Data at the highest level: Qualitative and quantitative

What is data? In short, it’s a collection of measurements or observations, divided into two
different types: qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative data refers to information about qualities, or information that cannot be measured.
It’s usually descriptive and textual. Examples include someone’s eye colour or the type of car
they drive. In surveys, it’s often used to categorise ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers.

Quantitative data is numerical. It’s used to define information that can be counted. Some
examples of quantitative data include distance, speed, height, length and weight. It’s easy to
remember the difference between qualitative and quantitative data, as one refers to qualities and
the other refers to quantities.
A bookshelf, for example, may have 100 books on its shelves and be 100 centimetres tall. These
are quantitative data points. The colour of the bookshelf – red – is a qualitative data point.
What is quantitative (numerical) data?

Quantitative, or numerical, data can be broken down into two types: discrete and continuous.

Discrete data

Discrete data is a whole number that can’t be divided or broken into individual parts, fractions or
decimals. Examples of discrete data include the number of pets someone has – one can have two
dogs but not two-and-a-half dogs. The number of wins someone’s favourite team gets is also a
form of discrete data because a team can’t have a half win – it’s either a win, a loss, or a draw.

Continuous data
Continuous data describes values that can be broken down into different parts, units, fractions
and decimals. Continuous data points, such as height and weight, can be measured. Time can
also be broken down – by half a second or half an hour. Temperature is another example of
continuous data.

Discrete versus continuous

There’s an easy way to remember the difference between the two types of quantitative data: data
is considered discrete if it can be counted and is continuous if it can be measured. Someone can
count students, tickets purchased and books, while one measures height, distance and
temperature.

What is qualitative (categorical) data?

Qualitative data describes the qualities of data points and is non-numerical. It’s used to define the
information and can also be further broken down into sub-categories through the four scales of
measurement.
Image

Properties and scales of measurement

Scales of measurement is how variables are defined and categorised. Psychologist Stanley
Stevens developed the four common scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
Each scale of measurement has properties that determine how to properly analyse the data. The
properties evaluated are identity, magnitude, equal intervals and a minimum value of zero.
Properties of Measurement

 Identity: Identity refers to each value having a unique meaning.

 Magnitude: Magnitude means that the values have an ordered relationship to one another,
so there is a specific order to the variables.
  Equal intervals: Equal intervals mean that data points along the scale are equal, so the
difference between data points one and two will be the same as the difference between
data points five and six.

 A minimum value of zero: A minimum value of zero means the scale has a true zero
point. Degrees, for example, can fall below zero and still have meaning. But if you weigh
nothing, you don’t exist.

In statistics and research design, data variables are classified using levels of measurement, often
referred to as scales of measurement. This framework was introduced by psychologist Stanley
Smith Stevens to determine what type of statistical analysis can be legitimately applied to
different sets of data.

As shown in your image, there are four primary scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio.

1. Nominal Scale

Definition

The nominal scale is the simplest level of measurement. It is used strictly for labeling, naming,
or classifying qualitative variables into distinct categories. It has no quantitative value, no
mathematical properties, and no inherent order or ranking among the categories.

Key Characteristics
  Categories are mutually exclusive (an item can only belong to one category).

 Numbers assigned to categories (if any) serve purely as labels or identification tags (e.g.,
coding "Male" as 1 and "Female" as 2 does not mean 2 is greater than 1).

Examples

1. Eye Color: Categorizing a population into brown, blue, green, or hazel eyes. There is no
mathematical order; blue is not "higher" or "lower" than brown.

2. Type of Workplace Hazard: Classifying occupational safety risks into categories such
as physical, chemical, biological, or ergonomic hazards.

2. Ordinal Scale

Definition

The ordinal scale is a qualitative scale where the data is categorized into distinct groups, but
those groups have a natural, logical order or rank. While it tells you which category is greater
or lesser than another, it does not measure the precise distance or difference between the
ranks.

Key Characteristics

 Data can be ordered from highest to lowest, best to worst, or smallest to largest.

 The mathematical intervals between the ranks are unknown or unequal (e.g., the
difference between "Satisfied" and "Neutral" may not be the same as the difference
between "Neutral" and "Dissatisfied").

Examples

1. Likert Scale Ratings (as seen in the image): A survey measuring employee satisfaction
or sentiment using options like #1 Happy, #2 Neutral, and #3 Unhappy (or Strongly
Agree, Agree, Disagree).

2. Socioeconomic Status: Classifying individuals or households into Low-income, Middle-

3. Interval Scale

Definition
The interval scale is a quantitative measurement scale where the order of the data points is
known, and the intervals (distances) between successive data points are equal and constant.
However, it lacks a true, absolute zero point.

Key Characteristics

 The distance between 10 and 20 is exactly the same as the distance between 20 and 30.

 Because there is no "true zero" (zero does not mean a complete absence of the property),
you can add and subtract data, but you cannot multiply or calculate ratios (e.g.,
$40^\circ\text{C}$ is not "twice as hot" as $20^\circ\text{C}$).

Examples

1. Temperature (Celsius or Fahrenheit): $0^\circ\text{C}$ does not mean there is "no

2. Standardized Test Scores: An IQ score or a standard exam score. A score of 0 does not
mean a person possesses "zero intelligence," and a person with an IQ of 140 is not twice
as smart as someone with an IQ of 70.

4. Ratio Scale

Definition

The ratio scale is the most advanced, informative, and precise level of measurement. It possesses
all the characteristics of the interval scale (ordered data, equal intervals) but includes a true,
absolute zero point.

Key Characteristics

 An absolute zero means that a value of 0 indicates a complete absence of the property
being measured.

 Because of the true zero, you can legitimately perform all mathematical operations,
including multiplication and division. You can accurately state that one value is "twice as
much" or "half of" another.
Examples

1. Weight (as seen in the image): A weight of $0\text{ kg}$ means an object has
completely no mass. An object weighing $80\text{ kg}$ is exactly twice as heavy as an
object weighing $40\text{ kg}$.
 2. Years of Work Experience: A person with 0 years of experience has never worked in
that field. A professional with 10 years of experience has exactly twice the duration of
experience as someone with 5 years.

Summary Comparison

To quickly determine which scale a variable belongs to, you can use this simple progression
framework:

Measurement Equal True Absolute

Nominal Yes No No No

Ordinal Yes Yes No No

Interval Yes Yes Yes No

Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

To summarise, nominal scales are used to label or describe values. Ordinal scales are used to
provide information about the specific order of the data points, mostly seen in the use of
satisfaction surveys. The interval scale is used to understand the order and differences between
them. The ratio scales gives more information about identity, order and difference, plus a
breakdown of the numerical detail within each data poin