Chapter 1

Understanding Social Science

In Grades 6 to 8, we have explored Social Science through stories

of people, places, and events. As you enter Grade 9, it is time to
pause and understand what ‘Social Science’ truly means and why
it matters.
Human beings live in societies and depend on each other in many
ways. Our lives are shaped by the environment, the institutions
that govern us, the economic activities that meet our needs,
and the traditions and ideas passed down through generations.
Understanding these connections is the foundation of Social Science,
which seeks to understand their intricate patterns and influences.
In simple words, Social Science is the systematic study of human
society. It not only tells us what happened or where things are
located, but also explains why events occur, how people live together,
how environments influence life, how governments function, how
economies operate, and how the past and the present together shape
the world.
While subjects like Physics, Chemistry, and Biology study the natural
world, Social Science focuses on society, institutions, cultures, and
human interactions. It helps us understand not only what happens
in our social world, but also why it happens and how different
aspects of life are interconnected.

Social Science in Everyday Life

Think about a day in your life.
You wake up in a house built with materials sourced from different
places. The food you eat may come from various regions of the
country. Before it reaches your plate, it has been harvested,
processed, transported, bought, and sold through the efforts of
many people. You travel on roads planned and maintained by public
authorities. You study in a school shaped by educational policies
and programmes. The electricity that you use is generated at distant
power stations and delivered through a vast and complex network.

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 Even the simplest daily activities rely on systems of governance,
economic production, social cooperation, and the natural
environment.
Now, look beyond your immediate surroundings.
ƒ Why do some people live in crowded cities while others live in
scattered villages?
ƒ Why do different communities speak different languages and
follow different traditions?
ƒ Why do some regions depend on farming, while others focus on
industry or trade?
ƒ How do governments make decisions that affect millions of
people?
ƒ Why are certain regions more prone to floods?
ƒ Why does agriculture flourish in some regions but not in others?
ƒ How does climate change influence our lives?
Questions like these show that society does not function by chance.
It is shaped by history, geography, institutions, resources, and
human choices. Social Science helps us explore such questions and
seek answers through careful observation, evidence, and logical
reasoning.

LET’S ANALYSE

Observe your surroundings and identify a change that has taken

place in your locality over the past five years. It could be related
to transport, housing, education, technology, or the environment.
Discuss in groups:
Æ What was the situation earlier?
Æ What has changed?
Æ What might have caused this change?
Æ How has it affected people’s lives?
Prepare a short report and present it in class.

Your daily experiences and the changes you observe around you
reveal how Social Science builds connections among people, places,
and systems. Simple observations like these help you see society as
one connected story rather than a collection of separate pieces.
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 Understanding Society through
Time and Traditions
Society has not always been as it is today, and over thousands of
years, it has changed greatly. Early human communities depended
directly on nature for survival, and with time, people learnt to
grow crops, domesticate animals, build settlements, develop tools, Pañchamahābhūtas:
The idea of the
exchange goods, and organise systems of governance. Villages Pañchamahābhūtas
developed into towns, and towns grew into cities. New ideas, (five great elements)
inventions, and cultural exchanges gradually transformed ways comes from Indian
of life. philosophical
traditions and
This spirit of inquiry has deep roots in India’s knowledge traditions. explains the world
Early thinkers valued discussion, questioning, and logical as composed of
five fundamental
reasoning to understand the world. Knowledge was explored
elements—earth
through observation, reflection, and dialogue. For example, the (Pṛithvī), water (Āpaḥ),
concept of the Pañchamahābhūtas describes the natural world fire (Agni), air (Vāyu),
as an interconnected system in which human life is embedded. and space (Ākāśha).
Scholars use this idea
It helps explain how the environment influences settlement
to explain natural
patterns, occupations, architecture, food habits, and health processes, the
practices—an idea that remains relevant as societies respond human body, and the
to environmental challenges. Similarly, the idea of vasudhaiva relationship between
living beings and
kuṭumbakam, meaning ‘the world is one family’, expresses the
the environment.
interconnectedness of human societies across regions and cultures. While expressed
This sense of interdependence lies at the core of what Social in philosophical
Science seeks to understand when it studies global interactions terms, it represents
an early attempt to
and relationships.
understand nature
Early reflections on governance in India also linked political as an interconnected
authority with public welfare and ethical responsibility. The system.
Arthaśhāstra, attributed to Kauṭilya, composed about 2,300 years
ago, examined administration, economic management, taxation,
and the duties of rulers toward their people. Such works show that
systematic thinking about governance and the economy existed
long before modern academic disciplines developed.
These traditions demonstrate that the effort to understand society
through observation, reasoning, and reflection has a long history.
Modern Social Science continues this legacy using new tools and
methods to study how societies function and change over time.
To understand the present, we must trace this long journey of
continuity and change and explore how societies evolved, how

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 institutions developed, and how relationships between people and
the environment transformed. Hence, social scientists observe
people’s lives, conduct interviews and surveys, examine documents,
and compare different times and places. By gathering information
from multiple sources, they develop explanations that are supported
by evidence. This way, Social Science explains both what endures
and what changes, showing how the past shapes the present and
how today’s actions will influence the future.

Social Science as a Study of Disciplines

Human society is complex, and no single field of study can fully
explain it. For example, a drought affects crops (environment),
farmers’ incomes (economy), government relief measures (politics),
migration to cities (society), and traditional ways of coping with
scarcity (culture). To understand such situations, we must examine
society from different perspectives. Social Science, therefore, is not
a single subject but a group of related disciplines, each focusing on
a different aspect of human life. Together, they help us understand
society in a comprehensive and connected way.
In Grades 9–10, Social Science primarily draws from four
core disciplines—Geography, History, Political Science, and
Economics—that together provide a comprehensive understanding
of society. Other disciplines such as Sociology, Philosophy,
Anthropology, and Psychology also form part of the broader Social
Science family. These fields explore social relationships, ethical
reasoning, and human behaviour in greater depth and will be further
developed in higher grades.
ƒ Geography studies the Earth, its environments, and the
relationships between people and their surroundings.
ƒ History examines the human past and helps us understand how
societies change over time.
ƒ Political Science analyses systems of governance, power, and the
rights and responsibilities of citizens.
ƒ Economics explores how societies produce, distribute, and utilise
resources to meet their needs.
Each discipline asks different questions, yet all are interconnected
and together provide a holistic understanding of society. Let us now
explore these disciplines in detail.

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India and Beyond
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 Geography
Geography studies the location and distribution of places, objects,
materials, and people, as well as the relationships between human
societies and their surroundings. It examines both, the physical
features of the Earth’s surface and the human communities
that inhabit it, focusing on how people interact with the natural
environment and how places influence human life. Geography seeks
to understand where things are located, why they are found there,
and how places—near or distant—affect one another over time.
It views the world as a system of interdependencies and adopts a
holistic approach by integrating spatial perspectives (location and its
significance) with temporal perspectives (change over time). Drawing
on both natural sciences (such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc.) and
social sciences (including Political Science, Economics, and History),
Geography helps answer questions like why India has historically
been a hub of global interaction and how the Indian peninsula’s long
coastline facilitated contact with Africa, Europe, and Southeast Asia.
Geography as a discipline takes help of various tools to understand
concepts and investigate questions. It uses maps, globes, atlases,
Geographical Information System (GIS), infographics, and various
other instruments. In the course of next two years, you will realise
how these tools enhance your understanding of the discipline.

LET’S EXPLORE

With the help of

NCERT’s School
Bhuvan portal,
you can also map
your own village/
city. You can
access and explore
the NCERT’s
School Bhuvan
portal by visiting
the website:
[Link]
[Link]/
mhrd_ncert/ Fig. 1.1

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 Over the next two years, you will study the processes that shape the
Earth’s surface and the formation of different landforms. You will
learn about the atmosphere and climate, oceans, major biomes and
India’s biosphere reserves. You will also be introduced to geospatial
technologies, life in different regions of India and the world,
geographical and socio-economic perspectives on selected issues,
and the historical development of geographical knowledge.

History
History is the study of human past, through which societies seek to
understand people’s experiences, values, and changes over time.
There are multiple ways to interpret the past and transmit cultural
values from one generation to the next. One of the oldest and most
influential traditions of preserving cultural memory in Bharat is
the itihāsa-purāṇa tradition. Through stories, this tradition not
only shares historical information but also gives cultural meaning
to events and people. In doing so, it reinforces enduring ideals and
values, offering a sense of identity and purpose. Across cultures,
Empirical different historical traditions have utilised different methods. Some
evidence:
traditions emphasise moral and philosophical insight, while others
Information
collected offer documentary verification. Modern historiography, by contrast,
by actual increasingly relies on empirical evidence and uses tools, such as
observation or human genetics, carbon-14 dating, archaeology, and other scientific
experimentation.
methods to establish timelines and understand the past.
History writing draws on a wide range of sources to understand
Genealogical
the social realities of the past. These include archaeological and
records:
Documents or literary traditions such as travelogues, memoirs, correspondence,
sources that trace genealogical records, folklore and oral traditions, and revenue
family lineage documents. Material remains used to study the past are known as
and ancestry
archaeological sources. These include monuments, architectural
by recording
relationships structures, excavated sites, artefacts, objects, and art, such as
between sculptures and paintings. Their analysis often involves scientific
generations and instruments and laboratory testing.
documenting
events, such as Over the next two years, you will learn about early human history
births, marriages, and trace major developments in India from the beginnings of
and deaths. civilisation to the present day. You will also explore key landmarks
in world history, including the Greco-Roman world, the Reformation,
the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution.
In addition, you will examine colonialism, its global impact, and
various anti-colonial struggles across the world. Overall, you
Understanding Society: will develop an understanding of the histories of diverse peoples,
India and Beyond cultures, and the events that have shaped the present.
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 Literary Sources

Fig. 1.2. The Sāmaveda manuscript,

National Museum, New Delhi

Fig. 1.3. A traditional palm-leaf manuscript of the Tirukkuṟal̰ , an ancient Tamil text of ethical wisdom

Archaeological Sources

Fig. 1.4. A terracotta Fig. 1.5. A sculpture of

figurine from the Sindhu- Viṣhṇu from the
Sarasvatī Civilisation 12th century CE

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 Epigraphic Sources

Epigraphic
Source:
A historical
source consisting
of texts, decrees,
or records
inscribed on
durable materials
such as stone,
metal plates, or
rock surfaces.
These inscriptions
provide direct
evidence
about past
events, rulers,
administration, Fig. 1.6. Brahmi
and society. Fig. 1.7. Kannada inscription of Emperor
inscription on part of a
Krishnadeva Raya at the underground Shiva
pillar belonging to the
temple, Prasanna Virupaksha Temple, Hampi
Gupta period

Numismatic Numismatic Sources

Source:
A historical source
comprising
coins, currency,
or medals.
Numismatics
helps historians
study the
economy,
chronology,
rulers, trade,
political
boundaries,
and culture of
a civilisation Fig. 1.8. A coin issued by Fig. 1.9. A Mughal coin issued during
through the King Samudragupta, the reign of Jahangir, showing the
metal content, 4th century CE. zodiac sign ‘Sagittarius’.
inscriptions, and
symbols on coins.

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India and Beyond
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 Political Science
Political Science is the study of governance, which informs us how
and why power is distributed, decisions are made, and policies
are implemented. It is the study of constitutions, governments,
and institutions of the State. Political Science also studies social
movements, nation building, foreign policy, and the ways power is
exercised, shared, and regulated in society and everyday life. In India’s
villages, the Panchayati Raj system embodies grassroots democracy
by giving citizens a voice in local development planning. This shows
that political power exists not only within formal institutions but
also in social relationships, customs, and ideas of legitimacy. To study
politics, therefore, is to examine society itself—its hierarchies and its
struggles for more effective and accountable governance.
The study of politics in India began very early, alongside reflections
on how society should be organised and governed. Politics was
not treated as a separate discipline but was closely linked to the
ideas of dharma (moral duty), artha (economic well-being), and
rājadharma (the duties of the ruler). Early texts, such as the Vedas,
Upaniṣads, and Purāṇas discuss justice, authority, social order, and
the responsibilities of kings and citizens. Indian political thought is
further articulated in works such as the Mahābhārata and Śhukranīti,
which address governance, law, and ethical leadership. Among these,
the Arthaśhāstra stands out as a foundational text on politics and
administration, detailing how a state should be governed, how taxes
should be collected, how the army should function, and how rulers
should ensure the welfare of the people.
Overall, Indian political thought adopted a holistic approach, linking
politics with economics, social life, morality, and defence. Power
was viewed as a responsibility rather than merely a privilege. This
tradition helps us understand modern institutions, such as the
Panchayati Raj system, which promotes local self-governance and
public participation at the village level. In this way, ancient ideas
continue to shape India’s democratic practices today.
Over the next two years, you will study major contemporary concepts
and practices in Political Science, including democracy, elections,
authority, civil society, governance and public policy, and national
security and its challenges. However, a meaningful understanding
of Political Science also requires your own efforts to observe and
analyse the political issues around you, along with their linkages
with other social science disciplines.
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 Economics
Economics helps us understand how individuals and societies
decide how to use limited resources to meet their needs. It studies
how goods and services are produced, exchanged, and distributed.
It also examines how these processes shape everyday life—from
the food we eat and the clothes we wear to the jobs people do and
the services they use. Economics explores decision-making by
consumers, producers, and governments. Consumers decide what
to buy, producers determine what and how much to produce, and
governments frame policies to balance goals, such as growth and
stability, efficiency and fairness. In this way, economics is not only
about numbers and markets but also about well-being, equity, and
justice.
India has a rich and dynamic economic history. For centuries, it was
one of the world’s leading economies and an important centre of
trade, industry, and maritime activity. Colonial rule disrupted this
progress, resulting in widespread poverty, recurrent famines, and
the decline of traditional industries. After independence, India began
the task of rebuilding its economy. In recent decades, our country has
made significant progress through improvements in infrastructure,
expansion of education and technology, reduction in poverty, and
rising life expectancy. Yet important challenges remain, particularly
in increasing incomes and ensuring that the benefits of growth reach
all sections of society.
Economic development, therefore, remains a central national goal.
Understanding economics helps us recognise both achievements
and challenges, and encourages us to think about how resources can
be used more wisely and fairly, while ensuring sustainable growth
that meets present needs without harming the ability of future
generations to meet theirs.
Over the next two years, you will study the foundations of the
Indian economy, markets and prices, financial management and
entrepreneurship, economic growth and Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), international trade, and the Union Budget. These topics will
help you understand how economic decisions affect individuals,
communities, and the nation as a whole.

Why Should We Study Social Science?

After exploring how Social Science helps us observe events, ask
Understanding Society: questions, and examine evidence, an important question arises: how
India and Beyond does this knowledge help us in our lives?
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 The house you live in, the water you use, the roads you travel on, the
school you attend, the markets you visit, and even the digital spaces
you use are part of systems created and managed by society. Social
Science helps us understand how these systems developed, how
they function, and how they affect different groups of people. You
also live among people who may speak different languages, follow
diverse customs, and practise varied occupations. Why do such
differences exist within the same country? How do they continue
over time? Social Science explains these variations as outcomes
of geographical, historical, cultural, and economic factors. This
understanding builds respect and cooperation among communities.
At the same time, it helps us recognise how Indian culture binds this
diversity together through an underlying unity, fostering a sense of
belonging, and shared identity.
In a democratic society, citizens play an active role in public life. Laws,
rights, and responsibilities guide how people live together. When
you understand how governments function and how decisions are
made, you are better prepared to participate responsibly in civic life.
Social Science also strengthens your ability to think about shared
challenges. When you hear about issues, such as environmental
protection, public health, employment, or urban growth, you learn
to ask informed questions about their causes, effects, and possible
solutions. This habit of careful questioning and reasoning is essential
for addressing problems that affect society as a whole.
Most importantly, Social Science connects the past, present, and
future. By understanding how past decisions shaped the present, we
become better equipped to make wiser choices for the future.

The Future of Social Science

As societies change rapidly, the importance of Social Science
continues to grow. New technologies, expanding cities,
environmental concerns, migration, and global connections are
reshaping how people live and interact. Understanding these
changes requires the same skills you have begun practising in this
chapter—careful observation, asking questions, examining evidence,
and recognising connections.
In the years ahead, Social Science will help societies address
complex issues such as climate change, sustainable development,
social harmony, and equitable use of resources. It will also guide the
responsible use of new technologies and support communities as
they adapt to changing conditions. Most importantly, Social Science 1 – Understanding
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 prepares you not only to understand the world but also to take part in
shaping it as informed and thoughtful citizens, while strengthening
national unity and keeping us rooted in our rich cultural traditions.
The study of Social Science is, therefore, a journey—from
understanding how societies evolved, to analysing how they function
today, to imagining how they can become better in the future.

Secondary-Stage Social Science:

Your Two-Year Learning Journey (Grades 9–10)
Social Science is not just a subject you study in school; it is a window
into the world around you. By studying Social Science, you learn
not only about the past and present but also about your role as a
responsible citizen in shaping the future.
Over the next two years, you will explore society in greater depth
through different branches of Social Science. You will examine
how historical events shaped the modern world, how geographical
features influence human life and economic activity, how political
systems and democratic institutions function, and how economies
organise production, distribution, and development. You will
also study contemporary challenges, such as environmental
sustainability, social diversity, citizens’ rights and responsibilities,
and the impact of technology and global connections. As you engage
with these themes, you will learn to analyse evidence, compare
perspectives, and understand how the past, present, and future are
linked. This journey will help you grow into a thoughtful learner, an
aware citizen, and a responsible member of the society.
The Grade 9 Social Science textbook has been designed to provide a
broad and balanced introduction to the four disciplines—Geography,
History, Political Science, and Economics—where each offers a
distinct perspective on human life and society, together presenting a
comprehensive understanding of the world.
Social Science is not about memorising dates, maps, or definitions—
it is about understanding people, places, society, culture and power.
It encourages you to learn from the past, analyse the present, and
imagine a better future. As you turn these pages, you will not only
gain knowledge but also develop the ability to think independently
and act responsibly. We hope this book inspires you to reflect on the
relationship between self and society, and to view the world with
curiosity and empathy. Let this journey help you grow not just as a
Understanding Society:
student, but as a responsible citizen of India and the world.
India and Beyond
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 Chapter 2

Shaping of the
Earth’s Surface
The Big Questions
1. What shapes the Earth’s surface?
2. What is plate tectonics? What are the effects of plate movement?
3. How are landforms formed and how are they classified?
4. How are humans and other living beings connected to these
landforms?
5. How do disasters associated with different landforms impact
human lives?

The Earth’s surface is not consistent; it is constantly being Landforms:

transformed by powerful forces acting from within and on the A landform
surface of the planet. One of the most important ideas that explains is a natural
feature on the
these changes is the theory of plate tectonics, which describes how Earth’s surface
large pieces of the Earth’s crust move slowly over the molten mantle. formed by
The movement of these plates gives rise to various landforms, such processes, such
as mountains, volcanoes, plains, and valleys. Understanding plate as weathering,
erosion,
tectonics and landforms helps us explain natural phenomena like deposition, and
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the formation of continents the movement
and oceans, and allows us to better appreciate the dynamic nature of the Earth’s
of the Earth. crust. Examples
of landforms
include
Plate Tectonics mountains,
valleys, plateaus,
Plate tectonics is an important theory, given by W.J. Morgan, in earth plains, deserts,
science, that explains the movement of the Earth’s crust. According and coastal
features.
to this theory, the outermost layer of the Earth is not one single piece
but is broken into several large and small pieces called tectonic
plates. These plates move slowly over the semi-molten layer beneath
them and are responsible for major physical features and natural
phenomena, such as mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

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 The Earth is made up of three main layers: crust, mantle, and core.
The crust is the outermost layer on which we live. Below the crust
lies the mantle, which is very thick and hot. The core is the innermost
layer and is extremely hot and heavy. The crust along with the
upper part of the mantle forms the lithosphere. This lithosphere
is broken into different tectonic plates. Beneath the lithosphere lies
the asthenosphere, which is semi-molten and allows the plates
to move.
Oceanic Continental
Crust (5 km) Crust (30 km)

Inner Core
Outer Core Lithosphere
(100 km)
Mantle Asthenosphere (200 km)

Crust

Mantle

5 km
(2900 km)

637
Outer Core
(2200 km)

Inner Core
(1250 km)

Crust Asthenosphere Outer core

Thickness varies from 30–40 km A hot, mobile layer of A fluid layer mainly consisting
under continents to 5–7 km partially molten rock. of iron and nickel.
under the ocean.

Lithosphere Mantle Inner core

The rigid outer layer of the The mostly solid layer A solid, hot spinning metal
Earth that includes the crust between the crust and the ball that is the densest part
and upper mantle. Earth’s outer core. of the Earth.

Fig. 2.1. The Earth’s interior (Given values are approximate)

Tectonic plates are massive slabs of solid rock that move very slowly,
usually a few centimetres per year. There are three main types
of tectonic plates—continental plates, which carry continents;
oceanic plates, which carry ocean floors; and mixed plates, which
Understanding Society: carry both continents and oceans. Some of the major tectonic plates
India and Beyond
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 of the world include the Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, African Plate,
North American Plate, South American Plate, Indo-Australian Plate,
and Antarctic Plate.

al
Tot ior
er
Int t Flow
a
He
)
( 2 4%
st
Cru r 22%)
pe (
Up ntle
m a

) Magma Zones
r 32%
we (
Lo ntle
m a

Heat transport mechanism

r
O ute Advection
)
( 2 2%
re Convection
Co r
e
Inn
Conduction

Fig. 2.2. Movement of material below the crust

The movement of tectonic plates is caused by convection currents

in the mantle. Heat from the Earth’s core causes molten material
in the mantle to rise, while cooler material sinks. This continuous
movement creates convection currents that push and pull the
tectonic plates, causing them to move in different directions.
The edges where tectonic plates meet are called plate boundaries.
There are three main types of plate boundaries. The first is the
convergent boundary, where two plates move towards each other.
When continental plates collide, they form fold mountains, such as
the Himalaya. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental
plate, the oceanic plate sinks beneath the continental plate, leading to
volcanic activity and earthquakes. The second type is the divergent
boundary, where plates move away from each other. In this case,
magma rises from below and forms new crust, creating features, such
as mid-ocean ridges. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a good example. The
third type is the transform boundary, where plates slide past each
other without creating or destroying crust. This type of movement
mainly causes earthquakes, such as along the San Andreas Fault in
the United States.
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Earth’s Surface
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 North Eurasian
American plate
plate
African
plate
Pacific plate
In
South do
-A
u
American pla stra
plate te lian

Antarctic plate Antarctic plate

Major Plates: North American plate African plate Eurasian plate South American plate
Indo-Australian plate Pacific plate Antarctic plate Minor Plates

Fig. 2.3. World map showing major plates and their direction of movement

LET’S MAP

Pick any two plates from the map above and complete the table
given below.

Name of the plate Continents Ocean

Plate tectonics plays a major role in shaping the Earth’s surface.

