What are the sampling methods or Sampling Techniques?

In Sta s cs, the sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the
popula on by gathering informa on and analyzing that data. It is the basis of the data where
the sample space is enormous.

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into two
groups. All these methods of sampling may involve specifically targe ng hard or approach to
reach groups.

Types of Sampling Method

In Sta s cs, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the
popula on. The two different types of sampling methods are::

 Probability Sampling

 Non-probability Sampling

Also, read: Sample sta s c

What is Probability Sampling?

The probability sampling method u lizes some form of random selec on. In this method, all the
eligible individuals have a chance of selec ng the sample from the whole sample space. This
method is more me consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The
benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the
representa ve of the popula on.
Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple random
sampling, systema c sampling, stra fied sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us discuss the
different types of probability sampling methods along with illustra ve examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the popula on has an equal and likely
chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selec on en rely depends on the
chance, this method is known as “Method of chance Selec on”. As the sample size is large, and
the item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representa ve Sampling”.

Example:

Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we
can assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random
number generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.

Systema c Sampling

In the systema c sampling method, the items are selected from the target popula on by
selec ng the random selec on point and selec ng the other methods a er a fixed sample
interval. It is calculated by dividing the total popula on size by the desired popula on size.

Example:

Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabe cal order. To
select a sample in a systema c sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by
randomly selec ng a star ng n umber, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th
person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some students.

Stra fied Sampling

In a stra fied sampling method, the total popula on is divided into smaller groups to complete
the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few characteris cs in the
popula on. A er separa ng the popula on into a smaller group, the sta s cians randomly
select the sample.

For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, bag
B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag
propor onally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.

Clustered Sampling

In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the
popula on set. The group has similar significatory characteris cs. Also, they have an equal
chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple random sampling for the cluster
of popula on.

Example:

An educa onal ins tu on has ten branches across the country with almost the number of
students. If we want to collect some data regarding facili es and other things, we can’t travel to
every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or
four branches as clusters.

All these four methods can be understood in a be er manner with the help of the figure given
below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the popula on
using different techniques.
What is Non-Probability Sampling?

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample
based on subjec ve judgment rather than the random selec on. In this method, not all the
members of the popula on have a chance to par cipate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecu ve sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball
sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in detail.

Convenience Sampling

In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the popula on directly
because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and
the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the en re popula on.

Example:

In researching customer support services in a par cular region, we ask your few customers to
complete a survey on the products a er the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data.
S ll, as we only surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same me, the sample is
not representa ve of all the customers in that area.

Consecu ve Sampling

Consecu ve sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight varia on. The researcher
picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a
period of me to analyze the result and move to another group if needed.

Quota Sampling

In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to
represent the popula on based on specific traits or quali es. The researcher chooses the
sample subsets that bring the useful collec on of data that generalizes the en re popula on.

Learn more about quota sampling here.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As
their knowledge is instrumental in crea ng the samples, there are the chances of obtaining
highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental
sampling or authorita ve sampling.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the
samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each iden fied member of a popula on is asked
to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted
popula on.

Probability sampling vs Non-probability Sampling Methods

The below table shows a few differences between probability sampling methods and non-
probability sampling methods.

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in Non-probability sampling method is a technique in

which samples taken from a larger popula on are which the researcher chooses samples based on
chosen based on probability theory. subjec ve judgment, preferably random selec on.

These are also known as Random sampling These are also called non-random sampling
methods. methods.

These are used for research which is conclusive. These are used for research which is exploratory.

These involve a long me to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data quickly.

There is an underlying hypothesis in probability

The hypothesis is derived later by conduc ng the
sampling before the study starts. Also, the
research study in the case of non-probability
objec ve of this method is to validate the defined
sampling.
hypothesis.

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Frequently Asked Ques ons on Sampling Methods

Q1

What are sampling methods in sta s cs?

In Sta s cs, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the
popula on. These are categorized into two different types of sampling methods. They are:
Probability Sampling Methods
Non-probability Sampling methods

Q2
What are the methods of probability sampling?

