Variation
Variation is defined as differences between individuals of the same species
Phenotypic variation is the difference in features between individuals of the same
species
Some of these differences are caused by differences in genes, which is genetic
variation
Phenotypic variation can be divided into two types depending on how you are able to
group the measurements:
o Continuous Variation is when there are very many small degrees of
difference for a particular characteristic between individuals and they are
arranged in order and can usually be measured on a scale
o Examples include height, mass, finger length etc. where there can be many
‘in-between’ groups
o Discontinuous Variation is when there are distinct differences for a
characteristic
o For example, people are either blood group A, B, AB or O; are either male or
female; can either roll their tongue or not – there are no ‘in-betweens’
When graphs of these data are plotted, continuous variation gives smooth bell curves
(a result of all the small degrees of difference), whereas discontinuous gives a ‘step –
like’ shape
Types of Variation
Variation is defined as differences between individuals of the same species
Phenotypic variation is the difference in features between individuals of the same
species
Some of these differences are caused by differences in genes, which is genetic
variation
Phenotypic variation can be divided into two types depending on how you are able to
group the measurements:
o Continuous Variation is when there are very many small degrees of
difference for a particular characteristic between individuals and they are
arranged in order and can usually be measured on a scale
o Examples include height, mass, finger length etc. where there can be many
‘in-between’ groups
o Discontinuous Variation is when there are distinct differences for a
characteristic
o For example, people are either blood group A, B, AB or O; are either male or
female; can either roll their tongue or not – there are no ‘in-betweens’
When graphs of these data are plotted, continuous variation gives smooth bell curves
(a result of all the small degrees of difference), whereas discontinuous gives a ‘step –
like’ shape
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Height is an example of continuous variation which gives rise to a smooth bell-shaped
curve when plotted as a graph
Blood group is an example of discontinuous variation which gives rise to a step-shaped graph
Phenotypic Variation
Phenotypic variation can be caused in two main ways:
o It can be genetic – controlled entirely by genes
o Or it can be environmental – caused entirely by the environment in which the
organism lives
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Genetic Variation
Examples of genetic variation in humans include:
o blood group
o eye colour
o gender
o ability to roll tongue whether ear lobes are free or fixed
Whether earlobes are attached (lobeless) or free (lobed) is an example of genetic variation
Environmental Variation
Characteristics of all species can be affected by environmental factors such as climate,
diet, accidents, culture and lifestyle
In this instance ‘environmental’ simply means ‘outside of the organism’ and so can
include factors like climate, diet, culture, lifestyle and accidents during lifetime
Examples include:
o An accident may lead to scarring on the body
o Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain
o Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain language
with a certain accent
o A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light
Genetic and Environmental Causes
Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genetic variation alone
Continuous features often vary because of a combination of genetic and
environmental causes, for example:
o tall parents will pass genes to their children for height
o their children have the genetic potential to also be tall
o however if their diet is poor then they will not grow very well
o therefore their environment also has an impact on their height
Another way of looking at this is that although genes decide what characteristics we
inherit, the surrounding environment will affect how these inherited characteristics
develop
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Variation
Variation is defined as differences between individuals within the same species.
Variation can be caused by various factors. The most important ones that you need to be
aware of is:
Sexual reproduction
o The mixing of genes from the father & mother to produce offspring with a
completely unique genetic make-up causes variation
Mutation
o Random changes of the DNA of an organism
Genetic vs phenotypic variation
Genetic variation – The differences in genetics among individuals within the same
species (mainly due to sexual reproduction & mutation)
Phenotypic variation – The variability of phenotypes within a population (influenced
by both the genetic & environmental factors)
Continuous vs discontinuous variation
Continuous variation – Results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes i.e.
height/weight/etc.
Discontinuous variation – Results in limited number of set phenotypes with no
intermediates i.e. tongue rolling
Sickle cell anaemia
Sickle cell anaemia is caused by the mutation in a gene that codes for haemoglobin. The
abnormal base sequence of the haemoglobin gene causes sickle-shaped red blood cells.