The movement of plates leads to the formation of mountains,
valleys, ocean basins, volcanoes, and earthquakes. It also explains
the distribution of continents and oceans across the Earth. Most
earthquakes and volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, especially
around the Pacific Ocean, an area known as the Ring of Fire.

LET’S EXPLORE

Examine the plate map (Fig. 2.3) with the earthquake and volcano
map (Fig. 2.4). What correlation do you observe?

In conclusion, the theory of plate tectonics helps us understand how

the Earth’s surface is constantly changing. It explains the origin of
many landforms and natural disasters. This theory is very important
for identification of earthquake and volcano-prone regions and
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond managing disasters arising from them.
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 Active Volcanoes
Earthquake Origin

Fig. 2.4. Map showing the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes

LET’S EXPLORE

Observe the map showing the distribution of earthquakes and

volcanoes (Fig. 2.4). Can you identify which continents and
countries are located around the Ring of Fire with the help of an
atlas or a globe?

LET’S EXPLORE

Does India have a risk of

earthquakes?
India has experienced
some major earthquakes
in the past, resulting in
thousands of deaths. A large
earthquake in a densely
populated country like
India can cause severe damage
to life and environment.
Can you find out which
region is more vulnerable to
earthquakes? Why do you Fig. 2.5. The extensive damage caused by the
think human lives are at risk? major earthquake in Gujarat in 2001

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Earth’s Surface
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 DON’T MISS OUT

In early times too, earthquakes were known as ‘bhūkampa’,

meaning the shaking of the Earth. In the Bṛihatsaṁhitā,
Varāhamihira dedicated a section to earthquakes, noting how
changes in wind, rain, clouds, animal behaviour, and planetary
alignments could signal them. He attributed earthquakes to four
elemental forces—Vāyu (wind), Agni (fire), Indra (heaven/thunder),
and Varuṇa (water), each linked to specific constellations and
regions. This reflects an early attempt to blend observations with
cosmological reasoning and physical phenomenon in India.

LET’S EXPLORE

Look carefully at this photograph and answer the following

questions:
Æ What do you think caused this situation?
Æ What could that grey powder be?
Æ What does it tell us about the Earth’s internal forces?

Fig. 2.6. Photograph showing the deposition by volcanic eruption

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 DON’T MISS OUT

The mud volcano at Baratang Island is a rare natural wonder in

India and a unique attraction of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Unlike fiery volcanoes, here you will find mud bubbling out due to
natural underground gases and pressure.

Fig. 2.7. India’s only mud volcano in Baratang in the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Process of Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion play a vital role in the development of
landforms by continuously breaking down and reshaping the
Earth’s surface. Over long periods of time, weathering and erosion
work together to wear down mountains, carve valleys, form plains,
and create features, such as caves, cliffs, and river deltas, gradually
giving shape to the diverse landscapes we see on Earth today.

Weathering
Weathering is the process through which rocks on the Earth’s surface
break down into smaller pieces due to various processes. It does not
involve movement of the broken material, only the breaking down.
There are three main types of weathering: physical weathering, in
which rocks break into smaller pieces due to temperature changes,
frost, or wind; chemical weathering, in which minerals in rocks
2 – Shaping of the
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 Physical heating and Chemical substances Biological plants
cooling, water, wind, in the air and in rain and animals
and ice expansion

Fig. 2.8. Types of weathering

change because of reactions with water, air, or acids, leading to new
substances; and biological weathering, which is caused by plants,
animals, or micro-organisms, for example, when plant roots grow
into cracks of rocks and split them apart. Weathering plays an
important role in shaping the Earth’s surface and forming soil.

Erosion
Erosion is the process by which soil, rocks, and other surface
materials are worn away and carried from one place to another by
natural agents like water, wind, ice, or waves. Unlike weathering
that only breaks down rocks, erosion involves movement of the
broken material. There are several types of erosion — water erosion,
caused by rivers, rain, or ocean waves; wind erosion, common in
dry and sandy areas; glacial erosion, where moving ice scrapes and
carries rocks; and coastal erosion, where sea waves wear away the

a b

Understanding Society: Fig. 2.9. Erosion caused by (a) water and (b) wind
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 land along the shore. Erosion shapes landforms and can both create Contouring:
A continuous
and destroy features on the Earth’s surface. contour trench
Erosion affects many human occupations by changing the land and (CCT) is a water
conservation
soil on which people depend. For farmers, erosion removes the fertile
technique in
topsoil needed for crop growth, leading to lower yields. For those which trenches
living near rivers and coasts, erosion can wash away land, houses, are dug along
and roads, causing damage and loss of property. In construction and the contour lines
of a hillside to
mining, erosion destabilises land, posing safety risks. Even industries
slow down, hold,
like tourism and fishing suffer, since beaches, rivers, and fertile lands and infiltrate
may be destroyed. This shows that erosion not only shapes the Earth’s rainwater,
surface but also directly affects human labour and livelihoods. preventing soil
erosion and
recharging
LET’S EXPLORE groundwater.

Observe the photographs (Fig. 2.9) and also note the types of Bunding:
erosion. How are farmers affected by erosion due to water Earthen
embankments
and wind? built along
contour lines
to slow surface
DON’T MISS OUT
run-off, reduce
soil erosion,
The Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation employed sophisticated increase water
techniques, including contouring, bunding, terracing, dams, and infiltration and
canals for water management. Multiple Sanskrit texts document soil moisture.
these practices, including the Vedas, Kṛiṣhiparāśhara, Kauṭilya’s Terracing:
Arthaśhāstra, and specialised treatises like Vṛikṣhāyurveda. The Terracing is a
Arthaśhāstra contains detailed guidelines on land assessment and soil conservation
categorisation based on fertility and productivity. practice that
creates a series
The Zabo system in Nagaland represents an integrated farming of level or gently
approach using earthen bunds on hillslopes for soil and water sloping steps on a
hillside to prevent
conservation. Check dams were constructed across small streams
soil erosion.
to reduce water velocity, prevent soil erosion, and allow sediment
deposition. These structures were designed to slow down water
flow and enhance groundwater recharge.

Agents of Gradation
Agents of gradation are natural forces that wear down, transport,
and deposit materials on the Earth’s surface, helping to level or
smooth it over time. The main agents of gradation are running
water, glaciers, wind, waves, and groundwater. Running water

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 erodes rocks and soils to form valleys and plains. Glaciers scrape
and carry huge amounts of material, carving U-shaped valleys. Wind
shapes deserts by eroding and depositing sand. Sea waves erode
coastlines to form cliffs, beaches, and bays. Groundwater dissolves
rocks, such as limestone, creating caves, and sinkholes. Together,
these agents are continuously modifying landforms, lowering high
areas, and filling up low areas.

DON’T MISS OUT

Landforms have played a major role in shaping the history of

human civilisations. Rivers and fertile plains like those of the
Ganga, Nile, Brahmaputra, and Indus, gave rise to agricultural
societies and early cities. Mountains acted both as barriers and
protectors—the Himalayas shielded India from invasions but
also allowed cultural exchanges through passes like the Khyber
pass. Deserts, such as the Thar limited the development of large
settlements but encouraged trade routes, such as the Silk Route.
Coasts and harbours supported trade, travel, and cultural contacts
with distant lands, helping kingdoms like those in south India
flourish. Even today, history shows that wars, settlements, trade,
and cultural growth were all deeply influenced by the land’s
physical features.

Running Water
Rivers shape the land through the processes of erosion,
transportation, and deposition, creating a variety of landforms
along their course. At the upper course, rivers often form V-shaped
valleys, waterfalls, and rapids due to steep gradients and strong
erosive forces. In the middle course, the river starts to meander,
forming oxbow lakes, and floodplains as it loses energy and begins
depositing sediments. In the lower course, the river slows further
and deposits large amounts of sediment, forming deltas, levees,
and alluvial fans. These landforms are not only important for
understanding river dynamics but also play a vital role in agriculture,
settlement, and ecosystems.

Waterfall
A waterfall is a landform where a river flows over a steep cliff or
vertical drop, creating a dramatic fall. Waterfalls form in the upper
course of rivers, where hard rocks resist erosion, while softer rocks
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond below are worn away, creating a sudden drop. They are not only
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 beautiful natural features, but also attract tourists, making them
important for local tourism and economy. Waterfalls are sometimes
used for hydroelectric power generation, as the force with which
the water falls, can be harnessed to produce electricity. In addition,
they provide opportunities for recreation, such as trekking and
photography, and often hold cultural or religious significance in
certain regions.

5
4

1 River 2 Hard Rock 3 Gap 4 Plunge Pool 5 River

Fig. 2.10. Waterfall

Meander
A meander is a winding curve or bend in the middle or lower
course of a river formed due to the lateral erosion and deposition

1
3

1 Oxbow lake 2 Steep Bank 3 River 4 Bar

Fig. 2.11. Meander 2 – Shaping of the

Earth’s Surface
23

Chapter [Link] 23 17-Jun-26 8:07:01 PM

 of sediments. As the river flows, it erodes the outer banks of bends
and deposits sediment on the inner banks, gradually creating large
loops. Meanders are important for humans because the fertile soil
deposited along their banks supports agriculture, making these areas
ideal for farming. They also influence settlement patterns, as villages
and towns often develop on the gentle slopes near meanders. In
addition, meandering rivers can be used for navigation, irrigation,
and, in some cases, tourism, as their scenic curves create attractive
landscapes. The Grand Anicut, also known as Kallanai in Tamil Nadu,
is an example of the use of rivers for irrigation.

Deltas
A delta is a landform formed at the mouth of a river, where it flows
into a sea, ocean, or lake, and deposits the sediments it has carried
from upstream. Over time, these deposits accumulate to form a
fan-shaped or triangular area of land. Deltas are highly fertile due
to their rich alluvial soil, making them ideal for agriculture and
supporting crops, such as rice and jute. They are also important for
fishing, as the mix of fresh and saltwater creates diverse aquatic life.
Many deltas support dense human settlements and are centres of
trade and transportation because rivers provide navigable routes.
However, they can also be prone to flooding, which affects human
life and activities.

1 River 2 Distributary 3 Islands/Bars 4 Sea

Fig. 2.12. Delta

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India and Beyond
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 LET’S EXPLORE

Have you heard about the Sundarbans delta? Try and explore its
uniqueness and find out why it is popular with tourists.

Fig. 2.13. Sundarbans delta

Waves and Currents

Waves and currents are constantly moving over the oceanic surface.
They work in coastal areas and reshape the land along the coastal
zone. The action of waves and currents creates a range of landforms
along the coastline, such as beaches, sand bars, sea cliffs, sea caves,
arches, and stacks. You will learn more about waves and currents in
Part 2 of this textbook.
A beach is a landform made up of sand, pebbles, or rocks along
the shoreline of a sea, ocean, or lake, created by the deposition of
sediments by waves. Beaches are constantly shaped by wave action,
tides, and currents, which move and deposit materials along the coast.
For humans, beaches are popular tourist destinations for relaxation,
swimming, and recreation, which boosts the local economy. Beaches
also provide fishing areas, and some coastal communities rely on
them for collecting sand and shells. Additionally, beaches act as
natural barriers against strong waves and coastal erosion, helping
safeguard human settlements near the coast. 2 – Shaping of the
Earth’s Surface
25

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 1

5
7

1 Beach 2 Bay 3 Sea 4 Headland 5 Sand bar 6 Free end 7 River

Fig. 2.14. Beach

Coastal erosion occurs when waves, tides, and currents wear away
the land along the coast, creating unique landforms. Some common
landforms of coastal erosion include cliffs (steep rock faces formed
as waves undercut the base of the coast), wave-cut platforms (flat
areas left behind as cliffs retreat), caves (formed when waves erode
weak parts of the rock), arches (created when caves on opposite
sides of a headland meet), and stacks (isolated pillars of rock left
standing after the arches collapse). These landforms not only shape
the coastal landscape but also influence human activities, as some
areas are important for tourism, while others may need coastal
protection to safeguard settlements.

1 3

2 4

1 Headland 2 Sea arch 3 Sea stack 4 High-tide level 5 Low-tide level

Understanding Society: Fig. 2.15. Sea arch and sea stack
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 1

3
4
5 6

1 Headland 2 Sea cliff 3 Sea cave

4 High-tide level 5 Shore platform 6 Low-tide level

Fig. 2.16. Sea cliff and shore platform

Glaciers
Glacial erosion occurs when glaciers slowly move over the land,
carving and shaping the landscape. Common landforms made from
glacial erosion include—U-shaped valleys (formed as glaciers
widen and deepen river valleys), cirques (bowl-shaped depressions at
the head of a glacier), aretes (sharp ridges between valleys), hanging
valleys (which occur where smaller glaciers meet larger ones), and
fjords (deep, narrow inlets created when the sea floods glacial
valleys). These landforms are important for humans in several ways.
U-shaped valleys and cirques often provide tourist attractions for
trekking, skiing, and mountaineering. Fjords are used for harbours
and fishing, while in some valleys the fertile glacial soil supports

1 Arete 2 Cirque 3 Pass

Fig. 2.17. Glacial landforms

2 – Shaping of the
Earth’s Surface
27

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 1
3

2
4

1 Hanging Valley 2 U-shaped valley 3 Glacier 4 Glacial ice

Fig. 2.18. U-shaped valley

agriculture. Additionally, glaciers are crucial sources of fresh water,

feeding rivers that sustain human populations downstream.
Moraines are landforms created by the deposition of rocks, soil, and
debris (called till) carried along and left behind by glaciers. They are
formed when a glacier melts and deposits the material it has eroded
from land. There are different types of moraines — lateral moraines
(which form along the sides of glaciers), terminal moraines (found
at the end of glaciers, marking their furthest advance), and medial
moraines (formed when two glaciers meet and their lateral moraines
join in the middle). Moraines are important for humans because
they often create fertile soil for agriculture and can form natural
dams and lakes used for water supply, irrigation, and sometimes
hydroelectric power.

2 4

5
6

1 Lateral 2 Glacier 3 Mid moraine 4 Glacier 5 Terminal moraine 6 River

Understanding Society:
India and Beyond Fig. 2.19. Moraines
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 THINK ABOUT IT

A devastating flood
struck the Chamoli
district in Uttarakhand
in February 2021 in
which many people
and livestock lost their
lives. There was severe
damage to buildings,
roads, bridges, and
hydel projects, and
connectivity to villages
was adversely affected.
Can you find out the
reasons that led to the
sudden and unexpected
flood?
Fig. 2.20

Wind
Wind erosion occurs when strong winds pick up and carry away
loose particles of sand and soil, gradually shaping the landscape.
This process creates several distinctive landforms, such as yardangs
(which are streamlined rock ridges carved by wind), ventifacts
(which are rocks polished and shaped by sandblasting), deflation

3 5

1 Yardang 2 Wind 3 Hard rock 4 Soft rock 5 Hard rock

Fig. 2.21. Yardang

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Earth’s Surface
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 Deflation Hollow
2
1 3

1 Wind 2 Oasis 3 Blown sand 4 Water table

Fig. 2.22. Oasis

hollows or blowouts (shallow depressions formed where loose

material is removed), and desert pavements (flat surfaces left
behind after finer particles are blown away). These landforms are
important for humans as they influence settlement patterns and
agriculture in arid regions, and ventifacts and yardangs attract
tourists and geologists interested in unique desert landscapes.
Dunes are hills or ridges of sand formed by the wind in desert areas
or along sandy coasts. There are several types of dunes, including
barchan dunes (which are crescent-shaped and form in areas
with limited sand and a single wind direction), longitudinal dunes
(which are long ridges formed parallel to the prevailing wind), star
dunes (which have multiple arms and form where winds come from
different directions), and parabolic dunes (U-shaped dunes often

1 2 3
Horn

Wind Dune

1 Barchan Dunes 2 Transverse Dunes 3 Star Dunes

Understanding Society: Fig. 2.23. Dunes

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 stabilised by vegetation). For humans, dunes act as natural barriers
against desertification and wind erosion, and provide areas for
tourism and adventure sports. In some coastal regions, they protect
settlements from strong sea winds and waves. In addition, sand from
dunes is sometimes used for construction purposes.

Underground Water
Underground water, especially in areas of limestone or soluble
rocks, creates unique landforms called Karst topography through
chemical weathering and erosion. Common landforms of
underground water include caves (hollow spaces formed as acidic
water dissolves rock), stalactites (icicle-shaped formations hanging
from the ceiling of caves), stalagmites (formations rising from the
floor of caves), sinkholes or dolines (depressions formed when the

1 2

4 5

1 Stalactite 2 Pillar 3 Cave 4 Stalagmite 5 Cave mouth

Fig. 2.24. Cave

Sinkholes

Fig. 2.25. Sinkholes

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Earth’s Surface
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 Fig. 2.26. Underground river

ground collapses into an underground cavity), and underground

rivers (which flow through cave systems). These landforms are
important for humans because caves and underground rivers
provide sources of fresh water, tourism opportunities, and, in some
cases, cultural, or religious significance. Stalagmites and stalactites
also attract geologists and adventurers, making them valuable for
both study and recreation.

LET’S EXPLORE

Observe the landforms around your school or residence and try to

identify which agent may have created them.

Landforms and Disasters

There are several disasters associated with different landforms
that commonly occur around us. Four such disasters are presented
below:

LET’S EXPLORE

Complete the exercises given at the end of each type of disaster

with the help of newspapers, atlases, and books. Make a list
of disaster-prone areas from India and the world and enlist
Understanding Society: mitigation measures quoting recent examples.
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 Landslides
Landslides are caused by a combination of natural and human
factors that make slopes unstable. Heavy and continuous rainfall
is one of the main natural causes, as water seeps into the soil and
rocks, increasing their weight and reducing friction. Earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions can also trigger landslides by shaking the
ground and weakening slopes. Steep slopes and the presence of
loose or weathered rocks further increase the risk. Human activities,
such as deforestation, mining, road construction, and unplanned
construction on hillsides disturb the natural balance of slopes.
Poor drainage systems and improper land use also contribute to
landslides by allowing excess water to accumulate, leading to sudden
slope failure.

Fig. 2.27. A landslide

Prone areas:

Mitigation measures:

Recent examples:

2 – Shaping of the
Earth’s Surface
33

Chapter [Link] 33 17-Jun-26 8:08:34 PM

 Avalanches
Avalanches are caused by the sudden instability of snow on steep
mountain slopes. Heavy snowfall within a short period adds extra
weight to the snowpack, making it unstable, especially when it
rests on weak or loosely bonded layers of snow. A sudden rise in
temperature can cause partial melting, reducing the friction that
holds the snow together. Strong winds may also pile up snow
unevenly, creating fragile layers. Natural disturbances, such
as earthquakes and vibrations, as well as human activities like
skiing, trekking, or construction in mountainous areas, can trigger
avalanches by disturbing the balance of the snow-covered slopes.

Fig. 2.28. An avalanche

Prone areas:

Mitigation measures:

Recent examples:

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India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1

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 GLOFs
Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) are caused by the sudden
release of large volumes of water from glacial lakes due to natural
and climatic factors. Rapid melting of glaciers because of rising
temperatures increases the size and water level of glacial lakes,
putting pressure on their natural dams made of ice or loose
moraines. Heavy rainfall or intense snowfall can add excess water
to these lakes. Earthquakes, avalanches, or landslides may strike the
lake or weaken the dam, leading to its sudden collapse. As a result,
the stored water is released abruptly, causing destructive floods in
downstream areas.

Fig. 2.29. A GLOF

Prone areas:

Mitigation measures:

Recent examples:

2 – Shaping of the
Earth’s Surface
35

Chapter [Link] 35 17-Jun-26 8:08:38 PM

 Dust Storms
Dust storms are caused by strong winds lifting large amounts of
loose, dry soil and sand into the air. Prolonged drought and low
rainfall dry out the soil, making it easier for wind to pick up the fine
particles. Dust storms are common in desert and semi-arid regions
where the soil is loose and dry. Sparse vegetation cover, often due
to deforestation, overgrazing, or poor farming practices, also leaves
the land exposed. Climate change and extreme weather conditions
can further increase the frequency and intensity of dust storms.

Fig. 2.30. A dust storm

Prone areas:

Mitigation measures:

Recent examples:

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India and Beyond
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Chapter [Link] 36 17-Jun-26 8:08:39 PM

 The Earth’s surface is constantly changing due to powerful forces
working both inside and outside the planet. Internal forces, such
as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, folding, and faulting create
mountains, valleys, and ocean basins, while external forces like
weathering, erosion, and deposition slowly wear them down and
reshape them. Together, these natural processes give rise to the
diverse landforms we see today, from the highest peaks to the
deepest ocean floors. Human life, too, is deeply connected to these
landforms, as it influences our climate, resources, settlements,
and cultures. Understanding the shape of the Earth’s surface
helps us appreciate nature’s power and prepare wisely for natural
disasters, ensuring a safer and more sustainable relationship with
our planet.

Before we move on…

Æ The Earth is made up of layers, namely, the crust, mantle, and
core.
Æ Interior forces of the Earth (earthquakes, volcanoes, folding,
and faulting) are responsible for the movement of the crust.
Æ External forces like weathering and erosion carve smaller
landforms over the Earth’s surface which affect human life in
multiple ways.
Æ The surface of the Earth is carved by agents of gradation
like running water, waves and tides, glaciers, wind, and
underground water.
Æ Disasters like landslides, avalanches, glacial lake outflows, and
sandstorms are associated with specific landforms.

Questions and activities

1. What are the sources of energy that are required to cause
movements associated with the internal forces of the Earth?
2. Relate various physiographic divisions you have studied in the
earlier grades with various endogenic forces responsible for
their origin.
3. Why and where do earthquakes occur frequently? Is it possible
to predict earthquakes?
4. “Plate movements are responsible for the distribution of
earthquakes and volcanoes.” Explain.
2 – Shaping of the
5. Draw and label a diagram of a meander and a delta.
Earth’s Surface
37

Chapter [Link] 37 17-Jun-26 8:08:43 PM

 6. How are deforestation and erosion associated with each other?
Explain.
7. Develop a plan to protect the land in your local area from
erosion.
8. Which disasters do you think you might experience in your
region? Discuss a mitigation plan in your classroom.
9. Prepare a model of landforms created by underground water.
10. What precautionary measures will you take if you are staying in
an earthquake-prone region?
11. Prepare a map showing landform-associated disasters that
happened in the current calendar year.
12. Create a poster showing landforms that are considered to be
sacred or important in your region, and add the folk stories
associated with them.
13. Document a case of
a disaster that hit
your region in the
past, highlighting
its effects on
various human
activities.
14. Translate the given
poster on landslide
into your native
language and
display it in your
home.
15. Divide the class
into three groups.
Each group will
work on one
project (water,
wind, and glacier).
The project should
highlight the
causes, impact on
human life and
the environment,
Understanding Society: and mitigation
India and Beyond measures.
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Chapter [Link] 38 17-Jun-26 8:08:45 PM

 Chapter 3

Atmosphere and
Climate
The Big Questions
1. What is the composition of the atmosphere?
2. How do the different layers of the atmosphere affect the planet Earth?
3. What is the mechanism of monsoon?
4. How can we reduce our carbon footprint?