The probability sampling methods are:

Simple Random Sampling
Systema c Sampling
Stra fied Sampling
Clustered Sampling

Q3

What are the non-probability sampling methods?

The non-probability sampling methods are:

Convenience Sampling
Consecu ve Sampling
Quota Sampling
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
Snowball Sampling

Q4

What is an example of simple random sampling?

An example of simple random sampling is given below.

Selec on of a simple random sample of 50 female employees in an organiza on out of 1000
female employees: Here, we can assign a number to every female employee 1 to 1000 and use
a random number generator to select 50 numbers. Thus, we can get a sample of 50 female
employees.

Q5

How do you collect a convenience sample?

In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the popula on directly
because they are conveniently available for the researcher. As a result, the samples are easy to
set, and the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the en re popula on.

Sampling methods are divided into probability (random) sampling, which gives every member
an equal chance of selec on for quan ta ve research, and non-probability (non-random)
sampling, which uses subjec ve criteria for qualita ve/exploratory studies. Common methods
include random, stra fied, systema c, and non-random techniques like convenience, snowball,
quota, and purposive.
Probability Sampling Methods

These methods use random selec on, allowing for calcula on of sampling errors and
generaliza on to the popula on.

 Simple Random: Every member has an equal chance of being selected, o en using a
random number generator.

 Stra fied Random: The popula on is divided into subgroups (strata) based on shared
characteris cs, and a random sample is taken from each stratum.

 Systema c: Selects par cipants at a fixed, periodic interval (e.g., every person) a er a
random star ng point.

 Cluster (Addi onal): The popula on is divided into clusters, and random clusters are
chosen to be studied.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

These techniques are non-random, o en used in exploratory research to save me or to study

hard-to-reach popula ons.

 Convenience: Par cipants are selected based on their immediate availability and
willingness to par cipate.

 Snowball: Exis ng subjects refer future subjects, commonly used for hidden or hard-to-
reach popula ons (e.g., in social science studies).

 Quota: Researchers create a sample that involves individuals represen ng a popula on,
o en via convenience, un l a specific number (quota) is met.

 Purposive/Judgemental: Par cipants are selected based on the researcher's judgment

that they are appropriate for the study's specific needs.

Key Differences: Probability sampling provides sta s cally representa ve results for inference,
while non-probability sampling is more useful for genera ng hypotheses or qualita ve
research.

Methods of sampling from a popula on

It would normally be imprac cal to study a whole popula on, for example when doing a
ques onnaire survey. Sampling is a method that allows researchers to infer informa on about a
popula on based on results from a subset of the popula on, without having to inves gate
every individual. Reducing the number of individuals in a study reduces the cost and workload,
and may make it easier to obtain high quality informa on, but this has to be balanced against
having a large enough sample size with enough power to detect a true associa on. (Calcula on
of sample size is addressed in sec on 1B (sta s cs) of the DFPH syllabus.)

If a sample is to be used, by whatever method it is chosen, it is important that the individuals

selected are representa ve of the whole popula on. This may involve specifically targe ng hard
to reach groups. For example, if the electoral roll for a town was used to iden fy par cipants,
some people, such as the homeless, would not be registered and therefore excluded from the
study by default.

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into two
groups: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. In probability (random) sampling,
you start with a complete sampling frame of all eligible individuals from which you select your
sample. In this way, all eligible individuals have a chance of being chosen for the sample, and
you will be more able to generalise the results from your study. Probability sampling methods
tend to be more me-consuming and expensive than non-probability sampling. In non-
probability (non-random) sampling, you do not start with a complete sampling frame, so some
individuals have no chance of being selected. Consequently, you cannot es mate the effect of
sampling error and there is a significant risk of ending up with a non-representa ve sample
which produces non-generalisable results. However, non-probability sampling methods tend to
be cheaper and more convenient, and they are useful for exploratory research and hypothesis
genera on.