Sickle celled RBCs are less efficient at carrying oxygen, and more likely to become stuck in
capillaries preventing blood flow.
The faulty Hb gene is dominated by the normal Hb gene but it can still have an effect in the
heterozygous genotype.
Consider the three possible genotypes (N = normal, n = abnormal)
HN HN – 100% normal Hb
HN Hn – Mostly normal Hb, but some abnormal Hb found i.e. non-life threatening
sickle cell trait
HnHn – 100% abnormal Hb, life-threatening condition
The symptoms of sickle-cell anaemia are as follows:
Fatigue and anaemia
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Pain crises
Bacterial infections
Lung & heart injury
Leg ulcers
Eye damage
Sickle-cell anaemia and malaria
Malaria is a serious and sometimes fatal disease caused by a parasite that commonly infects
a certain type of mosquito which feeds on humans.
Sickle-cell anaemia provides protection against malaria, because the parasites cannot
penetrate sickle-celled RBCs.
Therefore, sickle-celled genotypes are favourable in countries where malaria is highly
prevalent.
A person with sickle cell anaemia (HnHn) will be fully protected against malaria, but
likely to die from sickle-cell disease
A person that has no sickle cell anaemia (HNHN) has no protection from malaria, and
is therefore likely to contract the disease
A person that is a sickle-cell carrier (HNHn) gains moderate malarial protection, and
will not die from sickle cell disease
Adaptive features
Adaptive features are inherited functional features of an organism that increases in fitness.
Fitness is defined as the probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the
environment in which it is found.
Adaptive features of xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants that survive with very little water i.e. cactus. These plants have
adaptive features which allow it to maximize water uptake and minimize water loss.
Thick cuticle to minimize evaporation
Small leaves to reduce surface area for evaporation
Less stomata to reduce the surface area for diffusion
Sunken stomata to maintain humidity around stomata (and therefore reduce diffusion
of water out of the plant)
Rolled leaves to maintain humidity around the stomata
Extensive roots to maximize water uptake
Adaptive features of hydrophytes
Hydrophytes are plants that grow on or in water.
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Wide flat leaves to increase surface area for floatation and to be exposed to as much
light as possible
Reduced plant structure as there is less need for a rigid structural support
Thin waxy cuticle as water preservation isn’t as important
Small roots as water can be obtained directly through the leaf and stem
Stomata are open on the upper side of the leaf in order to maximize gas exchange
without worrying about too much water
Natural selection and evolution
Natural selection
Natural selection describes the concept that for a given environment, organisms with the most
beneficial features are ‘selected’ to survive and pass on their genes to the next generation.
The steps are as follows:
There is variation within a population
Many offspring are produced
There are competition for resources among individuals within the population
There is struggle for survival
The most ‘fit’ individuals that are more adapted to the environment will survive and
reproduce
Fitter individuals pass on their genes/alleles to their offspring
Evolution
Natural selection ensures that only the most favourable genes get passed onto the next
generation.
Over time, populations therefore become more suited to their environment. This is known as
evolution.
Antibiotic resistance
Upon the use of antibiotics, most bacteria of a certain strain will die. However, due to pure
chance, there may be some bacteria that have had a genetic mutation with gives them
resistance to the antibiotics used.
These resistant bacteria survive and reproduce rapidly. This produces many more bacteria
that also have the resistant gene. Eventually, the antibiotic will be ineffective due to the
abundance of resistant bacteria.
Artificial selection
Artificial selection is the intentional reproduction of animals and plants by humans that have
desirable traits.
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By using this method, the organisms can pass down favourable traits to their offspring to
produce more organisms with the characteristics that we want.
Natural selection is natural because the environment provides selective pressure for
organisms that live within the environment. Artificial selection is artificial because it is not
the environment which provides the pressure, it is human manipulation instead.
Selective breeding
Selection by humans of individuals with desirable traits
Crossing these individuals to produce next generation
Selection of offspring showing the desirable characteristics
Over many generations this can improve the quality of crop plants and domesticated
animals