What do you see when you look up in the sky? You might see the Gravity:
floating clouds, the sunshine, and feel a breeze as well. All of these Gravity is a
fundamental
are a result of a blanket of air surrounding the Earth, called the
physical force
atmosphere. It is pulled down around the Earth by gravity, and of attraction
is a mixture of gases in various proportions, vital for the survival between
of all living beings on the Earth. The atmosphere shields us from objects that
have mass or
the harmful radiation coming from the Sun, including ultraviolet
energy such as
radiation. It regulates the Earth’s temperature by trapping some of the Sun and the
the Sun’s energy and prevents it from escaping back into space. The Earth. The force
atmosphere is a key component of the Earth’s weather and climate of attraction
that the Earth’s
systems, influencing factors such as temperature, humidity, and
mass exerts on
air pressure. the objects that
are on or close
THINK ABOUT IT to its surface is
referred to as
Earth’s gravity.

Fig. 3.1

Can you imagine what would happen if there were no atmosphere?

Discuss your thoughts with your friends and teachers.

Chapter [Link] 39 17-Jun-26 7:52:10 PM

 Composition and Structure of
the Atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of a mixture of various gases.
Nitrogen and oxygen are the two primary and most abundant
gases that are essential to life on the Earth. Carbon dioxide, argon,
helium, neon, krypton, xenon, ozone, and hydrogen are some other
gases present in the atmosphere, but are found in lesser quantities.
Besides these, the atmosphere also consists of water vapour and
tiny dust particles. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
varies, but it generally ranges from 0.1 per cent to 0.4 per cent. It
plays a significant role in cloud formation and precipitation. The
composition of the atmosphere also varies with altitude.

Carbon Dioxide 0.04% Argon 0.93%

Oxygen
21%

Others 0.03%

Nitrogen 78%

Fig. 3.2. Composition of the atmosphere

LET’S RECALL

How is nitrogen useful for plants? Remember that you learnt

this in the chapter ‘The Invisible Living World: Beyond Our
Naked Eyes’, in your Grade 8 Science textbook.

Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere has a layered structure. These layers are defined
on the basis of changes in temperature and density with increasing
Understanding Society: altitude. The density of air is highest near the Earth’s surface and
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 decreases with altitude. The major layers extending from the Earth’s Altitude:
surface to outer space are illustrated below. The height
of a location
above mean sea
EXOSPHERE level is called
altitude, usually
measured in
metres or feet.
THERMOSPHERE
The mean
100 sea level is
Satellite considered zero.

90
Aurora

80 Mesopause

This line represents

variation in
70 temperature with Meteors
increasing altitude.
MESOSPHERE
Height (km)

60

50 Stratopause

40

STRATOSPHERE
30 OZONE
Aeroplane

20

Tropopause
10
TROPOSPHERE

Fig. 3.3. Layers of the atmosphere

“ Troposphere: The troposphere is the most important layer of

the atmosphere, with an average height of about 12 kilometres.
In this layer, temperature decreases with increasing altitude.
The air we breathe exists here, along with most of the water
vapour and clouds. Nearly all the weather phenomena, such
as rainfall, fog, and hail, occur in this layer. The troposphere is
separated from the stratosphere by a transition zone known as 3 – Atmosphere
the tropopause. and Climate
41

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 “ Stratosphere: Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere,
extending up to 50 kilometres. This layer is ideal for flying
aeroplanes because it is free of clouds and other weather
disturbances. A notable feature of the stratosphere is that it
contains a layer of ozone gas, which shields us by filtering the
Sun’s harmful radiation, including ultraviolet radiation. The
stratopause marks the boundary between the stratosphere and
the mesosphere.
“ Mesosphere: Above the stratosphere lies the third layer of the
atmosphere, the mesosphere. It extends up to a height of 80
kilometres. In this layer, temperature decreases with increasing
altitude. Most meteorites entering from space burn up in the
mesosphere.

DON’T MISS OUT

Temperature decreases with altitude only in the troposphere

and mesosphere.

“ Thermosphere: In the thermosphere, temperature rises very

rapidly with increasing altitude, as the gas molecules in this
layer absorb the X-rays and short-wave ultraviolet radiation
of the Sun. The thermosphere extends from 80 to 700 km. It
also helps with radio transmission by reflecting radio waves
transmitted from the Earth back towards it. Ionosphere is a part
of the thermosphere. Additionally, the northern and southern
lights (auroras) also occur in the thermosphere.

The word ‘aurora’ originates from Latin,

meaning ‘dawn’ or ‘morning light.’ It is
named after the Roman goddess Aurora, the
goddess of dawn , and refers to the colourful
display of light seen in the sky near the
poles. The ‘solar wind’ (charged particles
emitted by the Sun), upon reaching the
Earth’s atmosphere, is directed towards the
magnetic poles. As these particles interact
with different atmospheric gases, each
gas glows with a particular colour. This
phenomenon is known as the Aurora Borealis
in the Northern Hemisphere and the Aurora
Understanding Society: Fig. 3.4: Aurora Australis in the Southern Hemisphere.
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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Chapter [Link] 42 17-Jun-26 7:52:16 PM

 “ Exosphere: The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is known
as the exosphere, characterised by very thin air. Light gases like
helium and hydrogen float into space from this layer due to
weak gravity. All of these layers play a vital role in the Earth’s
atmospheric processes and also affect its weather and climate.

DON’T MISS OUT

The air above us exerts a significant force on our

bodies, and yet we do not feel it. This is because air
presses on us from all sides, and our bodies exert a
counter-pressure in response.

Fig. 3.5. The pressure inside our bodies is also equal to

the atmospheric pressure and cancels the pressure from
outside.

Weather and Climate

‘Is it going to rain today?’ ‘Will it be bright and sunny today?’ How
often do you find yourself wondering about these questions when
you want to go out and play?
The term weather refers to the hour-to-hour and day-to-day
conditions of the atmosphere. Hot or humid weather may make one
irritable, while pleasant or breezy weather may make one cheerful,
or even plan for an outing. Weather can vary significantly from
day-to-day. The average weather conditions of a place over a longer
period of time refer to the climate of the place. Climate refers to the
sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for
an extended period of time, usually thirty years or more.

Elements of Weather and Climate

Various elements influence weather and climate. The major elements
of atmosphere that impact human life on the Earth are temperature, Insolation:
precipitation, humidity, wind, and atmospheric pressure. These The incoming
elements can change under varying conditions. solar energy
from the
“ Temperature: The temperature of the atmosphere varies not Sun that is
only between day and night but also across seasons, just as intercepted
by the Earth.
summers tend to be hotter than winters. An important factor
affecting temperature distribution is insolation. The amount of 3 – Atmosphere
and Climate
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 insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles. Hence,
the temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles.

Low angle of Arctic Circle Tropic of Cancer

incoming sunlight
60° N 30° N

N o r t h P ol e
Arctic
Frigid
Circle Zone 66½°N
Tropic of North T
empera
Cancer te Zone
23½°N
Sun’s rays

Equator Torrid Z
o ne
Equ Torrid Z
ator o
Tropic of ne 0°
Sunlight strikes Capricorn South
Tempe
most directly rate Zo
ne 23½°S
Antarctic Frigid
Circle Zone
So 66½°S
ut h
P ole
Antarctic Circle 30° S
Low angle of
incoming sunlight 60° S Tropic of Capricorn

Fig. 3.6. Temperature zones of the Earth

“ Humidity: When water evaporates from land and different

water bodies, it becomes water vapour. When the levels of
water vapour in the air are high, it leads to humidity. Therefore,
humidity refers to the presence of water vapour in the air,
creating moisture. As the air gets warmer, its capacity to hold
water vapour increases, leading to higher humidity levels. On
such a day, clothes take longer to dry, and sweat evaporates more
slowly, leaving us feeling very uncomfortable.
“ Precipitation: It occurs when a part of the atmosphere becomes
saturated with water vapour, which condenses and ‘precipitates’,
or falls on the Earth due to gravity. This includes drizzle, rain,
snow, sleet, and hail. The main factors that affect precipitation
include prevailing winds, mountains, and seasons. When
precipitation falls on the the Earth in liquid form, it is called rain.
Rain is the most common form of precipitation and lowers the
temperature of a place. A long absence of rainfall results in a dry
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond
climate. Most of the groundwater is collected from rainwater.
Grade 9 – Part 1
44

Chapter [Link] 44 17-Jun-26 7:52:16 PM

 “ Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the weight of air
on the the Earth’s surface is called air pressure. As we go higher
in the atmosphere, pressure falls rapidly. It is highest at sea level
and decreases with altitude. Horizontally, the distribution of air
pressure is influenced by the air’s temperature at a given place. In
areas with high temperatures, air heats up and rises. This creates
a low-pressure area. Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies
and wet weather. In areas with lower temperatures, air is cold. It
is therefore heavy and sinks, creating a high-pressure area. High
pressure is associated with clear and sunny skies. Air always
moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. You can
refer to Chapter 8 of the Grade 8 Science textbook Curiosity to
learn more about this.

1004

1008
1000
1012

996
992
988 984

Fig. 3.7. Wind is caused by air flowing from high-pressure to low-pressure

areas. Its direction is influenced by the Earth’s rotation.

“ Wind: The movement of air from a high-pressure area to a

low-pressure area is called wind. It can be gentle or strong. You
can observe the flow of wind as it blows dry leaves down the
pavement, gently blows away dust particles, or uproots trees
during a storm.

THINK ABOUT IT

You might have noticed that sometimes the wind is so strong that
it is difficult to walk against it. Can you think of some other times
when strong winds have caused problems for you?

DON’T MISS OUT

Winds are named after the direction they blow from, for example,
the wind blowing from the west is called westerly.
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 Table 3.1. Wind speeds and their common effects

Wind Speed (km/hr) Common Effects

Calm 0–1 Calm, smoke rises vertically.
Wind can be felt on the face.
Light
breeze 6–11 Leaves rustle.
An ordinary vane moves by winds.
Strong Large branches sway in the wind.
39–49
breeze Umbrellas are difficult to use.

It is very rarely experienced.

Storm 103–117
Usually accompanied by widespread damage.

LET’S EXPLORE

Find out other categories of wind based on speed and their

common effects, and share your findings in class.

Local winds such as the land breeze and the sea breeze, also affect
the weather and climate of a place. They are essential in creating
moderate climatic conditions in the coastal region.

Day Night

Sea Land
Breeze Breeze

Land is warmer than the water Water is warmer than the land
Fig. 3.8. Land and sea breeze
Sea breeze Land breeze
It is a local wind that blows from sea to land It is a local wind that blows from land to sea
during the day, especially in the afternoon, during the night, resulting from differential
when the land becomes relatively warmer surface cooling between the land and the sea.
than the sea. This results in the formation of Land cools faster than sea at night. Since the
a low-pressure region over land, and so the difference in temperatures and air pressure
wind starts blowing from the sea. between the sea and the land is low, the wind
speed is low.

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India and Beyond
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Chapter [Link] 46 22-Jun-26 4:34:22 PM

 You may have observed that weather conditions often fluctuate,
sometimes even within a single day. However, based on generalised
monthly atmospheric conditions, or a common pattern over a
few weeks or months—such as the days being cool or hot, windy
or calm, cloudy or bright, and wet or dry—the year is divided
into seasons.

LET’S ANALYSE

Note down the weather report from a local newspaper for two
weeks and observe the changes occurring in the weather.

Seasons in India
The climate of India can be broadly classified as tropical monsoon.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has recognised four
distinct seasons in India:
“ Winter: The winter season generally lasts from December to
early April. The coldest months of the year are December and
January, when the average temperature in the north-west is
around 10–15°C. Temperatures increase towards the equator,
reaching around 20–25°C in mainland India’s south-east.
“ Summer or pre-monsoon: The summer or pre-monsoon season
spans from April to June, or up to July in north-western India.
In western and southern regions, the hottest month is April; in
northern regions, it is May. The average temperature across most
of inland India ranges from 32–40°C.
“ Monsoon or rainy (Advancing monsoon): The monsoon
season generally spans from June to September. This season is
dominated by the humid south-west summer monsoon, which
slowly sweeps across the country in late May or early June.
Monsoon rain begins to recede from north India at the beginning
of October, and South India typically receives more rainfall
during this time.
“ Post-monsoon (Retreating monsoon): The post-monsoon
season lasts from October to December. In north-western India,
October and November are usually cloudless.
The Himalayan states, being more temperate, experience two
additional seasons, autumn and spring.

3 – Atmosphere
and Climate
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Chapter [Link] 47 17-Jun-26 7:52:21 PM

 DON’T MISS OUT

Traditionally, India experiences six seasons, each about two

months long—spring, summer, monsoon, early autumn, late
autumn, and winter. These seasons are based on the astronomical
division of the 12 months into six parts. The traditional Indian
calendar also reflects these seasons through its arrangement
of months.

Table 3.2. Traditional Indian seasons. These seasons and their

duration may vary across different parts of the country.

Months Months (According

Seasons
(According to the to the Gregorian
(Ṛtu)
Indian Calendar) Calendar)

Vasanta Chaitra–Vaiśhākha March–April

Grīṣhma Jyeṣhṭha–Āṣhāḍha May–June

Varṣhā Śhrāvaṇa–Bhādrapada July–August

Śharad Āśhvina–Kārtika September–October

Hemanta Mārgaśhīrṣha–Pauṣha November–December

Śhiśhira Māgha–Phālguna January–February

THINK ABOUT IT

Hindustani Classical music associates certain rāgas with specific

seasons. Find out which rāgas are connected to each season with
the help of your elders and teachers.

DON’T MISS OUT

Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhāstra contains records of scientific

measurements of rainfall and their practical application in
managing the country’s revenue and relief efforts.

Understanding Society:
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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Chapter [Link] 48 22-Jun-26 4:33:23 PM

 Monsoon
The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. The Monsoon:
sailors who came to India during ancient times were among the It refers to
the seasonal
first to notice the phenomenon of monsoon. They benefited from
reversal in
the reversal of the wind system as they travelled by sailing ships at the wind
the mercy of the winds. The Arabs, who had also come to India as direction
traders, named this seasonal reversal of the wind system ‘monsoon’, during a year.
derived from the Arabic word mausim, which literally means season.
Lunar
DON’T MISS OUT Mansions
(nakṣhatras):
Since crop production often depended on seasonal monsoon rains, Nakṣhatras
Indians worked out methods to predict rainfall. Kṛiṣhiparāśhara are a way of
and the Bṛihatsaṁhitā describe such methods in every season. dividing the sky
into 27 equal
Kṛiṣhiparāśhara’s main technique was based on the positions of
parts along the
the Moon and the Sun in the sky. Varāhamihira in his Bṛihatsaṁhitā path the Moon
considered lunar mansions (nakṣhatras) in predicting seasonal travels. Each
rainfall. Even today, a large number of farming practices in India part is linked to
a star or group
are based on these ancient methods.
of stars, but
really it is just
a fixed section
Monsoon winds are seasonal winds. of the sky. The
They can be categorised into the south- Moon takes
west and the north-east monsoon. The about 27 days to
south-west monsoon, also known as the go around the
Earth relative to
summer monsoon, is characterised by the stars, so it
winds blowing from sea to land across moves through
the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and one nakṣhatra
the Bay of Bengal between June and each day. That’s
Fig. 3.9. Arrival of monsoon
why they are
September. It is mainly caused by the in the Mountains
called “lunar
unequal heating of land and the sea. During summer, the landmass mansions”—
of India heats up faster than the surrounding oceans. This creates it’s like the
a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent, while the Indian Moon stays
in a different
Ocean remains relatively cooler and has high pressure. Winds move “house” in the
from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas, so moist winds blow sky every night.
from the ocean towards the land, bringing rainfall. It accounts for
most of the rainfall in the country throughout the year.
The winter monsoon, also known as the north-east monsoon, occurs
in India from October to February. During this season, the Indian
landmass cools faster than the surrounding oceans, creating a
high-pressure area over the land and low pressure over the seas.
3 – Atmosphere
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Chapter [Link] 49 20-Jun-26 10:21:12 AM

 40°N
68°E 72°E 76°E 80°E 84°E 88°E 92°E 96°E

40°N
N

W E
25 June
36°N

36°N
30 June S

15 June 0 250 500 km

5 July
8 July 20 June
32°N

32°N
10 June 5 June
28°N

28°N
8 July

5 July
24°N

24°N
30 June
1 June
25 June
20°N

20°N
20 June 26 May
15 June

10 June
16°N

16°N
22 May

5 June
12°N

12°N

1 June
8°N

8°N

26 May 22 May
4°N

4°N

68°E 72°E 76°E 80°E 84°E 88°E 92°E 96°E

Fig. 3.10. Normal dates of advancing of south-west monsoon

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India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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Chapter [Link] 50 17-Jun-26 7:52:34 PM

 68°E 72°E 76°E 80°E 84°E 88°E 92°E 96°E

40°N
40°N

W E

20 Sep
36°N

36°N
S

0 250 500 km
25 Sep

30 Sep
17 Sep
32°N

32°N
5 Oct
10 Oct
28°N

28°N
17 Sep
24°N

24°N
20 Sep
25 Sep
30 Sep
20°N

20°N
5 Oct
15 Oct

10 Oct
16°N

15 Oct 16°N
12°N

12°N
8°N

8°N

68°E 72°E 76°E 80°E 84°E 88°E 92°E 96°E

Fig. 3.11. Normal dates of retreating monsoon

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 As a result, cold and dry winds blow from land to sea. These winds
generally do not bring rainfall to most parts of India. However, when
the north-east monsoon winds pass over the Bay of Bengal, they
pick up moisture and cause rainfall in the eastern coast of India,
especially in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Karnataka.
Thus, the winter monsoon is important for the rainfall of the
south-eastern regions of India.
Monsoon plays a vital role in the lives of people in India. Most of
India’s agriculture depends on monsoon rainfall, as farmers rely
on rain for sowing and growing crops. A good monsoon ensures
sufficient food production and water supply in rivers, reservoirs,
and wells. Monsoon also affects daily life, transport, festivals, and
employment, especially in rural areas. However, excessive rainfall
can cause floods, while weak monsoons can lead to droughts. Thus,
monsoon greatly influences the economy, lifestyle, and livelihoods of
people in India.

DON’T MISS OUT

Kālidāsa, in Meghadūtam written around the 5th century CE,

mentions the date of the onset of the monsoon over central India
and also traces the path of monsoon clouds.

LET’S EXPLORE

Describe in your own words how monsoon affects the lives of the
people around you.

DON’T MISS OUT

Under the National Monsoon Mission (NMM), Ministry of Earth

Sciences (Government of India) has developed state-of-the-art
weather and climate prediction models. The overall objective of
the NMM is to enhance monsoon predictions for India over all
time frames.
‘Mission Mausam’ is designed to position India as a global leader in
weather and climate sciences. The mission aims to make the nation
‘Weather Ready’ and ‘Climate Smart’, meeting the global standards.
It aims to improve weather and climate services, ensuring timely
and precise observation, modelling, and forecasting information
for multiple sectors, including agriculture, disaster management,
and rural development.

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 Climate Change
One of the most urgent challenges that the Earth is facing today is
climate change. It refers to long-term changes in weather patterns,
such as temperature, rainfall, and wind, caused mainly by human
activities, including the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial pollution that releases gases like carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. These actions increase greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour in the atmosphere,
trapping heat and raising global temperatures. As a result, we are
witnessing more frequent floods, droughts, melting of glaciers,
rising sea levels, and loss of biodiversity. Climate change not only
threatens ecosystems but also impacts human health, agriculture,
and livelihoods. You may recall that you have read about ‘climate
change’ in your grade 8 Science textbook. What actions can be
taken to reduce such changes? It also has great impact on almost all
sections of the population including women and children. Tackling
this issue requires collective efforts—reducing carbon footprints,
using renewable energy, protecting forests, and adopting sustainable
lifestyles. Every small step counts, and every human being plays a
vital role in shaping a healthier and greener future.

LET’S EXPLORE

My Carbon Footprint
Step 1: My Daily Habits
Tick the options that best describe you.
Carbon
A. Transport footprint:
ƒ I usually walk/use a cycle. (Low impact) The total
amount of
ƒ I use public transport/carpool. (Medium impact) greenhouse
ƒ I travel by private cars even for short distances. gases released
(High impact). into the
atmosphere as a
ƒ I take flights more than twice a year. (Very high impact)
result of human
B. Electricity Use activities, such
as energy use,
ƒ I always switch off electrical appliances (lights, fans,
transportation,
etc.) when not in use. (Low impact) or the
ƒ I sometimes forget to switch off electrical appliances production
(lights, fans, etc.). (Medium impact) of goods and
services.
ƒ I leave electrical appliances (lights, fans, etc.) on
frequently. (High impact)
C. Water Use
3 – Atmosphere
ƒ I use water judiciously, for example, just one bucket of and Climate
water for bathing. (Low impact)
53

Chapter [Link] 53 17-Jun-26 7:52:52 PM

 ƒ I sometimes waste water (leaving the tap running/
more buckets of water for a bath/long showers).
(Medium impact)
ƒ I rarely think about saving water. (High impact)
D. Waste and Plastics
ƒ I reuse, recycle, and avoid single-use plastics. (Low
impact)
ƒ I sometimes use disposable plastics (bottles/bags/
straws). (Medium impact)
ƒ I often throw away plastic and do not recycle. (High
impact)
Step 2: Score Yourself
ƒ Low impact choices = 1 point
ƒ Medium impact choices = 2 points
ƒ High impact choices = 3 points
ƒ Very high impact choices = 4 points
Now add up your total score: points
Step 3: My Climate Action Pledge
Think about two simple changes you can make to reduce your
score, and write them down below.
1.
2.

Punjab Floods 2025: A Case Study

In 2025, Punjab experienced
severe floods due to heavy
monsoon rains and the
consecutive swelling of the
rivers Satluj, Beas, and Ravi.
The floods damaged large
parts of the state, including
villages, agricultural fields,
houses, and important
infrastructure such as roads
and bridges. While the water
Understanding Society: Fig. 3.12. Floods in Punjab started to recede in some
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Grade 9 – Part 1
54

Chapter [Link] 54 17-Jun-26 7:52:56 PM

 places and relief operations were carried out, the overall impact
was devastating. The state suffered heavy economic losses, social
disruption, and environmental damage, underscoring the urgent
need for improved flood management and preparedness.

Causes
The floods in Punjab resulted from both natural and human-made
factors.
€ Natural Causes: In 2025, Punjab faced very heavy monsoon
rains, which were intensified by the western disturbances that
brought even more moisture and rain. It rained not only in
Punjab but also in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.
The major rivers of Punjab—the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, and
the Ghaggar—were already flowing high before the heavy rains
began. When additional rain fell, water from the hills and local
rainfall caused rivers to overflow, leading to severe flooding in
many parts of Punjab.
€ Human-made Causes: The floods were further aggravated by
weak and old river embankments, or dhūsī bāndh, which could
not stop the rising water during heavy monsoon rains. People
had also built houses and farms too close to the rivers, reducing
the natural space where floodwater could spread safely. Over
time, silt and mud had collected in rivers and dams, reducing
their capacity to hold and carry water. In some areas, flood
warnings came late or were not clearly communicated, leaving
people unprepared. All these factors together increased the
damage caused by the floods.