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen en rely by chance and each member of the popula on has
an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to
give each individual in a popula on a number, and then use a table of random numbers to
decide which individuals to include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000
individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to pick
your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the random number table were 094, select the
individual labelled “94”, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the sampling error to
be calculated and reduces selec on bias. A specific advantage is that it is the most
straigh orward method of probability sampling. A disadvantage of simple random sampling is
that you may not select enough individuals with your characteris c of interest, especially if that
characteris c is uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a complete sampling frame and
inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms of contact are required (email,
phone, post) and your sample units are sca ered over a wide geographical area.

2. Systema c sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are chosen
to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a popula on of size x, you
should select every x/nth individual for the sample. For example, if you wanted a sample size of
100 from a popula on of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.

Systema c sampling is o en more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is easy to
administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying pa erns in
the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique coincides
with the periodicity of the underlying pa ern. As a hypothe cal example, if a group of students
were being sampled to gain their opinions on college facili es, but the Student Record
Department’s central list of all students was arranged such that the sex of students alternated
between male and female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20 th student) would result in a
sample of all males or all females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be
easily corrected, this may not always be the case.

3. Stra fied sampling

In this method, the popula on is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar
characteris c. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary
between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representa on from all the
subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stra fy the popula on by sex,
to ensure equal representa on of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by
taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stra fied sampling, it may also be appropriate
to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the health
outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three hospitals each with different numbers
of nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it
would be appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each hospital propor onally (e.g. 10
from hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realis c and
accurate es ma on of the health outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple
random sampling would over-represent nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample
was stra fied should be taken into account at the analysis stage.

Stra fied sampling improves the accuracy and representa veness of the results by reducing
sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteris cs of the
sampling frame (the details of which are not always available), and it can be difficult to decide
which characteris c(s) to stra fy by.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the popula on are used as the sampling unit, rather than
individuals. The popula on is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly
selected to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual
GP prac ces or towns could be iden fied as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all
members of the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a
selec on of individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion. Clustering
should be taken into account in the analysis. The General Household survey, which is
undertaken annually in England, is a good example of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members
of the selected households (clusters) are included in the survey.1

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling, especially where a study
takes place over a wide geographical region. For instance, it is easier to contact lots of
individuals in a few GP prac ces than a few individuals in many different GP prac ces.
Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters are not representa ve of
the popula on, resul ng in an increased sampling error.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because par cipants are
selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained, but
the results are prone to significant bias, because those who volunteer to take part may be
different from those who choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be
representa ve of other characteris cs, such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all
non-probability sampling methods.

2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is o en used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of
subjects of a specified type to a empt to recruit. For example, an interviewer might be told to
go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that
they could interview them about their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would
propor onally represent the characteris cs of the underlying popula on.
Whilst this has the advantage of being rela vely straigh orward and poten ally representa ve,
the chosen sample may not be representa ve of other characteris cs that weren’t considered
(a consequence of the non-random nature of sampling). 2

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selec ve, or subjec ve, sampling, this technique relies on the judgement of the
researcher when choosing who to ask to par cipate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose a
“representa ve” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain
characteris cs. This approach is o en used by the media when canvassing the public for
opinions and in qualita ve research.

Judgement sampling has the advantage of being me-and cost-effec ve to perform whilst
resul ng in a range of responses (par cularly useful in qualita ve research). However, in
addi on to volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the researcher and the
findings, whilst being poten ally broad, will not necessarily be representa ve.

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when inves ga ng hard-to-reach groups.
Exis ng subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample
increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a survey of risk
behaviours amongst intravenous drug users, par cipants may be asked to nominate other users
to be interviewed.

Snowball sampling can be effec ve when a sampling frame is difficult to iden fy. However, by
selec ng friends and acquaintances of subjects already inves gated, there is a significant risk of
selec on bias (choosing a large number of people with similar characteris cs or views to the
ini al individual iden fied).

Bias in sampling

There are five important poten al sources of bias that should be considered when selec ng a
sample, irrespec ve of the method used. Sampling bias may be introduced when: 1

1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from

2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omi ed

3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are difficult to contact
 4. There are low response rates

5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it excludes people who
have recently moved to an area)

Further poten al problems with sampling strategies are covered in chapter 8 of this sec on
(“Sources of varia on, its measurement and control”).