Fig. 3.13. Relief operations during the floods

3 – Atmosphere
and Climate
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Chapter [Link] 55 17-Jun-26 7:52:56 PM

 Effects of the Floods in Punjab
€ Many people lost their lives in the floods.
€ Thousands of people had to leave their homes and move to relief
camps for safety.
€ Large areas of farmland were covered with water, and crops
like paddy were severely damaged.
€ Poultry and dairy farms were damaged and destroyed. Many
animals, including cows, buffaloes, and chickens, got sick or died.
€ Roads, bridges, border fences, and some public buildings were
also damaged.
€ Murky standing water caused health problems, including the
spread of waterborne diseases and sanitation concerns.

Classroom Discussion
€ To what extent did natural factors cause these floods compared
to human activities?
€ Do you think better planning could have reduced the damage?
How?
€ What are the guidelines for the management of floods according
to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)?
€ What role can students/youth play in helping with disaster
preparedness?

Before we move on...

Æ The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of different gases, mainly
nitrogen and oxygen, along with small amounts of other gases
like water vapour and dust, support life and help in forming
clouds and causing rainfall.
Æ The atmosphere is made up of different layers, namely the
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and
Exosphere, which are divided based on changes in temperature
and air density as we go higher above the Earth’s surface.
Æ Weather refers to the daily atmospheric conditions, while
climate is the average weather of a place over a long period
of time.
Æ India has a tropical monsoon climate, and the Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) divides the year into four
Understanding Society: main seasons, namely—Winter, Summer, Monsoon, and Post-
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1 monsoon.
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Chapter [Link] 56 17-Jun-26 7:52:58 PM

 Æ Climate change is the long-term change in weather caused
mainly by human activities like burning fuels and cutting trees,
which leads to global warming and extreme weather conditions.
Æ We can reduce our carbon footprint by saving energy, using
renewable sources, planting trees, and living in more eco-
friendly ways.

Questions and activities

1. What is atmosphere? Explain its composition with the help of
a pie diagram.
2. Draw a labelled diagram of the structure of atmosphere.
3. Which are the four main seasons of India?
4. Why do you not feel the pressure of the atmosphere?
5. In which layer of the atmosphere do aeroplanes fly and why?
6. Distinguish between the following:
a. The troposphere and stratosphere
b. The south-west monsoon and north-east monsoon
7. Do it yourself: Table 3.3 shows the average monthly temperatures
and rainfall amounts for 10 representative stations. Study these
figures on your own and convert them into ‘temperature and
rainfall’ graphs. The visual representations will help you grasp
their similarities and differences at a glance. One such graph
(Fig. 3.14) is already prepared for you. See if you can arrive at
some broad generalisations about our diverse climatic conditions.
7.1. Now look at Table 3.3 again. Re-arrange the 10 stations
according to their distance from the equator.
7.2 Find out:
a. Two stations with the most extreme climate.
b. Two stations influenced by retreating monsoons.
c. The two hottest stations in the months of
(i) February (ii) June
7.3. Now find out:
a. Why does Shillong experience more rainfall
than Kolkata?
b. Why does Delhi receive more rainfall than Jodhpur?

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and Climate
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 Table 3.3. Average monthly temperatures and rainfall for 10 representative stations
(temperature and rainfall data are representational)

Latitude

(Metres)
Stations

Rainfall
Altitude

Annual
Aug.

Nov.
May
Mar.

Dec.
Sep.
Feb.

Oct.
Jun.
Apr.
Jan.

Jul.
Temperature (oC) 20.5 22.7 25.2 27.1 26.7 24.2 23.0 23.0 23.1 22.9 18.9 20.2
Bengaluru 12°58'N 909
Rainfall (cm) 0.7 0.9 1.1 4.5 10.7 7.1 11.1 13.7 16.4 15.3 6.1 1.3 88.9

Temperature (oC) 24.4 24.4 26.7 28.3 30.0 28.9 27.2 27.2 27.2 27.8 27.2 25.0
Mumbai 19°N 11
Rainfall (cm) 0.2 0.2 – – 1.8 50.6 61.0 36.9 26.9 4.8 1.0 – 183.4

Temperature (oC) 19.6 22.0 27.1 30.1 30.4 29.9 28.9 28.7 28.9 27.6 23.4 19.7
Kolkata 22°34'N 6
Rainfall (cm) 1.2 2.8 3.4 5.1 13.4 29.0 33.1 33.4 25.3 12.7 2.7 0.4 162.5

Temperature (oC) 14.4 16.7 23.3 30.0 33.3 33.3 30.0 29.4 28.9 25.6 19.4 15.6
Delhi 29°N 219
Rainfall (cm) 2.5 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.8 7.4 19.3 17.8 11.9 1.3 0.2 1.0 67.0

Temperature (oC) 16.8 19.2 26.6 29.8 33.3 33.9 31.3 29.0 20.1 27.0 20.1 14.9
Jodhpur 26°18'N 224
Rainfall 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3 1.0 3.1 10.8 13.1 5.7 0.8 0.2 0.2 36.6

Temperature (oC) 24.5 25.7 27.7 30.4 33.0 32.5 31.0 30.2 29.8 28.0 25.9 24.7
Chennai 13°4'N 7
Rainfall (cm) 4.6 1.3 1.3 1.8 3.8 4.5 8.7 11.3 11.9 30.6 35.0 13.9 128.6

Temperature (oC) 21.5 23.9 28.3 32.7 35.5 32.0 27.7 27.3 27.9 26.7 23.1 20.7
Nagpur 21°9'N 312
Rainfall (cm) 1.1 2.3 1.7 1.6 2.1 22.2 37.6 28.6 18.5 5.5 2.0 1.0 124.2

Temperature (oC) 9.8 11.3 15.9 18.5 19.2 20.5 21.1 20.9 20.0 17.2 13.3 10.4
Shillong 24°34'N 1461
Rainfall (cm) 1.4 2.9 5.6 14.6 29.5 47.6 35.9 34.3 30.2 18.8 3.8 0.6 225.3

Temperature (oC) 26.7 27.3 28.3 28.7 28.6 26.6 26.2 26.2 26.5 26.7 26.6 26.5
Thiruvananthapuram 8°29'N 61
Rainfall (cm) 2.3 2.1 3.7 10.6 20.8 35.6 22.3 14.6 13.8 27.3 20.6 7.5 181.2

Temperature (oC) –8.5 –7.2 –0.6 6.1 10.0 14.4 17.2 16.1 12.2 6.1 0.0 –5.6
Leh 34°N 3506
Rainfall (cm) 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.5 – 0.5 8.5

7.4. Now think why

a. Thiruvananthapuram has an equable climate?
b. Chennai has more rainfall only after the fury of the
monsoon is over in most parts of the country?
c. Leh has moderate precipitation almost throughout
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond the year?
Grade 9 – Part 1
58

Chapter [Link] 58 22-Jun-26 4:34:57 PM

 35

30

25

Rainfall (Centimetres)
Temperature (oCelsius)

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 3.14. Temperature and Rainfall of Delhi

7.5. Despite these differences across regions, can you observe

any substantial evidence to conclude that the monsoons
provide a very strong framework, lending overall climatic
unity to the whole country?
8. Collect pictures of houses and clothing of people from different
regions of India. Examine whether they reflect any relationship
with the climatic conditions or the relief of those regions.

3 – Atmosphere
and Climate
59

Chapter [Link] 59 17-Jun-26 7:53:01 PM

 Notes

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India and Beyond
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Chapter [Link] 60 17-Jun-26 7:53:01 PM

 Chapter 4

Early Humans and Beginning

of Civilisation

The Big Questions

1. How did humans live on Earth before the beginning of civilisation?
2. How did humans communicate before writing was invented?
3. How is archaeology helpful in understanding our past?
4. How did early civilisations interact with each other?

In previous grades, we have studied the history of various kingdoms

and empires, and also learned about the Sindhu–Sarasvatī
civilisation. However, the history of humanity goes back much
further. In this chapter, we will explore who our earliest ancestors
were, when and where they evolved, what kinds of food they ate,
how they lived, and how they became what we are today.
The period before the development of writing is understood mainly
through archaeological evidence, as written languages emerged at
different times in different parts of the world.
One of the earliest known writing systems is associated with the
Sindhu–Sarasvatī, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation or the
Harappan Civilisation. Writings and engravings found on objects such
as seals and pottery, indicate that the Harappans used a pictographic
script for writing. However, it has not yet been deciphered. As a
result, we still do not understand the Harappan script, also referred
to as Sindhu lipi.
Other early writing systems include the cuneiform script of
the Sumerians in Mesopotamia and the hieroglyphic script of
ancient Egypt, both of which flourished around the same time as
the Harappan Civilisation. Unlike the Harappan script, these scripts
have been deciphered and mark the beginning of the historical
period, about 5000 years ago. You will learn more about them later
in the chapter.

Chapter [Link] 61 17-Jun-26 12:52:39 PM

 LET’S EXPLORE

Fig. 4.1: Harappan script on a seal

You have studied about the Harappan script in your previous

grades. Observe this seal carefully and discuss why the script has
not yet been deciphered. Also, find out what efforts have been
made to decipher it. You can use your textbook, consult your
teacher, or refer to online sources.

From about 400 BCE, a script known as Brahmi was used in parts
of southern India and in the Ganga Valley (northern India). It was
later formalised by the Emperor Aśhoka (3rd century BCE) and
contemporary Iron Age people all over southern India. You will learn
more about the journey of scripts in higher grades.

Fig. 4.2. Brahmi inscription on a railing around the stupa at

Understanding Society: Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
62

Chapter [Link] 62 17-Jun-26 12:52:50 PM

 The Invention of Writing: Before and After

Before After

Human History More than 99 per cent of Less than 1 per cent of
human history falls under human history falls under
this period (from about 3 this period, the last 5000
million years ago to 5000 years, including the present.
years ago).

Main Source for Tools, implements, and Both material remains and
Reconstruction other material objects written documents are
made by humans (artefacts) sources for reconstructing
are the major sources for the lives of people and
reconstructing people’s society.
ways of living.

Lives of the It is generally difficult to Literature (written

People understand the thoughts documents) provides
and ideas of people. information about names;
events; and social, political,
and cultural life.

Measurement Measurement of time is Dating of cultures and

of Time approximate, that is, dating events becomes relatively
events and cultures is only accurate because written
approximate. documents mention specific
dates of events such as
coronation, wars, etc.

Fig. 4.3

Why Should We Study Early Human History?

The study of early human history helps us understand the long
process of humankind’s biological and cultural evolution in relation
to changes in climate and the environment.
Biological evolution refers to the gradual physical and genetic
changes through which our early ancestors, known as
australopithecines (australis means southern and pithecus is
primates), evolved into modern human beings, called Homo sapiens.
Cultural evolution explains how humans adapted to their
surroundings during the Quaternary Period (the last 26 lakh
4 – Early Humans
years, including the present). To survive the changing climatic and and Beginning of
Civilisation
63

Chapter [Link] 63 17-Jun-26 12:52:51 PM

 N
60°N
CONIFEROUS FOREST
W E
Denisova Cave
S GRASSY STEPPES

DESERTS AND MOUNTAINS

40°N

PACIFIC

LEVANT
OCEAN
Ni
DESERT le
RED SEA
20°N

(Sahara And Arabia–

Va
Hathnora
ll

Both wetter during

ey

interglacials)

INDIAN
0°

Olduvai Gorge OCEAN

ATLANTIC
OCEAN
20°S

AUSTRALIA

0 2,000
40°S

kilometers at equator

LEGEND

Potential routes
of early Homo dispersal
Homo
erectus: Fig. 4.4. Early dispersal of Homo erectus out of Africa
Homo erectus (around 2 million years ago)
refers to
an upright environmental conditions, humans developed tools, techniques, and
or bipedal other forms of technology to make use of natural resources.
human
ancestor. Over time, human ways of life changed from hunting and
gathering to agriculture and food production. The ability to produce
Hominin:
surplus food and material goods laid the foundation for the
Hominins
are a group emergence of civilisation.
that includes It is generally agreed that our earliest ancestors evolved and lived
modern
in Africa and began to move out of the continent around 2 million
humans and
our early years ago. Homo erectus, an early human ancestor with stone tools,
human-like such as hand axes and cleavers, was the first hominin to exit Africa.
ancestors. These tools have been found in other parts of Asia and Europe,
indicating their origin in Africa and their dispersion beyond the
Understanding Society: continent between 2 and 0.5 million years ago. Another major wave
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
of movement out of Africa took place around 125,000 years ago. This
64

Chapter [Link] 64 17-Jun-26 12:52:58 PM

 exit was associated with the early Homo sapiens, ourselves (modern
humans), who also evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and
are now spread all over the earth.

THINK ABOUT IT

Why do you think early humans left Africa to migrate to

other regions?

How do we know about our

ancestors?
Archaeologists explore early
human sites to uncover clues
such as tools, bones, and other
objects left behind by our early
ancestors. Each clue helps them
build a picture of how people
lived long ago.
To better understand these
clues, archaeologists also
experiment by making and
using similar tools. This helps
them learn how early humans
created, used, and depended on
these objects in their daily lives. Fig. 4.5. An archaeological excavation in process

Who Were Our Human Ancestors?

The earliest human settlements were found in Africa, Asia, and
Europe, and together they constitute what we today call the ‘Old Old World:
World’. Different kinds of human ancestors co-existed at this time Geographical
(see Fig. 4.6), and it was around 3.3 million years ago, that one of these area of the
oldest human
ancestors made the earliest stone tools. This marked the beginning settlements
of the so-called ‘human behaviour’, as opposed to the behaviour of the earliest
of animals, who do not possess the cognitive ability to make such palaeolithic
tools. Thus, human beings came to be known as ‘hominins’, or tool period.
makers. The tools they created are sometimes called extra-corporal
limbs because they functioned as extensions of the human body,
helping people perform tasks they could not accomplish with their
hands alone. Humans made these tools, used them, and discarded
them when they wore out. Over time, these discarded tools got 4 – Early Humans
and Beginning of
Civilisation
65

Chapter [Link] 65 17-Jun-26 12:53:00 PM

 Fossil: buried in the upper layers of the earth and were later discovered by
The preserved archaeologists. In the same way, the remains of some of our early
remains, traces, ancestors were buried deep underground, and over thousands or
or impressions of
plants, animals,
even millions of years, turned into fossils. The discovery of such tools
or humans from and fossils are major sources of evidence that helps archaeologists
the distant past. reconstruct human history and understand how our ancestors lived.
Fossils form when It is through such findings that we know that the Homo habilis (handy
these remains
get buried under
man) lived in Africa, especially in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and
layers of earth Kenya. As noted earlier, their successors Homo erectus, the inventors
and slowly turn of handaxes and cleavers, were among the first to migrate out of
into stone over Africa and gradually spread into Europe and Asia. While all human
thousands or
millions of years.
ancestors were tool makers, it was the Homo sapiens that developed
complex technologies.

a. Homo habilis lived b. Homo erectus

in Olduvai Gorge, lived in the
Tanzania and Kenya, Eastern African
2-6 million years Rift Valley
ago; made chopper 2 million years
stone tools ago; made
handaxes and
cleavers.
a b

c. Homo
neanderthalensis
lived in Europe and d. Living humans,
Southwest Asia till or the Homo
about 40000 years sapiens, are the
ago; made Middle only human
Palaeolithic flake species living
tools. c d today on earth.

Fig. 4.6. Skulls of early humans and modern humans showing the evolutionary
sequence from Homo habilis to Homo sapiens

LET’S EXPLORE

Let us observe the images given above and answer the following
questions.
Æ Do you notice any changes in the shape or features of the
skulls across different ancestors?
Æ Can you observe a gradual straightening of the face?
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India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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Chapter [Link] 66 17-Jun-26 12:53:33 PM

 Early human history is divided into distinct periods based on
technological progress, such as the development and use of tools,
the beginning of agriculture, and changes in human lifestyle and
settlement patterns. We will explore these stages in this chapter.

Hunting–gathering Shift from Development of

lifestyle; use of simple hunting–gathering bronze metallurgy
stone tools to agriculture (mixing copper and
and settled life; tin to make bronze);
domestication of expansion of trade,
animals and use of towns, and early
polished stone tools civilisations

Paleolithic Neolithic
Bronze Age
(Old Stone Age) (New Stone Age)

Neolithic Revolution

Chalcolithic
Mesolithic Iron Age
(Copper and Stone Age)

Use of microlithic Use of copper along Widespread use

(tiny stone) tools; a with stone tools; early of iron metallurgy
transitional phase metallurgy (extraction (smelting and working
between hunting– and shaping of metal iron); stronger tools
gathering and objects or artefacts) and weapons; more
agriculture advanced societies

Fig. 4.7. Periods in Early Human History

THINK ABOUT IT

Why do you think the shift to farming during the Neolithic period
is called a revolution rather than a simple change? Discuss with
your classmates. 4 – Early Humans
and Beginning of
Civilisation
67

Chapter [Link] 67 17-Jun-26 12:53:44 PM

 Palaeolithic Hunter–Gatherers
60°E 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

N
Pabbi Hills
35°N

35°N
Burzahom W E
Sanghao Cave
Riwat Site 55 S
Dina

Mehrgarh
30°N

30°N
Anangpur
Didwana
Kataoti Lahuradewa
Daojali
Bagor Patpara Hading
25°N

25°N
Loteshwar Bhimbetka Baghor
Dhaba
Mehtakheri
Sandhav Mahadebbera

Patne Hathnora
Umrethi

20°N
20°N

Chirki-Nevasa
ARABIAN BAY OF
SEA BENGAL
Isampur Jwalapuram

15°N
15°N

Renigunta
Sanganakallu Poondi
LEGEND
Gudiyam
Palaeolithic Sites
Attirampakkam
(Lower, Middle, and

10°N
10°N

Upper + Microlithic) Teri Sites Fa-Hien Lena

Mesolithic Sites 0
250 250 500 km
Neolithic Sites Batadomba Lena

60°E 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90° E 95°E

Fig. 4.8. Major early human sites in the Indian subcontinent

The Stone Age is broadly divided into three stages—Palaeolithic,

Mesolithic, and Neolithic. The word palaeo means ‘old’, and lithic
means ‘stone’, so the Palaeolithic period is also known as the Old
Stone Age.
In the Indian subcontinent, the oldest human settlement dates back
to about 2 million years ago. Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu is dated
to about 1.5–1.7 million years ago, and Isampur in Karnataka is
dated to 1.2 million years ago. At these sites, animal fossils and large
cutting tools, including handaxes and cleavers, and other tools, such
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond as stone scrapers and choppers made of quartzite and limestone,
Grade 9 – Part 1
68

Chapter [Link] 68 17-Jun-26 12:53:48 PM

 respectively, have been found. These tools were used to chop animal
meat, dig out tubers, scrape animal skin, and cleave animal bones to
extract protein-rich marrow.

Fig. 4.9. Cleavers and handaxe dating to about 1–5 million years in India

Further progress in hunting and gathering was reflected in the

making of smaller stone tools. The main types of stone tools included
scrapers, borers, and points. These indicate improved efficiency in
hunting by developing projectiles which were tipped with sharp
points.

Fig. 4.10. Middle Palaeolithic tools

Later, humans invented the bow and arrow, as well as parallel-sided

blade and microblade tools made from rocks with glassy texture (very
sharp when freshly made). They also hunted small game animals.
Moreover, they developed symbolic communication, decorated the
walls of caves and rock shelters with paintings, and used pigments
to decorate their bodies. In addition, they were the first to produce 4 – Early Humans
and Beginning of
beads of stone, bone, and shell. Civilisation
69

Chapter [Link] 69 17-Jun-26 12:53:54 PM

 Fig. 4.11a.

Fig. 4.11b.

Fig. 4.11a. and Fig. 4.11b. Microlithic tools and bone points

A distinctive type of stone tool, known as a burin or engraver, was

also used to engrave symbolic features on bones and shells (such as
ostrich eggs). The microblades were fixed in a handle for ease of use.
These developments are associated with our immediate ancestors,
Homo sapiens, who gradually spread all over the world, including
Australia and the Americas, between 50000 and 12000 years ago.

Mesolithic Hunter–Gatherers
Around 12000 years ago, Earth’s
climate became warmer, leading
to significant changes in the
environment. Forests and grasslands
expanded into areas that were
previously covered by ice sheets.
The new landscapes offered a wider
variety of resources, including small
game animals, fish, and edible wild
grains. Thus, the world witnessed
the first-ever population explosion
in human history. A variety of
microlithic tools enabled the people
to gather aquatic food—both marine
Fig. 4.12. Cave art from
Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh and freshwater—and fishing was
the mainstay of their subsistence
economy. Art activity also flourished during this time, and new
habitats such as caves and rock shelters were frequently occupied.
The World Heritage Site of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh contains
Understanding Society: hundreds of painted rock shelters with Mesolithic and earlier human
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1 occupation.
70

Chapter [Link] 70 17-Jun-26 12:53:56 PM

 The Neolithic Revolution
As hunter–gatherers gained adequate familiarity with seasons and
different types of food resources, there was a gradual transition to a
food-producing way of life, also known as the Neolithic revolution.
The hallmark of this revolution was the domestication of select
animals and plants, bringing them under human control, and the
development of new breeds through cultivation and husbandry.
While hunter–gatherers produced tools for procuring food, Neolithic
farmers made tools for food production and processing (Fig. 4.13)
and developed a variety of earthenware pottery in various shapes
and sizes. They utilised several raw materials and resources and
established the first village settlements, laying the foundations for
the urban revolution.

Fig. 4.13. Neolithic stone tools

The chart (Fig. 4.14) illustrates the gradual shift from hunting and
gathering to agricultural ways of life across different regions of the
world. It also highlights that this transition did not occur at the same
time everywhere, but took place at different periods in different
areas.

THINK ABOUT IT

Observe the chart (Fig. 4.14) and identify the animals that were
domesticated. Also try and identify the types of human habitats
and objects that were used. Are any of these still used in
present times?

4 – Early Humans
and Beginning of
Civilisation
71

Chapter [Link] 71 17-Jun-26 12:54:02 PM

 15000 years ago 10,000 5,000 0 Geographical
area

sedentism
West
pottery Africa
livestock agricultural
(Pearl millet)
cultivation landscape

agricultural
cultivation
landscape
West Asia
(Wheat and
barley)
sedentism livestock pottery

agricultural
pottery livestock
landscape

India
(Millets)
cultivation sedentism

sedentism livestock
cultivation
India
Ganga
Plains
pottery agricultural landscape (Rice)

cultivation
sedentism
North
China
(Millets)
pottery livestock agricultural landscape

cultivation livestock

South
China
pottery sedentism agricultural landscape Yangtze (Rice)

Domesticated Crops Fig. 4.14. Transition to the

Understanding Society: Cultivation agricultural way of life in
India and Beyond Early traces of cultivation different parts of the world
Grade 9 – Part 1
72

Chapter [Link] 72 17-Jun-26 12:54:11 PM

 Neolithic Period in Indian Subcontinent
In the Indian subcontinent, we find regional variation in the initiation
of agricultural ways of life. In the northwest, the site of Mehrgarh
on the Bolan River (in present-day Pakistan) is the oldest Neolithic
site. It was also the earliest agricultural village, dating back to about
7000 BCE. Its people built handmade sun-dried brick houses and
granaries, buried their dead in graves,
and made a variety of ornaments from
semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli,
carnelian, and shells. They cultivated
wheat and barley, and raised sheep, goats,
and Indian cattle—the zebu humped bull
in particular. They were also the first to
make copper objects, thus entering the
metal age and becoming popularly known
as the Chalcolithic people by about 4000
BCE. This laid the basis for the Bronze
Age Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation around Fig. 4.15. Sanganakallu Neolithic site on top
3500 BCE. of a granite hill, dating 2000 BCE

Fig. 4.16. Mehrgarh on the Bolan river; layout and house structures

By 2500 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was occupied by

Neolithic agricultural communities. Cattle, sheep, and goat herding,
along with the cultivation of cereals, millets and pulses characterised
the Neolithic way of life, sometimes interacting with the contemporary
4 – Early Humans
chalcolithic cultures in some parts of the country. and Beginning of
Civilisation
73

Chapter [Link] 73 17-Jun-26 12:54:12 PM

 Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation
In the previous section, you have seen how the Neolithic way of
life that emerged around 7000 BCE at Mehrgarh in the foothills of
Baluchistan, spread in the middle and upper Indus valley and further
east. Some of these settlements mastered the extraction of copper
from its ores around 4000 BCE, and became the earliest Chalcolithic
sites in the subcontinent marking the beginning of the Bronze Age.
65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E
N

W E
H i n du K u s h
S e

35°N
35°N

ng
Ra
an

H
im

i m
Sula

Rehman Dheri a
l a
Harappa y
a
Bhirrana s
Mehrgarh Jalilpur

30°N
30°N

Kunal
Rakhighari

Kalibangan
Mohenjo-Daro

Kot Digi
Amri

25°N
25°N

Balakot Dholavira
Datrana
ARABIAN SEA
Loteshwar
LEGEND Lothal
Major Early Harappan Sites
Major Urban/Mature Padri 250 0 250 500 km
Harappan Sites Somnath
65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E

Fig. 4.17. Map showing some major early and mature Harappan sites

In this section, we will look at the early stages that led to the
emergence of the civilisation by 2600 BCE.
Introduction of copper tools in the fertile alluvial plains of the
Indus and the Ghaggar-Sarasvatī basins enhanced productivity,
leading to increased prosperity in these communities. This is also
a period of large-scale production of pottery showing diverse
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond regional styles. The regional styles in pottery and craft production
Grade 9 – Part 1
74

Chapter [Link] 74 19-Jun-26 2:01:45 PM

 Late Harappan

1300 BCE
Harappan Civilisation
Mature Harappan

Early Harappan
7000 BCE
Neolithic

4500 BCE
Chalcolithic

3300 BCE
Bronze Age

2600 BCE

1900 BCE

1000 BCE
Fig. 4.18. Timeline showing Harappan Civilisation

became more evident in the early Chalcolithic sites of Baluchistan

and the Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī basins from 4000 BCE
onwards. Some radio-carbon dates suggest that at some sites in
the dried river belt of Sarasvati, such as at Bhirrana and Kunal,
the Pre-Harappan phase began between 7000 and 5500 BCE. Many
of these regional styles evolved over time and became standard
features of the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation by about 2500 BCE.
Since these sites show a cultural continuity, this stage is generally
described as Early Harappan. We see continuity in pottery traditions,
semi-precious stone beads, shell bangles, terracotta objects, and
copper working. Some other developments, such as building a
perimeter wall around the settlement, the use of seals, and even
the Harappan writings/script, probably had their beginnings in the
Early Harappan stage.
The Harappans were not merely agriculturists; they also practised
a number of arts and crafts, and pottery was one of the major craft
products that boosted their economy. Pottery remains from different
regions show unique styles in the shapes of vessels and their painted
designs. Some other crafts that show gradual development include
copper work, shell work, and the production of semi-precious stone
beads. Evidence of Early Harappan bead production is found from
Harappa in Pakistan as well as from Kunal in Haryana and Datrana
in Gujarat.
Besides these, the extensive use of graffiti on pottery and a few
seals with geometric and simple animal motifs reported from
early Harappan sites like Harappa, Rehman Dheri, and Kunal could
4 – Early Humans
be seen as forerunners to the script and inscribed seals of the and Beginning of
Civilisation
75

Chapter [Link] 75 17-Jun-26 12:54:17 PM

 Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation. It was these technological
advancements and economic integration during the Early Harappan
period that led to the emergence of the urban centres of the
Harappan civilisation.

DON’T MISS OUT

A tradition nearly 5,000 years old

The Early Harappans ploughed
fields (Fig. 4.19) at Kalibangan
showing horizontal and vertical
furrows indicating double crop
cultivation, like the seasonal Rabi
and Kharif cultivation that is
practised even today.
Fig. 4.19. Ploughed field, Kalibangan

THINK ABOUT IT

Fig. 4.20. Stone weights

Harappans had their own standard systems of weight and

measurement. This is evident from the meticulously planned
settlements and efficient interregional trade practices of the
Harappans. They followed a binary multiple (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.)
system for weighing smaller units and used multiples of ten for
larger denominations. Such cubical stone weights have been
reported from several sites. Can you imagine how long-distance
trade would have been affected had the Harappans not followed a
standard system of weights?

76

Chapter [Link] 76 19-Jun-26 2:02:08 PM

 Bronze Age Civilisations Outside India
In Grade 6, you studied the major features of the Harappan/
Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation, such as the well-planned urban
cities, water management and drainage systems, standard weights
and measures, stone beads, inscribed seals, and the script. In this
section, we will explore the main features of other Bronze Age
civilisations that were contemporary with the Harappans. These
three major civilisations were the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and the
Chinese civilisations.
It is important to note that four early world civilisations emerged
in river plains—the Harappan civilisation along the Sindhu and
Sarasvatī rivers, the Mesopotamian civilisation in the region around
the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in West Asia, the Egyptian civilisation
along the Nile River, and the Chinese civilisation in the Huang He
basin in northern China. Geographically, Mesopotamia and the
Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī valleys are closer to each other. This
proximity facilitated strong contacts and trade between the
Mesopotamian and Harappan civilisations. The Egyptian and the
Chinese civilisations, on the other hand, have little tangible evidence
of their direct contact with the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation.

THINK ABOUT IT

Why were rivers important in the growth of early civilisations?

Mesopotamian Civilisation
Although the four civilisations were contemporaneous, the earliest
city-based civilisation emerged in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia,
meaning the “land in between,” is the Greek name for the land
drained by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in West Asia (Fig. 4.21).
In modern times, this region includes mainly Iraq and Kuwait, with
some parts of Turkey and southwestern Iran. The crescent-shaped
foothills of the Zagros and Taurus, stretching from the Mediterranean
in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east, are known as the ‘fertile
crescent’, due to their high agricultural potential.
While farming began in this region 12000 years before present,
copper tools arrived here around 4500 BCE. The arrival of copper
helped improve agriculture and other economic activities, such as
craft production and trade. This eventually contributed to the broader
dissemination of farming across the vast plains of the Euphrates and 4 – Early Humans
Tigris rivers. and Beginning of
Civilisation
77

Chapter [Link] 77 17-Jun-26 12:54:19 PM

 25°E 30°E 35°E 40°E 45°E 50°E 55°E
N
BLACK SEA
CA W E
UC

CAS
AS
US S
MT

PIA
S.

40°N
40°N

N SE
AEGEAN ANATOLIA
.
SEA TS
SM ASSYRIA

A
U
UR

ZA
TA

Ti

GR
Eu

gr
ph

OS
SO

is
E
ra

35°N
PO

R.
35°N

M
t
TA

TS
MEDIT M

R.
IAN Akkad
ERRAN

.
Akkadia/
EAN S
EA Babylonia SUMER Nippur

Babylon Lagash
Dead

30°N
Uruk
30°N

LOWER Sea
EGYPT ARABIAN Ur

PE
SAHARA

RS
Nil

DESERT Eridu
DESERT

IA
eR

. GU

N
LEGEND L F
RE

AFRICA UPPER

25°N
Fertile Crescent
25°N

EGYPT
SE

250 0 250 500 km Mesopotamian Sites

A

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

25°E 30°E 35°E 40°E 45°E 50°E 55°E

Fig. 4.21. The Fertile Crescent and the extent of the

Mesopotamian civilisation

1900 BCE Babylonian

Mesopotamian Civilisation 2154 BCE

Assyrian
2334 BCE
Akkadian
Beginning of Bronze Age

Sumerian
7500 BCE

5500 BCE
Chalcolithic

3500 BCE

3000 BCE

2500 BCE

2000 BCE

1700 BCE

1500 BCE
Neolithic

Fig. 4.22. Timeline showing the Mesopotamian civilisation

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 Over the next 2000 years, some large cities became ‘city-states’ City-State:
by developing governing systems. Among these, the four major A sovereign state
centred around
city-based civilisations that flourished from 3500 BCE onwards in a city that rules
Mesopotamia are the Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian the surrounding
(Fig. 4.22). territories.

LET’S EXPLORE

Can you find out which countries constitute West Asia in

present times?

a. The Sumerians
The Sumerian civilisation was the earliest to evolve into a city-based
civilisation at Ur and several other cities in Sumer (present-day
southern Iraq) in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerians were the
first to build a system of dams and canals for irrigation, and were
also the first to use mud bricks and burnt bricks in the construction
of houses, defensive walls, and other structures.

Ziggurat: A tower-like stepped

pyramid-shaped temple with
several floors above which the
main temple was located. The top
of the ziggurat was a holy place,
and the area around the ziggurat
contained palaces and royal
storehouses. The surrounding
walls had only one entrance as
the ziggurat also served as the
city’s treasury. Fig. 4.23

The Sumerians worshipped multiple gods, whom they believed had

power over natural forces such as floods and winds, and built temples
for each of them. Temples played an important role in people’s lives,
and each city built a grand temple called a ziggurat for its chief god,
and the city grew around this main temple (Fig. 4.23). All economic
activities, such as agriculture, trade, and the transport of goods, were
tied to the temple authority. Also, entry to the sacred temple was
restricted to high priests and priestesses, who were probably a part
of the ruling class, reflecting a clear division of social hierarchy that
existed in the Mesopotamian society. 4 – Early Humans
and Beginning of
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 LET’S EXPLORE

Do you find any similarities between the temples in India and

those of the Sumerian civilisation as centres of socio-cultural and
economic activity?

Fig. 4.24.
Scenes from
Sumerian life
on a decorated
box. Note
the wheeled
cart and the
elaborate
drapery and
ornaments worn
by the people.

Cuneiform: One The cities were large settlements where kings lived in grand palaces,
of the earliest and the people lived in small brick houses. The lives of people
systems of
mostly centred around farming, and in addition, several crafts,
writing that was
developed by such as metalworking, pottery, and textiles, were practised. Other
the Sumerians. professionals like merchants and traders also existed.
It was written
by pressing a
wedge-shaped DON’T MISS OUT
stylus into soft
clay tablets. The While the Sumerians were developing canal irrigation, the Early
word cuneiform Harappans in the foothills of Baluchistan and neighbouring
comes from regions were also building check dams known as ‘gabarbands’
the Latin word
across small streams to enhance irrigation. A much evolved form
cuneus, meaning
‘wedge’, of these water management skills of the Harappans can be seen
referring to the in the elaborate water harvesting system built at Dholavira in
wedge-shaped Kachchh. Here, water from the two nearby streams was diverted
marks used in
by building dams and canals into a series of deep tanks to conserve
the script.
it within the site boundary. These interconnected tanks were built
from stone and mud-bricks and some of the tanks were cut deeper
into the bedrock. Similarly, the huge dockyard at Lothal, built
entirely of burnt bricks, is another marvel of the Harappan water
management and architectural skills.

The Beginning of Writing

The Sumerians were the first to start writing around 3200 BCE, and
their writing system is known as cuneiform due to the wedge-shaped
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 tool used by the scribes. Cuneiform consists of
hundreds of marks pressed onto the damp surface
of clay tablets using sharp wedge-shaped reeds
(Fig. 4.25). Its scribes enjoyed a high status in the
society, similar to the priests and priestesses, and
by 3000 BCE, cuneiform was widely used all over
Mesopotamia by different city-states, even though
they spoke different languages.
The cuneiform tablets give us a glimpse into the
lives and beliefs of the Mesopotamians—their great
myths and epics, their hymns, the “law codes,” and
educational treatises. Tablets were also used for Fig. 4.25. Cuneiform was used
keeping a record of farming and craft activities, to write several languages of
especially of potters, seal cutters, shipbuilders, Mesopotamia, but later went
out of use by the end of first
carpenters, farm workers, etc.
millennium BCE.

DON’T MISS OUT

“ The Sumerians invented the wheeled cart and sailboat.

“ They used calculations for building structures and measuring
agricultural fields.
“ Their number system was based on the number 60, and the
concepts of the 60-minute hour, 60-second minute, and the
360-degree circle was invented by the Sumerians.

LET US RECALL

The cuneiform writing system was contemporary to the Harappan

script, but while cuneiform has been deciphered, the Harappan
script has not yet been deciphered. Do you think our understanding
of a civilisation changes when its script is deciphered compared to
when it is not?

b. The Akkadians
The power of the Sumerians was overshadowed in 2334 BCE by the
emergence of a new city-state centred on the city of Akkad, which
lay further north in Sumer, in central Mesopotamia. The people of
this region spoke Akkadian, a language different from Sumerian.
However, both Akkadians and Sumerians used the same cuneiform
script for writing. Akkadian records document the consolidation of
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and Beginning of
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 power over different regions of Mesopotamia and the establishment
of the world’s first dynastic empire. This was also a period which saw
the evolution of creative literature.

LET’S EXPLORE

The Epic of Gilgamesh, written during the Mesopotamian

civilisation, is one of the earliest stories written. Try and find out
more such stories and share them in class.

The cuneiform tablets of one of the most important Akkadian kings,

Sargon, talk about Mesopotamian trade with the eastern territories
of Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha. Among these, Meluhha is generally
identified with the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation, and Dilmun and
Magan are today’s Bahrain and Oman peninsula of the Persian Gulf
(Fig. 4.26). With the Harappans, they traded semiprecious stone
beads, ivory, timber, gold dust, and probably copper.

40°E 45°E 50°E 55°E 60°E 65°E 70°E 75°E

CASPIAN N
AS
SU SEA
M

R
ES

W E
O

TA
PO

M Assur

35°N
35°N

IA S
Mari
Lagash
Babylon Susa Harappa
SU

Uruk
M
ER

Ur Nausharo Kalibangan

30°N
30°N

PE
R
D IL

HA

Rakhigarhi
SI

Mohenjo Daro
MU

UH
AN
AR

EL
N

GU

M
AB

25°N
25°N

LF

Hili Dholavira
IA

Bahrain Bat
Um an-Nar Maysar Lothal
MA

Ra's al-Jinz LEGEND

GA

N
Meluhhan Sites
20°N
20°N
RE

ARABIAN SEA
Mesopotamian Sites
DS

250 0 250 500 km Magan Sites

EA

Dilmun Site

40°E 45°E 50°E 55°E 60°E 65°E 70°E 75°E

Fig. 4.26. Harappan contact with the Mesopotamian cities and contemporary
Chalcolithic sites of Magan (today’s Oman) and Dilmun (today’s Bahrain)
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 c. The Assyrians
The Akkadian empire lost its supremacy around 2154 BCE to a new
city-state, Assur, in northern Mesopotamia. The Assyrian civilisation
that supplanted the Akkadians lasted till early 1700 BCE. In a short
period, the Assyrian dominance spread across Mesopotamia and
spread over the neighbouring regions in the west and south.

d. The Babylonians
While the Assyrians were dominant in the north, a new city-
state, Babylonia, gained dominance in central Mesopotamia from
1900 BCE onwards. Babylonia’s glory started with the ascendance
of Hammurabi in 1792 BCE, who conquered the neighbouring
regions and expanded the small city-state into a large empire. The
most significant contribution of Hammurabi was the compilation of
rules and regulations for civil and social conduct known as the Code
of Hammurabi throughout his empire. It served as a foundational
model for many future legal systems.
By the end of 1400 BCE, the Babylonians had
lost their earlier prominence due to repeated Hittites:
attacks by the Hittites and other rising The Hittites were
powers, who had gained an advantage by Indo-European
people who
mastering new technologies and adopting
established a
more efficient ways of using natural powerful empire
resources. This, along with increasing in Anatolia
environmental degradation, pressure on (modern-day
Turkey) around
agricultural lands, and internal political and
the second
economic problems, gradually weakened millennium BCE.
Babylonian control. As a result, they were
unable to maintain their dominance, and
new powers emerged in West Asia.
Fig. 4.27. Top part of a stone stele showing King
Hammurabi receiving the law from Shamash,
the Babylonian god of justice. Note the law
codes inscribed in cuneiform below the relief.

Egyptian Civilisation
Egyptian civilisation is one of the earliest civilisations of the world,
known for its rich historical records and lasting influence on other
civilisations. It is interesting to note that Egypt was known to the
Greeks and Romans, and Greek writers like Herodotus visited and
wrote about Egypt as early as the 5th century BCE. A 19th century
4 – Early Humans
collection of works titled de L’Egypte also provides fascinating details
and Beginning of
about its history. Civilisation
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 Papyrus: Egyptian history is also reconstructed from papyrus or old paper
Was made by records. These documents preserve both stories and practical details,
cutting the
offering a window into how Egyptians understood the world.
inner trunk of
the papyrus
plant into strips,
New Kingdom
criss-crossing,
pressing, drying, 1570 BCE 1069 BCE
and polishing
them into Egyptian Civilisation
Middle Kingdom
sheets. The
papyrus was 2030 BCE 1650 BCE
named after its
discoverers; for Old Kingdom
example, the
Papyrus Ebers, 2686 BCE 2181 BCE
named after its
discoverer, lists
5500 BCE
Neolithic

4000 BCE
Chalcolithic

3100 BCE
Bronze Age

1000 BCE
more than 700
cures and spells
of Egyptian
medicine.

Fig. 4.28. Timeline showing the Egyptian Civilisation

Libraries, dating back to 2000 BCE, stored papyrus scrolls in labeled

jars on shelves. One such jar contained the oldest version of the story
of ‘Sindbad the Sailor’. Short stories from this period are diverse,
including animal fables suggesting a link to ‘Aesop’s Fables’, tales of
ghosts, miracles, and romances, and even the oldest known form of
‘Cinderella’.

DON’T MISS OUT

How was the Egyptian script deciphered?

Pierre Bouchard, a French army engineer, while repairing a fort
in Egypt in 1799, found a giant black stone covered in mysterious
writing. This was the Rosetta Stone, which had three types of
writing, including Greek. Since people could still read Greek, this
was a huge breakthrough — like having a bilingual dictionary
for a lost language. In 1822, a French linguist, Jean-François
Champollion, finally deciphered the script.

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India and Beyond
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 The Egyptian calendar has three seasons, each consisting of four
months. Inundation (autumn), Peret growing (winter) and shemu
harvest (summer). It is based on the rising of Sirius (Dog Star), where,
Year = 365 days (12 months × 30 days + 5 extra days). This is quite
accurate, but lost time since the real year is about ¼ day longer.

Fig. 4.29. An illustration from the Papyrus of Ani

THINK ABOUT IT

Why do you think there is a scale with a heart on one side and a
feather on the other (fig. 4.29)? What can this papyrus tell us about
early Egyptian beliefs?

Let us now learn more about how the Egyptian civilisation grew.
Egypt saw the emergence of city-states around 3000 BCE as
population increased and resources became available. The river
Nile watered the land along its banks, and every summer the river
flooded, leading to annual inundations, with rich mud, ‘kemet’,
excellent for growing crops.

DON’T MISS OUT

Egyptians referred to their land as Kemet. Kemet means ‘the black’,

coming from the black river valley soil.

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 29°E 30°E 31°E 32°E 33°E 34°E

N Mediterranean Sea

W E

31°N
31°N

Giza
Heliopolis

30°N
30°N

Memphis
Turah
Lower Egypt Sakkara

29°N
29°N

GU
LF
OF
SU
EZ

28°N
28°N

50 0 50 100 km
Hermopolis

29°E 30°E 31°E 32°E 33°E 34°E

Fig. 4.30. The region in which the Egyptian civilisation flourished

LET’S MAP

Can you locate the River Nile on the given map? Why do you think
the northern part is called Lower Egypt and the southern part
Upper Egypt?

About 5000 years ago, farmers discovered that by digging ditches

they could divert water from the Nile into their fields and store water
in reservoirs for later use. By counting the days between Nile floods,
the Egyptians developed a calendar.
The need to dig ditches and construct dams required collective
effort. These early cooperative efforts must have led to the growth
of local government, accompanied by the rise of the administrative
Understanding Society:
class, probably making up the earliest form of local government
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 Fig. 4.31. The Step Pyramid at Saqqara Mummification:
The process
Over time, powerful individuals called ‘Pharaohs’ emerged as the involved removing
rulers of Egypt. After their death, these pharaohs were buried deep the internal
organs (except the
underground and a rectangular structure called a mastaba was placed
heart) and drying
over the burial chamber. Gradually, these mastabas were placed one the body with
on top of the other to form a pyramid. One prominent example of natron. The body
such pyramids is the step pyramid at Saqqara. The pyramids were was then oiled,
wrapped in linen
built primarily because the Egyptians believed that each person had
strips, placed in a
a ka (a spiritual double) that lived on after death if the body was coffin, and buried
preserved through mummification. with rituals.

LET’S EXPLORE

Pharaoh

Government Officials,
Nobles and Priests

Free Landholders,
Artisans and Merchants

Serfs and Slaves

Fig. 4.32 Social hierarchy Pyramid

Look at the social hierarchy pyramid in the image. What were

the social classes of early Egypt? What were the different kinds of
occupations? What could have been a typical daily routine of the
4 – Early Humans
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 Fig. 4.33. Daily items used by the Egyptians

THINK ABOUT IT

Observe the images given above. What do they tell you about
Egyptian fashion?
“ Which social classes do you think used these items?
“ What clues in the images help you to make this guess?
Try to explain your reasoning based on the materials, designs, or
accessories shown in the pictures.

Early Egyptians enjoyed leisure activities as well. They swam,

canoed, played board games and even enjoyed music and dancing.
Festivals were central to early Egyptian culture, dedicated to gods
and the pharaoh’s rule. Each god had a festival in which their statue
was paraded, accompanied by music played on instruments such
as the ‘sistrum’. Festivals also celebrated reign of the pharaoh. For
example the Sed festival was held to mark a king’s 30th year on the
throne. These grand events showed the people’s deep reverence for
their gods and ruler.

DON’T MISS OUT

Egyptian women, in general, enjoyed

more rights than their Greek or Roman
counterparts, as they could own property
and run businesses. For instance, Cleopatra
(69-30 BCE) was trained from childhood to
rule; she became queen at the age of eighteen.
Understanding Society:
Fig. 4.34. An image of Cleopatra at the age of
India and Beyond eighteen on the wall of a temple
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 The Chinese Civilisation
You have already seen in the case of Mesopotamia and Egypt how
rivers helped civilisations grow. Can you recall how they supported
people’s lives?
The Chinese civilisation flourished along the rivers— the Huang He
(Yellow River) and the Yangtze. These two river valleys were also
centres of early Chinese Neolithic cultures dating to around 7000
BCE. Around 2000 BCE, the introduction of copper/bronze metallurgy
brought many of the Neolithic settlements, especially those in the
Yellow River basin, to the threshold of the Bronze Age. However, it
was only around 1600 BCE that urban centres began to emerge with
the expansion of agricultural productivity and advancements in
metallurgy and craft production. These events led to the rise of the
first Chinese Bronze Age territorial empire.
The history of China is organised into various dynasties, the Shang
dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) and the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) were
two well-known dynasties of the Bronze Age. By 600 BCE, the use
of iron became popular throughout China, and the Chinese Iron
Age generally dates from this period onwards. The name ‘China’
probably comes from the Iron Age Qin (Ch’in) dynasty (221-206 BCE),
also known as the first imperial dynasty of China, which is credited
for unifying the country. Another important Chinese dynasty of the
Iron Age was the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE).

Qin and Han dynasties

220 CE
221 BCE

Chinese Civilisation Zhou dynasty

1046 BCE 256 BCE

Shang dynasty
1600 BCE

7000 BCE 2000 BCE 600 BCE 500 CE

Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age

Fig. 4.35. Timeline showing the Chinese civilisation

DON’T MISS OUT

“ The Zhou rulers were both kings and priests, believed to be

appointees of heaven, but they could be dismissed when their
4 – Early Humans
people did not prosper.
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 “ Public officials were chosen with great care, after being
examined in archery, horsemanship, calculations, writing,
and music.

How do we know what we know about China?

China has an abundance of historical records
as official historiographers recorded events.
However, the earliest source of information
about China are the ‘oracles’, which were
symbols made on pieces of animal bones
and tortoise shells. These bones were
heated until they cracked, and
interpretations were made based on the
patterns of the cracks. These oracles were
often used to foretell the future, and today,
Fig. 4.36. Chinese oracle they tell us a lot about the hopes, desires,
carvings on bone and fears of the early Chinese.

LET’S EXPLORE

The Chinese script is logographic, with characters representing

entire words or morphemes (smallest meaningful units of
language), rather than sounds. Person Tree
Explore more examples of Chinese characters that resemble
the objects or ideas they represent. Note down at least two
such characters and explain how their shapes are connected to
their meanings.

Fig. 4.37. L to R – Jade dragon from 3300–2000 BCE; Jade dragon pendant,
Understanding Society: Zhou dynasty; Bronze wine pouring vessel, Shang dynasty.
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 Some other craft items unique to the Chinese civilisation were the
jade objects and figurines, which were either ritual or prestige
objects. They probably played an important role in social transactions,
as jade was not locally available and was obtained from outside
China. Marble was also carved into ornaments in the form of birds
and animals, and as foundations for wooden pillars. Besides these,
the Chinese mastered bronze metallurgy to produce weapons, tools,
and elaborate ritual vessels.

DON’T MISS OUT

Chinese artisans skilfully carved jade into shapes of objects such

as fish and tied them with a cord. When struck, these jade pieces
produced a clear and lasting musical sound. This practice reflects
the importance of music in Chinese culture and highlights the high
level of craftsmanship achieved by the Chinese people.

Fig. 4.38. The Great Wall of China

The Great Wall of China was built over a period stretching to two
thousand years. Initially, several walls were built from 680 BCE
onwards by the Zhou and other dynasties as protection against the
violent raids of nomadic tribes. These were later joined together to
make an effective defence mechanism. The expansion and repair
of the wall continued till the 17th century CE.
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and Beginning of
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 THINK ABOUT IT

What could have been the other reasons for building the Great
Wall of China? Explore and share your findings on the Great Wall
through a model or presentation.

Silk was known to the Chinese from the Neolithic period (4000–3000
BCE) onwards and became an important craft during the Bronze
Age. However, around the 2nd century BCE, during the time of the
Han dynasty, silk became a major item of external trade, so much so
that the entire route on which it was traded came to be known as the
‘Silk Route’.

LET’S RECALL

Do you remember studying about the Silk Route in Grade 7? How

was India connected with it? Can you recollect China’s contact with
India with reference to Buddhism that you studied in Grade 7?

By 1500 BCE, the Chinese Bronze Age society was highly stratified
with the ruling class, nobles, and aristocrats at the top, followed by
farmers and labourers, which laid the foundation of Chinese social
hierarchical structure that evolved later.

DON’T MISS OUT

A metal-based medium of exchange appeared during the Zhou

dynasty, and a money economy developed by the 5th century BCE.
China was also the first country to introduce paper currency to
the world, and the first to develop civil services through public
examination.

We have seen how major Bronze Age civilisations of the world

emerged independently in the fertile river plains. Harnessing
agricultural productivity and the incorporation of new resources
helped economic growth, leading to the emergence of urban cities
in all these major centres of civilisation. They developed social
and administrative systems independently to ensure and enhance
economic growth. The development of writing systems enabled
early societies to record economic transactions and social activities,
and over time, it also led to the composition of literary and creative
texts. Thus, many of our cultural ethos have their roots in the Bronze
Understanding Society: Age civilisations.
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 Before we move on...
Æ Early human history refers to the long period of human history
before the invention of writing and is studied mainly through
archaeological evidence such as tools, fossils, and cave art.
Æ Early humans evolved in Africa and gradually migrated to
different parts of the world.
Æ During the Palaeolithic period, humans were hunter-gatherers
who used stone tools like handaxes, cleavers, and scrapers, and
lived in caves or open camps.
Æ In the Mesolithic period, humans developed microlithic tools
and began occupying temporary settlements near rivers and
lakes.
Æ The Neolithic period marked a major shift to agriculture and
domestication of animals, leading to permanent villages, pottery
making, and weaving.
Æ The Chalcolithic period witnessed the use of copper along with
stone tools and the growth of early farming communities.
Æ These developments led to the emergence of Bronze Age
civilisations, characterised by urban centres, trade, writing,
administration, and social organisation.
Æ Major early world civilisations such as Sindhu–Sarasvatī,
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China developed independently
in fertile river valleys and made significant contributions in
agriculture, writing, architecture, administration, and culture.

Questions and activities

1. Do you think life became easier or more challenging after humans
started farming? Give two reasons for your answer.

2. The environment offers human societies both opportunities

as well as challenges. Explain with reference to early farming
communities and river-valley civilisations.

3. Why do historians divide early human history into different ages

such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age? What does this
classification tell us about human progress?

4. Imagine you are a Neolithic farmer. Describe one day of your

life. What challenges would you face that a hunter-gatherer
4 – Early Humans
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 5. Imagine that the Harappan script gets deciphered tomorrow.
What new types of information do you think historians might
learn?
6. Prepare a table with three columns—Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and
Neolithic—and fill in their distinctive features: tools, settlements,
art, and subsistence.
7. “Bronze Age civilisations developed independently but shared
common features.” Examine this statement with reference to the
civilisations given in the chapter.
8. Although rivers provided many benefits, they also created
challenges for early societies. Discuss both the advantages and
disadvantages of settling near rivers.
9. With the help of your teacher, find out more about the Code of
Hammurabi. Why was it important? Do you think it was fair to all
sections of society? Give reasons for your answer.
10. If you had to choose one major innovation from early civilisations
that changed the world permanently, what would it be and why?
11. Compare the social hierarchy and daily life of people in the
Egyptian civilisation with those in Mesopotamia or China. What
similarities and differences do you notice?
12. Activity: Using maps, locate the major rivers and civilisations
of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the Sindhu–Sarasvatī Valley.
Mark the trade links between them.
13. Activity: Choose one early civilisation (Mesopotamia, Egypt, or
China) and prepare a mini-scrapbook or a presentation showing
their innovations in tools, writing, art, and architecture. Include
pictures, brief descriptions, and explain their significance.

Notes

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 Chapter 5

State and Society

up to 1000 CE
The Big Questions
1. How did society and state organise themselves prior to 1000 CE?
2. How did states and societies emerge and spread to different parts
of the Indian subcontinent?
3. How did the ideas of dharma and chakravarti samrāṭ help create
unity in social values and governance, and promote the idea of the
Indian subcontinent as one political entity?
4. How did different social, administrative, and occupational groups
take shape over time and come together culturally?

In the previous chapter, we traced the long journey of human

development from our early ancestors to the emergence of settled
communities and, subsequently, civilisations. We also examined
the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation along with other Bronze Age
civilisations of the world.
Let us now study the historical developments in the Indian
subcontinent, with reference to state and society up to the end of the
first millennium CE. By the end of this chapter, we will notice that
our understanding of this period is more detailed and qualitatively
enriched. This is because, from at least the second millennium
BCE, we begin to find literary sources—the Ṛigveda being the
earliest—that supplement archaeological evidence and provide
insights into the social, political, cultural, and moral dimensions of
the past. As a result, we gain insights into the social and political
realities, ideas, ideologies, institutions, and practices of this period.
We will begin with the social and political landscape described in
the literary sources such as kin-based social organisation (jana,
kula) and early forms of polity. Thereafter, we will study their
development into more complex and bigger, territory-based
political units like janapadas and mahājanapadas, and eventually
into empires during the time of the Mauryas and the Guptas in
northern India, and the Cholas in southern India. Alongside these

Chapter 5 .indd 95 17-Jul-26 4:44:13 PM

 changes, we will also examine elements of continuity, particularly
the political ideal of a pan-Indian monarch—expressed through
ritual practices such as the aśhvamedha yajña and the concept of the
chakravarti samrāṭ—as well as the enduring socio-ethical principle
of dharma.

Janapadas and Regional

mahājanapadas empires;
Imperial polities
Early India of southern
India

Kin-based Emergence of empires

polities of RV* (roughly pan-Indian in
(Sapta-Sindhu dimension); Early polities
region) of southern India
2000 BCE
Neolithic-
Chalcolithic

1000 BCE
Megalithic
(Iron)
PGW**
PGW (Iron)
Iron-NBPW***

800 BCE

300 BCE

300 CE

500 CE

700 CE

1000 CE
*RV: Ṛigveda **PGW: Painted Grey Ware *** NBPW: Northern Black Polished Ware

Fig. 5.1. Broad timeline of early India

This long span of time (refer to Fig 5.1) witnessed the rise and
fall of many dynasties and regional powers across the Indian
subcontinent, which you have also explored in previous grades.
In this chapter, we will gain a deeper understanding of the broad
features of the state and society of this period, through representative
examples from different regions of the subcontinent.

LET’S EXPLORE

As you read the chapter, follow the timeline at the bottom of each
page. Notice the important events, changes, and connections
across time. Think about which event interests you the most and
why. By the end of the chapter, share one event you would like to
explore further and document:
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 1. What happened?
2. When did it happen?
3. Why do you think it matters?

Understanding Early Indian State and Society

Whenever large groups of people live together, certain rules and
shared norms evolve over time to maintain order and harmony.
These rules and norms bind different social groups into a unified
whole, forming a ‘system’ that helps organise and govern people
effectively. From early times, Indian society developed several such
systems of organisation based on existing customs, traditions, and
agreed practices. Before examining these systems, however, let us
first explore a fundamental question—what is society?
A society may be understood as a system of social relationships
among individuals who share a common territory, culture, and a
shared sense of belonging. It consists of structural units such as
families or households, institutions such as marriage, and customs
that provide a framework for individual and social life. Most
importantly, society is primarily regulated by customs and practices
rather than formal laws.
And what is a State? As you read in your previous grades under the
theme ‘Governance and Democracy’, a ‘State’ refers to an organised
political system based on rules and laws. It includes well-defined
rights and duties of rulers and subjects, mechanisms of governance,
and institutions for enforcing law and order. From a historical
perspective, such political systems developed gradually as societies
became larger and more complex. By studying early historical
sources, historians attempt to understand how forms of governance

Cultural and Religious Developments

600–300 BCE: Life of Gautama
Buddha and Mahāvīra

1500–300 BCE: Upaniṣhads

2000–500 BCE: Vedic period

2000 – BCE - 600 590 580 570 560 550 540 530 520 510 500

600–300 BCE: Rise of the mahājanapadas

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 and political authority evolved over time. Against this background,
let us now explore the evolution of the state and society in India,
beginning with the Vedic period.

The Beginnings…

Fig. 5.2. A Ṛigveda manuscript as rendered in Devanagari script

The Vedas constitute the earliest known corpus of Indian

literature, especially since the script used by the Harappans of the
Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation has not yet been deciphered. What
we know today as Vedic literature existed in oral form for several
centuries before it was written down. We have read in previous
grades that the date of composition of the Ṛigveda remains debated
among historians, with estimates ranging from the fifth millennium
BCE to the second millennium BCE. We have also studied earlier that
the Ṛigveda was composed in the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent, where the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation flourished.
Interestingly, both the Ṛigveda and the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation
were familiar with copper.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Life of Gautama Buddha and Mahāvīra

1500–300 BCE: Upaniṣhads

490 480 470 460 450 440 430 420 410 400

600–300 BCE: Rise of the mahājanapadas

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 State and Administration
The Vedic Period

The Four Vedas

Ṛigveda Yajurveda Sāmaveda Atharvaveda

The earliest veda, Elaborates the Comprises hymns Contains a
containing some of performative drawn from the wide range of
the world’s oldest- aspects of Ṛigveda, carefully hymns—some
surviving poetic yajnās and arranged for intended to
compositions. It the hymns musical recitation. ward off evil,
consists of 1,028 hymns referred to in Its chanting and others
(sūktas), some in praise the Ṛigveda. tradition forms related to the
of various deities It includes an important treatment of
while others reflect explanations foundation for the physical and
on universal thoughts, in prose. system of the seven mental ailments.
such as creation and svaras (notes) that
cessation, birth and lie at the heart of
death, and so on. Indian music.

Each text of the Veda has the following four parts:

samhitā, brāhmaṇa, āranyaka, and upaniṣhad.

ƒ Samhitās primarily contain hymns used ƒ The Āraṇyakas (araṇya = forest) expand
for invoking the deity and for offering on philosophical speculations of sages
oblations in the yajña. living in forests.
ƒ The Brāhmaṇa, composed in ƒ The Upaniṣhads delve into issues like
prose, offer explanations for ritual the Self (Ātman) and the Ultimate
performances. Universal Being (Brāhmaṇ).

Note that while Brāhman is a concept, Brāhmaṇas are texts and Brāhmaṇas/Brahmins
is a varṇa category.

Cultural and Religious Developments

1500–300 BCE: Upaniṣhads

390 380 370 360 350 340 330 320 310 300

321 BCE: Foundation

600–300 BCE: Rise of the of Mauryan Empire by
mahājanapadas Chandragupta Maurya

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 Vedic texts are often used by historians and other scholars to learn
about the times and geographies in which they were composed. For
instance, the earliest sections of the Ṛigveda were composed in the
region known as Sapta–Sindhu—including the Indus River, its five
tributaries, and the Sarasvatī. Vedic texts are also studied to gain
insights into the lives of people, social structures, political systems,
economic pursuits, and religious practices. As one of the earliest
texts and given the continuity of cultural practices, the Vedic texts
are regarded as foundational to Indian culture and traditions.

Political Institutions in the Vedic Period

We have read in previous grades that early Vedic society was
organised into janas, or clans. These were groups of people bound
by kinship ties. The Ṛigveda alone mentions about thirty janas,
five of which—the Yadu, Turvaśha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu—were
collectively known as the pañchajana (‘five peoples’).

LET’S RECALL

In previous grades, you have read that the name ‘Bharata’ first
appears in the Ṛigveda. It is used in reference to the ‘Bharata
jana’, or the people who were ruled by the family of the Bharatas.
What does this tell us about how early communities identified
themselves and their rulers?

During this period, the rājā functioned primarily as a clan chief who
led the group in warfare and ensured the protection of its members.
The Vedic texts, particularly the Ṛigveda and Atharvaveda, refer to
three assemblies. These were called the sabhā, samiti, and vidhata.

Cultural and Religious Developments

300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed

272–232 BCE: Philosophy of Dhamma

290 280 270 260 250 240 230 220 210 200

272–232 BCE: Aśhoka’s reign

300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas)

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 Each of these assemblies played a significant role in early
Vedic polity.
Assemblies during Vedic Period

Sabhā Samiti Vidhata

� A smaller � A larger � A popular

body that assembly gathering
primarily focused attended by
served a on policy members of
judicial decisions the community
function. and political (janas).
� Composed of affairs. � Functioned as
select elites. � Represented a forum for
the broader discussions on
population. warfare and other
political matters.

THINK ABOUT IT

In modern democracies, heads of government exercise power

but are bound by constitutions and parliaments, which function
as representative bodies that check the powers of elected
leaders. Do the roles of the rājā and the assemblies in Vedic
times suggest a similar principle? Can we say that systems of
governance in Indian history—since their early institutionalised
forms—were guided by the idea of ensuring people’s participation
in the political process?

Cultural and Religious Developments

300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed

190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100

185 BCE: Foundation

of Śhunga empire by
Puṣhyamitra Śhunga

300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas)
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 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

W E

35°N
35°N

Gandhara Caves
S R.
Burzahom
m
u .
el R
Jh ab
n
e R.
C h avi
R R . Beas R.
lej

30°N
30°N

t Deodhoora
Pirak Su Ga
Jakhera ng
R. a Dadupur
R.
s

a R.

Ya
du

Ahar R Lahuradeva putr

m
l ma
ba
In

Brah

un
am Malhar Nartiang

a
R
sR

R.

25°N
25°N

a
na
Ch
Ganga R.

tw
Nangbah
Ba Be Birbir
Raja-Nal-Ka-Tila
Nagda Chaibasa
ada R
Narm Mahanadi R.
Tapi R.

20°N
20°N

Naikund
Go

Mahurjhari
da
va
ri
R

Maski Kadambapur
R
ra

ARABIAN Krishna R. BAY OF

ad

Watgal
bh

SEA BENGAL
15°N

15°N
Hire Benakal Nagarjunakonda
a
ng
Tu

Hallur
Brahmagiri Kav
eri R
.
10°N

10°N
Marayur
LEGEND Mangadu Pudukkottai
Megalithic Sites 250 0 250 500 km
Adichanallur
Early Finds of Iron
INDIAN OCEAN
65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

Fig. 5.3. First millennium BCE (iron finds)

LET’S ANALYSE

If you visualise the maps of the Indian subcontinent of the second

and first millennium BCE, you will find more settlements
concentrated in the Ganga region in the latter map.
Archaeological findings from this region during the first
millennium BCE provide increasing evidence of the use of iron
implements, a wider variety of grain, and the characteristic
PGW pottery. Further, in the second half of the first millennium
BCE, particularly in the middle Ganga region (from present-day
Prayagraj to eastern Bihar), there is evidence of a refined
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 ‘deluxe ware’ called NBPW, known for its smooth, glossy black
surface. Archaeologically, this phase marks the emergence of a
richer, more advanced material culture. Literary sources from this
period also contain numerous references to expanding agricultural
activities, increased grain output, greater crop variety—particularly
paddy—and the use of iron implements.
Can you identify the crucial factors behind this change?

Early Kingdoms and Republics

With the passage of time, the political organisation of Vedic society
evolved into territorial entities known as janapadas. The term
janapada literally means where a people ( jana) first set its feet,
indicating a transition from kinship-based identity to territorial
identity. This transition happened between approximately 1000 BCE
and 600 BCE. In other words, people were not only connected solely
by kinship ties but also by a sense of belonging to a land that gave
them a more concrete sense of identity. Some scholars have viewed
this transition as a consolidation of identity for the Vedic janas. Thus,
control over land, agricultural production, and trade routes became
increasingly important, leading to the development of more complex
administrative systems. As a result, the period approximately from
600 BCE to 300 CE witnessed the rise of new political formations—
mentioned in the contemporary texts as the mahājanapadas (bigger
political units than janapadas).
Historical sources for the period usually speak of sixteen
mahājanapadas. Among these, Magadha, located in present-day
Bihar, gradually emerged as the most powerful. Its strategic location,
fertile plains, and strong rulers enabled it to expand its control over

Cultural and Religious Developments

300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed

1st century BCE: Udaygiri and Khandagiri caves, patronage of art

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas)

1st century BCE: Khāravela’s reign

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 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E
N

W E

35°N
35°N

1
S 2

30°N
30°N

4
3 5 6 10
8
7 11
9 12

25°N
25°N

14

15

20°N
20°N

ARABIAN 16 BAY OF
SEA BENGAL

15°N
15°N

S
LA
C HO

10°N
10°N

AS
CH

DY
ER

N
PA
AS

250 0 250 500 km

INDIAN OCEAN
65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

1 Kamboja 3 Matsya 5 Śhūrasena 7 Vatsa 9 Kāśhī 11 Vṛijji 13 Anga 15 Avanti

2 Gandhāra 4 Kuru 6 Pañchāla 8 Kosala 10 Malla 12 Magadha 14 Chedi 16 Aśhmaka

Fig. 5.4. Spatial distribution of the sixteen mahājanapadas and kingdoms of Tamilakam

neighbouring regions. This expansion eventually led to the rise of

the Mauryan Empire, which became one of the largest and most
powerful empires in early Indian history.
Another significant development during this period was the
expansion of Vedic culture in the Ganga plains. While the early
Vedic culture was most prominent in the northwestern regions,
particularly the Indus and Sarasvatī valleys, the later Vedic period
saw the Ganga plains emerge as the main centre. Consequently, the
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 region witnessed significant sociopolitical changes. This included
substantial growth in agriculture, the formation of larger political
units, and the development of more complex social institutions by
about 600 BCE. However, this was also a time when the political
landscape of northern India had evolved to include different forms
of political organisation. These comprised monarchical states
(rājyas) and republican states (gaṇas or saṁghas). In southern India,
particularly in the Deccan, the Mauryan Empire was succeeded by
the Satavāhana Empire, which lasted nearly 500 years, from the
2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. Further south in peninsular
India, there were the polities of the Cholas (in the lower Kaveri
River valley), Pandyas (in the river valleys of the Tamraparni and
Vaigai), Keralaputras (identified with the Cheras in Kerala), and the
Satiyaputras (in the northern part of Tamil Nadu). These polities also
find mention in the Aśhokan inscriptions.

LET’S RECALL

You may remember from your previous grades that the three
important kingdoms of southern India, the Cholas, Cheras, and
Pandyas, had their own royal emblems. The tiger was the emblem
of the Cholas, the bow represented the Cheras, and the fish
symbolised the Pandyas. Much of what we know about these early
Tamil kingdoms comes from Sangam literature, the earliest Tamil
literary tradition, which dates between 300 BCE and 300 CE. The
Chera, Chola, and Pandya rulers were known as the three crowned
kings or “Vendar of Tamilakam”, and their kingdoms flourished
in fertile rice-growing regions. Sangam poems also describe brave
and ambitious kings, including a Chera ruler who earned the title

Cultural and Religious Developments

300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

CE
300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of 78 CE: Saka Era
Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas) begins

30–375 CE: Kuṣhāṇas

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 adhirāja after defeating several crowned kings. These poems
further mention Vedic yajñas and links with epic traditions.
However, these early kingdoms should not be confused with the
later imperial Chola, Chera, and Pandya kingdoms that emerged
many centuries later.

Duties and Ideals of the King

From the 6th century BCE onwards, rulers came to be known by
various titles, such as rājā, mahārāja, or samrāṭ, across different
regions, reflecting regional political traditions. Nonetheless, early
Indian texts provide important insights into ideas of kingship and
governance. For instance, Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhāstra states, “Only if
a king is himself energetically active, do his officers follow him
energetically.” Further, with reference to the oath of coronation
in the Yajurveda, the king is advised to judge the strong and weak
impartially and fairly in addition to protecting the country from all
calamities and do good to the people.
The Śhānti Parva of the Mahābhārata provides guidance to rulers
on ethical conduct, justice, and the responsibilities of a king towards
his subjects. The king was primarily responsible for protecting his
subjects from external threats and internal disorder. He was also
expected to administer justice in cases, such as abduction, robbery,
theft, and adultery. Punishments for serious offences—including the
killing of a cow, acts of treachery, and the consumption of intoxicating
liquor—were severe and could include harsh penalties, sometimes
even capital punishment. While kingship was generally hereditary,

Cultural and Religious Developments

300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed

110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

30–375 CE: Kuṣhāṇas

106–130 CE: Gautamīputra Śhātakarṇi’s reign

300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas)

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 there are references to kings being elected or even expelled. This
suggests that royal authority was not always absolute and that
succession was not entirely hereditary in practice.
It is important to note that the geopolitical awareness of early Indian
monarchs was not limited to the boundaries of their kingdoms
but extended to the whole Indian subcontinent. This pan-Indian
geopolitical awareness was expressed through terms such as
Jambudvīpa, Bhāratavarṣha, Aśhvamedha and Rājasūya yajña,
Prithivi, and chakravarti kśhetra. Embedded in these expressions
were ideas of sovereignty and political authority over a territory
that can largely be understood as the Indian subcontinent. The
Mauryan ruler Aśhoka, for instance, in one of his edicts, states that
his “energetic exertions” (pakama; parākrama in Sanskrit) led to
“significant changes in the spiritual life in Jambudvīpa.” Similarly,
the meaning of Prithivi (pathivi in Prakrit) by Aśhoka becomes
clearer in the Arthaśhāstra, where it is defined as “the area lying
between the Himavat (Himalayas) and the sea.” The Arthaśhāstra
further equates the term prithivi with the chakravarti kśhetra, or the
“domain of a universal paramount ruler.” This ideal of exercising
political authority over the subcontinent continued to be expressed
in later periods. Very early during the Sangam period in southern
India, a Chera king Nedunjeral Adan is described to have not only
won the rank of adhirāja for himself, but also to have extended his
conquests up to the Himalayas in the north. Similarly, in the 11th
century CE, the Chola ruler Rajendra I adopted the title Gangaikonda
to commemorate his conquest of regions along the Ganga. Thus, the
aspiration to exercise political authority over the Indian subcontinent
was repeatedly expressed in the history of Indian kingship.

Cultural and Religious Developments

300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed

210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300

275 CE: Pallava dynasty 300 CE: Rise

established of Pallavas

250–510 CE: Vākāṭakas

30–375 CE: Kuṣhāṇas

300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas)

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 THINK ABOUT IT

Texts such as the Mahābhārata and the Arthaśhāstra describe

the king’s duties as protecting people and ensuring justice. Why
do you think it was important for rulers to protect people and
ensure justice? What do these descriptions tell us about ideas
of governance and the relationship between rulers and subjects
during that period?

Council of Ministers
The state, was regarded as an organic whole composed of seven
constituents. Kauṭilya identified the seven constituents (Saptāṁga) as
follows—the king, the ministers, the territory, the forts, the treasury,
the army, and the allies. The state can function effectively only if
these constituents remain properly integrated.

LET’S RECALL

The Arthaśhāstra is one of the earliest and most systematic

treatises on statecraft. It presents a detailed picture of
administration, and emphasises the importance of training a
king in the art of governance and public administration. The
Arthaśhāstra states that “one wheel does not move the carriage”.
This statement captures the belief that effective governance
requires cooperation and a well-organised administrative
machinery. In fact, various literary and epigraphic sources from

Cultural and Religious Developments

300–400 CE: Faxian’s visit; Kālidāsa

310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400

250–510 CE: Vākāṭakas

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

320–550 CE: Guptas

30–375 CE: Kuṣhāṇas

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 this period indicate that the
king did not rule alone
Kauṭilya’s Saptāṁga
but governed through a
multi-layered administrative
system. Central to this system
was the council of ministers
(mantri–pariṣhad), a small the king (swāmi)

body of elder statesmen,

whose primary role was to
advise and support the king. [the group of] councillors,
ministers and other high
the territory of the state
along with the population
officials (amātya) inhabiting it (janapada)
The council of ministers
generally included the treasurer,
the chief tax collector, the
chief legal advisor, and the
commander-in-chief of the
the fortified towns and cities the treasury or the wealth of
army. An Aśhokan (durga) the kingdom (koṣha)

inscription refers to decisions

taken by the council of
ministers during the emperor’s
absence, showing that, in the forces of defence and the allies (mitra)
law and order (daṇḍa)
exceptional circumstances, the
council could take decisions
independently in public
interest.

Cultural and Religious Developments

427 CE: Nalanda 480 CE: Vallabhī 500 CE:

university established university established Āryabhaṭa

410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

320–550 CE: Guptas

475–776 CE: Maitrakas

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 DON’T MISS OUT

Fig. 5.5. Junagadh Rock Inscription, Gujarat

The Junagadh Rock Inscription near Girnar (Gujarat) is unique

as it bears inscriptions of three rulers from different periods.
The earliest inscriptions belong to the Mauryan emperor Aśhoka
(3rd century BCE), whose Major Rock Edicts in Prakrit spread the
message of Dhamma and moral governance. Later on, the Western
Satrap ruler Rudradaman I (c. 150 CE) added a long Sanskrit
inscription describing his military achievements and the repair of
the Sudarshana Lake. Still later, the Gupta emperor Skandagupta
(5th century CE) engraved another record on the same rock,
noting the restoration of the lake after severe damage. Thus, this
single rock inscription site preserves the records of the Maurya,
Western Satrap, and Gupta dynasties, spanning about 700 years
and providing valuable information about administration, public
works, and political history in India.

Cultural and Religious Developments

550 CE: Rāvaṇaphāḍī cave temple

510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600

543 CE: Foundation of Chālukyan

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa dynasty by Pulakeśhin I

320–550 CE: Guptas

475–776 CE: Maitrakas

510–606 CE Maukharīs
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 THINK ABOUT IT

Why do you think different rulers chose to record their

inscriptions on the same stone instead of a new one? Discuss your
answers with your classmates.

How Were Empires Administered?

Early Indian kingdoms and empires were generally divided into
provinces, which were further subdivided into divisions and
districts. For instance, the Satavāhana empire comprised āḥāras
(administrative divisions), each with its respective ministers
(amātyas). Below the āḥāras were villages, each led by a village
headman known as grāmika. While supreme authority rested with
the king, the general administration was carried out by officers
operating both at provincial and local levels. District governors
or pradeśhikas were responsible for judicial and administrative
functions. It is important to note that district officers often made
decisions after consulting important residents such as bankers,
caravan leaders, artisans, and scribes. In addition, cities had their
own governors who were in charge of revenue collection and
maintenance of law and order.
The period between approximately 300 CE and 800 CE was
characterised by the decentralisation of power, as, for administrative
convenience, the kingdom (rājya) was divided into several provinces,
known as bhuktis in the north and manḍalas or manḍalams in the
south. The provinces were further subdivided into divisions—viṣhaya
or bhoga in the north and koṭṭams or valanāḍu in the south. Lower

Cultural and Religious Developments

629–645 CE: 630–668 CE:
Xuanzang’s visit Mahabalipuram
rock-cut temples

610 620 630 640 650 650 660 670 680 690

630–668 CE: Narasimhavarman I’s reign

606 CE:
Harṣhavardhana
annexes Kannauj

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

475–776 CE: Maitrakas

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 units of administration were the districts—adhiṣhṭhāna or paṭṭana in
the north and nāḍu in the south; groups of villages, that is, modern
tahsīl, were called vithis in the north and paṭṭalā and kūṛram in southern
Indian records. Finally, villages formed the lowest administrative
units. To govern various administrative units, a large machinery was
developed, consisting of provincial governors and district officers.

THINK ABOUT IT

How would dividing a kingdom into provinces, districts, and

villages have helped rulers manage their empires? What
similarities can you identify between these administrative
divisions and the system of governance in India today?

Interestingly, the Guptas retained much of the earlier form of

administration. So, as in Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhastra, the mantri was
the head of the civil administration, while other important officers
included the commander-in-chief, the general, and the chief of the
palace guards. A new ‘minister of peace and war’ (sāndhivigrahika)
was introduced during the Gupta period. The amātyas of Kauṭilya’s
time also evolved into a broader category that included kumārāmātyas,
who were administrators at the local or provincial level. Details of the
district-level administration of the Gupta period are available from
various records. For instance, the Damodarpur copper plates during
the period of Kumaragupta I record that the district office comprised
the following five members: the head district officer, the chief banker,
the chief caravan trader, the chief artisan, and the chief of revenue

Cultural and Religious Developments

783–820 CE: Vikramśhila university
756–773 CE: Kailasa Temple, Ellora

724–760 CE: Martanda Sun Temple, Anantnag, Kashmir

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790

750–1161 CE: Pālas

753–982 CE: Rāṣhṭrakūṭas
712 CE: Arab
724–760 CE: Lalitāditya Muktapīḍa’s reign
conquest of
Sindh 730–1036 CE: Gurjara-Pratihāras

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

475–776 CE: Maitrakas

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 collection. Like other kingdoms of this period, the Pallavas (c. 275–
897 CE) in the south also adopted a combination of centralised
monarchy and decentralised local governance. While the king was
the supreme head of state, the kingdom was divided into provinces,
districts, taluks, and villages. One of the most striking features of the
Pallavas was the tax-free land grants to villages. These were known
as Brahmadeya villages.
It is further interesting to note how villages functioned relatively
independently of the royal administration. For instance, the village
assemblies had small committees known as variyams that managed
specific tasks like irrigation, gardens, and temple management.
Like their contemporaries, the Chālukyas (c. 543–753 CE) of

65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

N

W E

35°N
35°N

S
Śh
āh
ī

30°N
Pu
30°N

ṣh
ya

ī
khar
bh

Mau
ūt

G
i

u p t a

25°N
25°N

Pāla
Gurjara-Pratihāra
Sena
Maitraka

20°N
20°N

Rāṣhṭrakūṭas
Eastern
ARABIAN Chālukya BAY OF
SEA BENGAL
Badami
Chālukya
15°N
15°N

Pallava
nd hola
Che

ya
C
10°N

10°N
ra

Pa

250 0 250 500 km

INDIAN OCEAN
65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E
5 – State and
Fig. 5.6. Kingdoms and empires flourishing between 3 and 10 centurySociety
CE up to rd th

1000 CE
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 Badami followed a monarchical system along with a decentralised
administration. The king’s duties and the kingdom’s administrative
divisions, along with the autonomous functioning of village
assemblies, largely followed the same pattern discussed above.
Thus, instead of the Brahmadeya villages of the Pallava dynasty,
the Chālukyas gave land grants to Brahmin settlements known as
agrahārams. Some of these agrahārams, such as those at Aihole and
Badami, gradually developed into prominent centres of learning.
As you have read in previous grades, the Gurjara–Pratihāras ruled
over large parts of Northern and Western India from about the
8th to 10th centuries CE. The main capital of this dynasty, Kannauj
(in modern-day Uttar Pradesh), became a coveted site for various
political kingdoms of the period. The ‘struggle’ to control Kannauj
later came to be known as the ‘tri-partite struggle’ because of the
involvement of three major powers, namely the Gurjara–Pratihāras,
Pālas, and Rāṣhṭrakūṭas. The administrative systems of all three
kingdoms followed the same pattern, that is a mix of monarchy and
decentralised administrative units comprising provinces, districts and
villages. In all cases, the village remained the smallest administrative
unit and was largely self-reliant and autonomous in major practical
functions, including infrastructure, social welfare, and education.
Remember meeting the early Cholas, a powerful kingdom of southern
India, and the famous King Karikala in your previous grades. Now,
we will explore the later Cholas, also known as the imperial Cholas
(9th– 11th century CE), who were noted for their efficient administrative
and revenue systems. Like other empires of the period, the Chola
empire was divided into manḍalams (provinces), which were further
subdivided into valanāḍus (districts), nāḍus (groups of villages), and

Cultural and Religious Developments

800 810 820 830 840 850 860 870 880 890

750–1161 CE: Pālas

753–982 CE: Rāṣhṭrakūṭas

730–1036 CE: Gurjara-Pratihāras

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

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 finally Urs (individual villages). As usual, the village was the smallest
unit within a district. Village councils or assemblies played an
important role in settling disputes and managing local affairs. As in
other parts of India, the village assemblies of the Chola empire were
responsible for all local administrative functions, including revenue
collection, land management, irrigation, road construction, record
maintenance, and so on. Thus, the village assemblies functioned as
independent, self-reliant institutions and were not dependent on the
government for patronage.

DON’T MISS OUT

The Uttaramerur inscription of Parantaka I (10th century) of the

Chola period provides a vivid description of village governance.
Located in the Vaikunṭha Perumal Temple in Kanchipuram
district of Tamil Nadu, these Tamil inscriptions furnish details
about the functioning of village assemblies, and inform us about
the Kudavolai, or the ‘ballot pot’ system used in village elections.
In this system, the names of eligible candidates were written
on palm leaves and placed inside a large pot. During a public
gathering, a young child was asked to draw the leaves, one by one,
to select representatives for the village assembly and its various
committees. To ensure fairness, the draw took place in full view of
the community, often at a temple. The elected members were then
divided into specialised committees (variyams), each entrusted
with important village responsibilities, such as managing
irrigation (the tank committee), administering justice, and
collecting taxes.

Cultural and Religious Developments

985–1014 CE: Brihadeeshwara Temple, Thanjavur

900 910 920 930 940 950 960 970 980 990

985–1014 CE: Rājarāja I’s reign

750–1161 CE: Pālas

753–982 CE: Rāṣhṭrakūṭas

730–1036 CE: Gurjara–Pratihāras

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

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 Ethics: The Foundation of Law and Life
Ethics form the basis of law and life, making it important to explore
the roots of ethical thought in Indian history. Some of the earliest
Indian texts, such as the Vedas and the epics, discuss questions of
reality, right conduct, the origin of all things, and the nature of the
universe. Vedic texts describe how life should be lived ideally. The
Bhagavada Gītā emphasises knowledge, faith, action, virtue and an
ethical way of life.
India has a long tradition of ethical thought, and these moral
principles often guided both state and society. One important
principle through which reality is understood is samatva, or the
principle of sameness. According to this principle, all bodies are made
of the same matter, and all forms of consciousness are
manifestations of one supreme consciousness. The Vedas describe
this consciousness as satya (real, true) and ṛita (right), as well as and
“the invisible origin of all things”. The Mahābhārata also includes
characters from all varṇas who, despite their differences, repeatedly
uphold the principle of samatva. The epics, often, critique
discrimination and present goodness as non-discriminatory. They
emphasise the ideal of a good person and ruler “as one who works
for the welfare of all beings.”
Ṛita is another concept that is described in the Ṛig Veda as an all
pervading cosmic order that represents harmony and balance in
nature, and in human society. It is seen as the principle that regulates
the forces of nature, upholds moral values, and represents the
underlying order that maintains balance in the universe.

Cultural and Religious Developments

985–1014 CE: Brihadeeshwara Temple, Thanjavur

1000 1010 1020 1030 1040 1050 1060 1070 1080 1090

985–1014 CE: Rājarāja I’s reign

750–1161 CE: Pālas

730–1036 CE: Gurjara–Pratihāras

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

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 The idea of justice is closely linked to dharma. Here, dharma does
not mean religion; rather, it refers to duty, obligation, righteousness,
and moral conduct. It represents a way of life in which ethical values
are central and individuals are expected to perform their duties
according to their roles and responsibilities in society. In Buddhism,
the term ‘dhamma’—the Pāli equivalent of the Sanskrit word
dharma—is used to express similar ethical principles.

DON’T MISS OUT

The word ‘dharma’ is derived from the Sanskrit root dhri, which is
also the root of dharati (the earth). In the Mahābhārata, Bhishma
says that dharma “is that which upholds beings; whatever upholds
all beings is dharma.” In the sense of the law of existence, it is also
said that “the dharma of iron is to sink and of wood is to float.”

The connection between politics and ethics is further evident in

historical records from different periods, from the Mauryas to
the Cholas. For instance, Aśhoka’s edicts promoted dhamma by
emphasising moral conduct, respect within the family, ethical
behaviour in everyday life, non-violence, and compassion. Evidence
of ethical principles in governance continued into later periods.
The 10th century CE Uttaramerur inscription, for instance, specifies
that candidates for village assembly elections should have “honest
earnings” and be “pure” of mind. Literary works from different
periods also highlight the importance of moral conduct in public
life. Kāmandaka’s Nītisāra and Bāṇabhaṭṭa’s Kādambarī—widely
celebrated as one of the world’s first novels—contain reflections

Cultural and Religious Developments

1100 1110 1120 1130 1140 1150 1160 1170 1180 1190

750–1161 CE: Pālas

350–1140 CE: Kāmarūpa

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 and advice on kingship and governance, reinforcing the enduring
connection between ethics and political authority in Indian history.

Social Structures and Everyday Life

Varṇa and Jāti
In previous grades, we learned about the varṇa system and its
fourfold structure—brāhmaṇas, kṣhatriyas, vaiśhyas, and śhūdras.
Early Vedic texts do not indicate any fixed social status strictly
based on birth. Instead, it is generally agreed that social identity
was shaped by several complex and overlapping factors, including
ethnicity, subgroups, geographic region, village affiliation, gotra
(a kinship-based subgroup), language, and, especially occupation.
While this system distinguished individuals and communities from
one another, it also connected them through shared social, economic,
and cultural relationships. At this stage, occupations remained
flexible and mobile, and the idea of strict hereditary occupations
had not yet become firmly established. Evidence of this flexibility is
often drawn from a verse of the Ṛigveda in which the seer refers to
occupational diversity within a single family.

Kārurahaṁ tato bhiṣhagupalaprakṣhiṇī nanā ǀ

Nānādhiyo vasūyavo’nu gā iva tasthimendrāyendo pari srava ǀǀ
– Ṛigveda 9.112.3
I am a poet;
my father is a physician,
my mother is a grinder of corn;
having various occupation, desiring riches we remain (in the
world) like cattle (in the stalls).

LET’S EXPLORE

Read the verse given above and discuss it in groups. As you do so,
think like historians—look for clues in the source and use them to
understand what life may have been like.
While discussing, keep these questions in mind:
Æ What does the source tell us? (evidence)

Understanding Society: Æ What can we understand from it? (interpretation)

India and Beyond Æ What might it not tell us? (limits of the source)
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 Now answer the following:
1. What occupations are mentioned in the family described
in the verse? What does this indicate about the nature of
occupations in Vedic society?
2. How does the above verse challenge the idea that social
status and occupation were fixed by birth?
3. What different occupations do you find in contemporary
society?
After the discussion, compare your group’s responses with those
of another group and note the similarities and differences in
interpretation. Did all groups interpret the source in the same
way? What does this tell us about how historians use evidence to
understand the past?

The earliest reference to the four social categories, understood by

historians as varṇa, appears in the Puruṣhasūkta, a hymn in Book
10 of the Ṛigveda. Over a period of time, these four social categories
(varṇas) came to be associated with specific roles and tasks. The
brāhmaņas were mainly expected to study and teach the Vedas
and other sacred texts, perform and officiate yajñas, and give and
receive dāna (gifts). Rajanya (Kṣhatriyas) were tasked with warfare,
protecting people, and administering justice. They were also expected
to study the scriptures, sponsor yajñas, make donations, and uphold
social order. Vaiśhyas were associated with economic activities, such
as agriculture, pastoralism, and trade, while also participating in
scriptural study, sacrificial rituals, and acts of charity. Śhūdras were
expected to assist the other varṇas. However, practically, the Śhūdras
were also engaged in various economic activities such as agriculture, Endogamy:
animal husbandry, trade, and arts and crafts. The practice
of marrying
Thus, the concept of varṇa was based on a system of values in
within one’s own
which knowledge was given the highest status, followed by political social group,
power and wealth. Therefore, it is important to remember that the community, clan
division of the four varṇas was a functional one. For instance, the or tribe. It is a
social custom
Buddhist text Sutta Nipāta states that, “No brāhmaņa is such by birth.
in which people
No outcaste is such by birth but only by his deeds. A brāhmaņa is are expected to
such by his deeds.” Over time, however, this flexibility in social roles choose marriage
gradually got reduced. partners from
within the same
Gradually, a distinct social structure called jāti emerged due group.
to various factors, including intermarriage among the varṇas,
migrating communities becoming endogamous, and territorial 5 – State and
differences. While the number of varṇas was fixed at four, there Society up to
1000 CE
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 was no restriction on the number of jātis. As new social groups
and occupations developed, the number of jātis continued to grow.

Social Mobility
Varṇa and jāti were not always rigid social categories, and there
was considerable social mobility within and across these categories.
For example, several rulers came from diverse social backgrounds
including the Nandas, Mauryas, Śhuṅgas, Satavāhanas, Vākāṭakas,
Guptas, and Puṣhyabhūtis.
There are also instances of occupational mobility within social groups.
For instance, the Mandsaur Stone Inscription (473 CE) mentions a
guild of silk weavers who migrated from Lata in Gujarat to Dashapura
in Madhya Pradesh during the Gupta period. This guild was proficient
not just in weaving but also in archery, astrology, and other occupations.
Likewise, there are several inscriptions, such as the Karitalai copper-
plate inscriptions of Mahārāja Jayanātha
(late 5th century CE), which record
brāhmaṇas as land managers.
Sangam literature like the Tolkappiyam
refers to four-fold division of society
and mentions different groups such
as Arasar (kings), Vanigar (traders/
merchants), and Velar (farmers). We also
find references to Antanar (brāhmaṇas),
who were often patronised by ruling
elites and the kings. However, the
varṇa classification mentioned in the
Tolkappiyam seems to be premised on
occupation, and the four-fold varṇa
classification was marked by fluidity. Fig. 5.7. Karitalai copper
For instance, the Pattinappalai describes plate of Mahārāja Jayanātha
a prosperous, dynamic, trade-oriented society where different
occupational groups such as merchants, salt-makers, fishermen,
artisans, agriculturists, and warriors, interacted actively. This suggests
that society was organised more on the basis of occupation and
economic functions than on a rigid varṇa classification.

Family and Society

In Vedic society, the kula (family) formed the smallest and the most
Understanding Society:
basic social unit. It was connected to the larger political structure
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 Brahmacharya, stage of studentship Gṛihastha, stage of the householder

Vānaprastha, life in the forest Saṁnyāsa, renunciation

Fig. 5.8. The four āśhramas

Patrilineal:
through the village, or grāma, which consisted of several families. A social system
A group of grāmas together formed a viśha, headed by a viśhapati. wherein family
Above the viśha was the jana, with the rājā serving as the chief identity and
inheritance, are
protector of the jana, or the people. In this way, the family or kula passed down
was inseparable from the jana. During the later Vedic period, the strictly through
term kula came to denote a household comprising several members the male line.
bound by kinship. The concept of gotra referred to a patrilineal
lineage or clan traced to a common ancestor, traditionally linked to
a Vedic sage (ṛiṣhi). Gotra affiliation often played an important role
in regulating marriage practices as well. Everyone was expected
to perform the duties appropriate to their varṇa and stage of
life (āśhrama). This division of one’s life into the four āśhramas
(Fig 5.8) and their respective dharmas, in principle, provides
fulfilment to the person in their social, moral, and spiritual aspects,
which would lead to harmony and balance in society. All the stages
of life were accompanied by numerous rituals and ceremonies,
particularly the ṣhoḍaśha saṁskāras, or the ‘sixteen rites of passage’. 5 – State and
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 Apart from the āśhramas, the concept of the four goals of life or
puruṣhārthas was also significant. These were (1) righteousness
(dharma); (2) material well-being (artha); (3) fulfilment of desires
(kāma); and (4) liberation from all worldly ties (mokṣha). The
fulfilment of these four ends of life is important for every human
being. In this framework, dharma and mokṣha hold particular
significance from an ethical point of view, as they provide direction
and purpose to human life. For instance, the pursuit of wealth
(artha) is a desirable objective, provided it is guided by dharma, that
is, aligned with the welfare of society.

Role of Women
The Vedic period is often described as a period during which women
held a high and respectful position in society. Women participated
in scholarly learning and, in certain contexts, performed rituals
alongside their male counterparts. Textual references also indicate
that women took part in activities such as chariot races and
attended social gatherings, including the sabhā. Several hymns of the
Ṛigveda are traditionally attributed to women sages—most notably
Apālā, Viśhvavārā, Ghoṣhā, and Lopāmudrā—highlighting women’s
active engagement in intellectual and religious life. In addition,
goddesses such as Uṣha, the goddess of dawn, and Aditi, the mother of
the gods, occupied significant and revered positions in Vedic culture.
The tradition of respect for women is evident in texts composed after
the Vedic period, too. For instance, Manu-smṛiti mentions:

Yatra nāryastu pūjyante ramante tatra devatāḥ ǀ

Yatraitāstu na pūjyante sarvās tatrāphalāḥ kriyāḥ ǀǀ
ǀǀ Manu-Smṛiti 3.56 ǀǀ
“Where women, verily, are honoured, there gods rejoice;
where, however, they are not honoured, there all sacred
rites prove fruitless.”

Over time, the position and roles of women fluctuated, even

declined, as social and political conditions changed. However,
there are many examples of women continuing to contribute to
household management, agriculture, crafts, and religious practices.

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 Literary works of the Gupta–Vākāṭaka period (around the 4th to
6th centuries CE) feature female characters who are depicted as
highly educated and skilled in the arts. Other historical records
also mention queens and royal women who played important roles Votive
in governance and religious patronage. For example, as discussed inscription:
in the Grade 7, Part I textbook, Prabhāvatī Gupta, daughter of the Text engraved
Gupta ruler Chandragupta II, ruled as a regent in the Vākāṭaka on stone,
metal, or other
kingdom and issued land grants in her own name. Women materials,
also appear as donors on several votive inscriptions from the dedicating a
post-Maurya period. gift, sculpture,
or structure
Sangam literature similarly portrays women as active participants to a deity or
in society and the economy. They performed important agrarian sacred place.
tasks such as planting, weeding, husking, winnowing paddy, and
were also involved in cattle rearing, spinning, fishing, salt production,
and garland selling. Sangam texts further mention influential women
such as the celebrated poetesses Avvaiyar and Vennikuyattiyar
(woman potter). Similarly the women bards and dancers quite like
their male counterparts contributed to the cultural, literary, and
social roles of women in early historic southern India. Later, during
the Chola period, inscriptions record the activities of royal women
such as Sembiyan Mahādevī, who supported temple building and
religious institutions.

Religious Life and the Emergence of Bhakti

The Vedic pantheon did not follow a rigid hierarchical structure, and
different deities are praised as supreme in different hymns of the
Vedas. These deities were invoked through prayers and sacrificial
rituals (yajñas), which involved making offerings, most often to
the sacred fire. The faith of the Vedic people was intertwined with
the worship of nature, as each Vedic deity was associated with an
element of nature, such as the sun, rain, fire, earth, dawn, etc. Some
of these ancient practices continue today in the form of festivals
celebrated across India, for example, the sun worship during Chhath
and on Makar Sankranti. Such practices are often understood in the
context of early societies’ dependence on nature for survival. As a
result, nature was viewed not merely as a resource, but as sacred
and powerful. The Vedic worldview, therefore, reflected an early
sense of respect for, and responsibility towards, nature.

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 DON’T MISS OUT

Around the middle of the first millennium BCE, a discernible

trend of renunciants emerged. These individuals advocated non-
attachment to material comforts and social relationships, choosing
to live as ascetics and wanderers, rather than as householders.
Contemporary sources refer to them by different terms, such as
parivrājaka (wanderer), bhikṣhu (one who lives by begging alms),
or śhramaṇa (one who strives). While Gautama Buddha and
Mahāvīra emerged as influential thinkers of this period, the idea
of renunciation was already present in the Vedic tradition. As
discussed earlier, amongst the four stages (āśhrama) of life,
vānaprastha and saṁnyāsa clearly have a renunciatory
connotation.

Over time, the Vedic religious tradition evolved towards forms

of worship centred on personal deities such as Viṣhṇu, Śhiva, and
Śhakti, laying the foundations for later devotional practices. One
such practice was ‘Bhakti’, a path that offered a direct connection
with the gods without the need for elaborate rituals prescribed in the
Vedas, and which was accessible to all, regardless of class or gender.
Bhakti has a long tradition in India, with early references found
in texts such as the Mahābhārata. However, the organised and
widespread devotional set of practices known as the Bhakti tradition
gained prominence in the 6th century Tamil region through the
devotional activities of the Āḻvārs and Nāyanmārs. The Āḻvārs were
twelve saint-poets who composed hymns in praise of Lord Viṣhṇu.
Alongside the Āḻvārs were the sixty-three Nāyanmārs, the Śhaiva
saint-poets, who composed hymns in praise of Lord Śhiva. Together,
the Āḻvārs and Nāyanmārs created a large body of Tamil Bhakti
literature, which represents one of the most significant cultural and
religious developments of this period. You will learn more about the
Bhakti tradition in the second part of the Grade 9 textbook.

The Quest for Knowledge

In early India, education was an integral part of life, serving a
holistic purpose. Truth, patience, regularity, humility, control of
senses, purity of self (sattvaśhuddhi), cognition of the underlying
unity of life, nature and environment, and reverence for all beings
were the inner values cultivated by Indian education. Pupils were
trained to live in accordance with dharma—the guiding principle for
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 Fig. 5.9. Representative illustration of a Gurukula

the individual, the family, and society. Dharma required everyone,

including students, to fulfil their duties towards parents, teachers,
and the gods. Good character and moral conduct were seen as the
foundation of society.
Indian education also imparted practical skills across a wide range
of subjects. Students studied the Vedas, along with grammar, logic,
philosophy, ethics, mathematics, science, medicine, and astronomy.
They were also trained in various arts and crafts, including music,
dance, painting, physical education, and martial arts such as archery.
Alongside their studies, students practised yoga, meditation, and
service to the guru, making education a complete preparation for
life, not just a path to a career. The teacher–student relationship
(guru-śhiṣhya paramparā) was regarded as sacred. The teacher
(guru or āchārya) was highly respected and seen as a guide who
helped students move from the darkness of ignorance to the light of
knowledge. The teacher’s home served as the centre of the gurukula,
and the relationship between the teacher and student was close
and mutually supportive, with the student treated as a member
of the teacher’s family. Students living in the gurukula followed a
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 disciplined life marked by self-control, obedience, and devotion.
Education was treated as a critical part of life, which was imparted
holistically.

LET’S EXPLORE

Compare your school life with the life of a student in a gurukula

in early India. Think about aspects such as daily routine, subjects
studied, relationship with teachers, discipline, and living
arrangements. What advantages and challenges do you think each
system of education might have for students?

65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

N
Śhāradā Pīṭha

35°N
35°N

W E

Takṣhaśhilā S

30°N
30°N

Mithilā
Ahichchhatra
Odantapurī
Nālandā Jagaddalā

25°N
25°N

Ujjayinī Vārāṇasī Sompura

Vikramśhilā
Vallabhī

20°N
20°N

Puṣhpagiri
Saloṭgī
Nāgārjunakonḍā

ARABIAN BAY OF
BENGAL
15°N

SEA
15°N

Kānchīpuram

Ennayiram
10°N

10°N

LEGEND
Thrissur 0 250 500 km
Ancient centres
of learning Anurādhāpura

65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

Fig. 5.10. Some of the prominent universities and advanced centres

Understanding Society: of learning in early India
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 Fig. 5.11. Panoramic view of the ruins of Takshashila. It was a large campus with very well-
organised urban systems, including various types of housing, drainage, and waste management.

India’s long tradition of learning and intellectual activity is reflected

in the establishment of several important centres of education before
the second millennium CE. Historical and literary sources indicate
that during this period, institutions of higher learning emerged
across the Indian subcontinent, attracting students from both India
and other regions.
Over several millennia, India produced a vast and diverse body
of literature spanning subjects, such as philosophy, grammar,
medicine, astronomy, mathematics, culinary practices, agriculture,
architecture, and various aspects of everyday life. Notably, despite
the rise and fall of kingdoms and political changes over time, many
of these knowledge traditions and practices persisted.

Literary Heritage of Early India

Foundational Smṛiti Literature–

Classical Works
Texts for Sanskrit Dharma, Law and
on Medicine
Grammar Ethics

Pāṇini’s Aṣhṭādhyāyī, Manu-smṛiti, Yājñavalkya Charakasamhitā and

Piṅgala’s Chhandaśhāstra, Smṛiti, Nārada Smṛiti, Suśhrutasamhitā
Patañjali’s Mahābhāṣhya Viṣhṇu Smṛiti

Sanskrit poetry Tamil Literature

and Kāvya Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural; the Tamil epics Silappadikāram and
Kālidāsa’s Maṇimēkalai; the vast body of Sangam texts covering a wide
Raghuvaṃśha and range of themes including love (akam), war or public life (puram),
Kumārasambhava political organisation, social structures, and economic activities

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 Economy
Agriculture and Land Revenue
The Mauryan state developed an elaborate administrative system
to regulate and supervise economic activities. Agricultural land
within villages was divided into individual holdings, while common
resources such as pastures were maintained for grazing cattle.
Villages also included groves on their outskirts. The state encouraged
agricultural expansion by clearing forests, although certain
categories of forests were protected by law. The basic tax on land
was a fixed proportion of the produce, generally one-sixth. For the
purpose of revenue assessment, land was classified into different
categories. Kauṭilya provides a detailed description of various
types of village land, including cultivated land, wasteland or fallow
land, high and dry land, sown fields, and groves. A wide range of
crops were cultivated in different regions. These included several
varieties of rice, pulses, wheat, linseed, mustard, saffron, sugarcane,
vegetables, and fruits.
The economic foundations laid during the Mauryan period
continued to develop in the post-Mauryan period. Agriculture
remained the backbone of the economy, sustaining both rural
livelihoods and state revenue. The Milindapañho, a Buddhist text
traditionally attributed to Nāgasena, describes eight stages of
agricultural operations, ranging from preparing and weeding the
fields to harvesting and winnowing crops, indicating a detailed
understanding of farming practices.
During this period, the expansion of agriculture in the Deccan
likely contributed to increased cotton cultivation, as the region’s
black soil was particularly suitable for this crop. The Amarakoṣha,
a standard Sanskrit lexicon, includes a special chapter on forest,
crops, plants, and manure. Agricultural life in southern India is
further documented in the Sangam literature, which highlights the
land’s fertility and the abundance of agricultural produce. Sangam
texts refer to the Chera region as rich in commodities such as
jackfruit, pepper, and turmeric, and vividly describe the cultivation
of crops such as ragi and sugarcane.

Irrigation
Agriculture was closely dependent on irrigation, and considerable
importance was placed on the construction and maintenance of
Understanding Society:
structures such as reservoirs, canals, and dams. You may remember
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 that earlier in this chapter, we discussed the Junagadh inscription of
Rudradaman I (see Fig. 5.5). This inscription records that Puṣhyagupta,
a governor appointed by Chandragupta Maurya, constructed a dam
on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Saurāṣhṭra (or the Kathiawad
region in Gujarat). This inscription highlights the active role of the
Mauryan state in developing irrigation infrastructure. Facilitation
of agriculture continued to be a major preoccupation of the state
because it was one of the major sources of revenue.

LET’S RECALL

The Cholas were builders of irrigation systems that included

canals, lakes, and tanks with connecting channels. Do you
remember reading in your previous grades about the Grand Anicut
(Kallanai) built by Karikala Chola? Such irrigation structures
helped store and distribute water, supported agriculture, and
encouraged the growth of settlements. The Grand Anicut continued
to be used and repaired by later rulers and administrations over
many centuries, showing the lasting importance of irrigation works
undertaken by Cholas. Remarkably, it remains in use even today.

THINK ABOUT IT

Why do you think irrigational structures like dams and canals were
considered so important that their construction was recorded in
inscriptions?

Trade: Trade Routes and Ports

One of the most significant features of economic development during
this period was the expansion of trade and commerce. The emergence
of well-structured states provided the necessary infrastructure and
conditions for trade to flourish. The Arthaśhāstra identifies trade as
one of the major economic activities and notes that Magadha traded
textiles, gems, coral, pearls, metals, and minerals with various parts
of northern, central, and southern India. Salt was another important
commodity, and its production was strictly regulated by the state.
The state also ensured the safety of trade routes and took measures
to prevent the adulteration of goods and protect consumers from
unfair practices. As we learnt in previous grades, trade networks
within the Indian subcontinent, as well as those extending beyond
it, had been developing since the times of the Harappans. By around
5 – State and
the 6th century BCE, two major land routes—Dakṣhiṇāpatha and Society up to
1000 CE
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 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

W E

35°N
35°N

S 32
31

30 16

30°N
30°N

29
21 15
14
13 7 6
19 20 11 24
12 5
9 10
4 25 36
3
26

25°N
25°N

22 1 23 2 28
8
27
18
35
16 17
15 34
13

20°N
20°N

33 BAY OF
ARABIAN 14 12
11
SEA BENGAL
37
LEGEND 10
9
Early Historical Cities

15°N
15°N

Major Trade Routes of

Early Historical India 7

Dakṣiṇāpatha 6 39
8 5
4
Uttarāpatha

10°N
10°N

1 38
2
Other Routes 3
250 0 250 500 km
Important Ports
and Cities INDIAN OCEAN
65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

1 Muziris 14 Sopārā 27 Rājagr̥iha 1 Bhīṭā 9 Sāmbhar

2 Madurai 15 Bhārukachchha 28 Champā 2 Prahalādpura 10 Baṭeśhwara
3 Korkāī 16 Dwārkā 29 Thuna 3 Jhūsī 11 Sonkha
4 Uraiyūr 17 Māhiṣhmatī 30 Shibipura 4 Śhringaverapura 12 Noha
5 Puhār 18 Ujjayinī 31 Takṣhaśhilā 5 Sohgaurā 13 Atranjīkheḍā
6 Kovalūr 19 Virāṭa 32 Puṣhkalāvatī 6 Kuśhīnārā 14 Jakheḍā
7 Kāñchīpuram 20 Mathurā 33 Kalinganagara 7 Piprāhwā 15 Ahichchhatra
8 Karūr 21 Hastināpura 34 Tāmralipti 8 Vidiśhā 16 Rūpaḍ
9 Suvarṇagiri 22 Kauśhāmbī 35 Chandraketugarh
10 Masulipaṭnam 23 Kāśhī 36 Prāgjyotiṣhapura
11 Potanā 24 Śhrāvastī 37 Thāṭon
12 Pratiṣhṭhāna 25 Vaiśhālī 38 Kāveripaṭṭinam
Understanding Society:
India Bhojakaṭa
13 and Beyond 26 Pāṭaliputra 39 Arikameḍu
Grade 9 – Part 1
Fig. 5.12. Major trade routes of early historical India
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 Uttarāpatha—had emerged and were later maintained and expanded
by successive dynasties. Over time, these routes served as important
trans-regional networks, linking different parts of the subcontinent.
They facilitated the movement of goods, people, and ideas, connecting
inland regions with coastal ports and thereby integrating overland
and maritime trade systems.
Indian ports also played a significant role in facilitating trade and
commerce, attracting both Indian and foreign traders. Trade links
between the Harappans and the Mesopotamians already existed,
involving ports along the western coast of India, the Persian Gulf, and
other regions. Over time, these networks expanded as major ports
such as Muziris, Kāveripaṭṭinam, Arikameḍu, and Masulipaṭnam,
developed and grew. [Note: Some of these ports have been marked on
the map (Fig. 5.12) to help you locate them geographically.] Maritime
trade utilised both coastal routes and long-distance overseas routes
across the Indian Ocean. By the early centuries of the Common Era,
India’s trade with Rome had expanded significantly, conducted
through both sea routes and overland connections via Central Asia.
We will learn more about India’s trade interactions with different
regions in a chapter titled ‘India and the World – 1’ in part 2 of
this textbook.

LET’S RECALL

In previous grades, we studied the Silappadikāram, which mentions

two important routes in the Tamil region that also extended into
northern India. The first route linked Kanchipuram to the famous
port of Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam), and the second connected
Kanchipuram to Kanyakumari.

Guilds
The early Indian economy was supported by collective organisations
of traders, artisans, and merchants known as guilds (śhreṇīs), which
were associations of people engaged in the same profession, craft, or
occupation. These guilds played a significant role in the expansion of
trade and commerce, especially after the rise of territorial states in the
form of the mahājanapadas (6th century BCE). Metallic coins, beginning
with silver punch-marked coins, also came into circulation during
this period. The Jātaka literature refers to eighteen types of guilds,
indicating that they were well-established and influential institutions
in the economic life of early India. Guilds regulated the quality of 5 – State and
goods and often fixed prices to protect both artisans and consumers. Society up to
1000 CE
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 The conduct of their members was supervised through guild courts,
which enforced professional standards and discipline. In addition,
guilds functioned as banks, financiers, and trustees.

DON’T MISS OUT

Guilds as Financial
Institutions
The Nāśhik cave inscription
(2nd century CE) of the Śhaka
king Nahapāna and his son-in-
law, Uśhavadāta, sheds light
on the economic role of guilds
in early India. It records that
monetary donations were
deposited with professional
guilds (śhreṇīs), which were
obligated to pay a fixed rate of
interest on these endowments.
The interest generated was
used to maintain Buddhist
monasteries and caves. This
indicates that guilds were
not merely associations of
craftspersons and traders but
Fig. 5.13. Nashik cave inscription
also functioned as banking
and credit institutions, capable of securely investing funds and
generating a steady income.

The economic prosperity achieved during the pre-Gupta period laid

a strong foundation for the cultural and economic developments
of later periods. Industries continued to expand, supported by the
availability of raw materials and the skill and enterprise of artisans
and craftspersons. Literary and archaeological sources refer to a
wide variety of textiles, including silk, cotton, wool, and linen. Diverse
weaving techniques were in use, and centres such as Mathurā, Kāśhī,
and Kāmarūpa emerged as important hubs of textile production.
References to guilds of silk weavers further indicate the organised
nature of the textile industry. Merchants of various categories figure
prominently in literary and epigraphical sources, highlighting the
growing importance of trade.
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 DON’T MISS OUT

An inscription on the southern gateway of the Great Stupa at

Sanchi refers to the benevolent and welfare activities carried out
by the guild of ivory workers from Vidiśhā. These ivory workers
were responsible for carving the stone sculptures on the gateways
and railings surrounding the stūpa, indicating the active role of
craft guilds in both artistic production and religious patronage.

In this chapter, we explored the foundations of state and society in

early India, while tracing the development of political institutions,
social structures, economic life, and cultural traditions. From
the culture of the Vedic period to the robust administration of
vast empires, social and political ideas evolved over time while
maintaining a remarkable continuity. The chapter also highlighted
the dynamic nature of early Indian society and its intellectual and
cultural achievements. On the whole, the developments of this period
laid the groundwork for many enduring traditions that continue to
shape the Indian subcontinent’s social and cultural life even today.

Before we move on...

Æ Indian civilisation demonstrates a remarkable continuity in its
cultural, social, and political traditions.
Æ The structures of social, cultural, and political life in India
evolved from Vedic period and took various forms across space
and time.
Æ The rise of powerful states such as Magadha and empires like
the Mauryas and Guptas led to the emergence of structured
systems of administration, taxation, military organisation, and
governance.
Æ Early political organisation evolved from clans (janas) led by
a rājā to larger kingdoms and republics (gaṇas or saṁghas)
and later to powerful empires such as the Mauryas, Guptas,
and Cholas. The economy was largely based on agriculture,
supported by irrigation works, while trade networks, ports, and
guilds played a vital role in the growth of commerce and crafts.
Despite political changes, knowledge traditions, trade networks,
cultural, and devotional practices such as Bhakti continued to
flourish across regions.
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 Questions and activities
1. How did political organisation change from the Vedic period to
the age of large empires such as the Mauryas and the Guptas?
Explain the administrative system of the early Indian states.
2. Describe the role of the king, important officers, and the methods
used to govern large territories.
3. After studying this chapter, what do you think were the most
important features of the state and society in India before
1000 CE?
4. What do early texts such as the Ṛigveda, Arthaśhāstra, and the
Mahābhārata reveal about political and social life?
5. What can we learn from early Indian society about varṇa and the
role of women?
6. Explain how assemblies like sabhā and samiti limited the power
of the rājā. Which modern institutions perform similar functions
today?
7. What do the terms varṇa and jāti refer to in early Indian society?
How were they different, and what factors may have contributed
to the formation of various jātis?
8. Why do you think education in early India emphasised both
knowledge and moral values? How might this have benefited
society?
9. Look at the major trade routes of early India (Fig 5.12). How do
you think these routes helped people in the exchange of goods,
skills, beliefs, and cultural practices.
10. What might have been the advantages and challenges of ruling a
large empire in the absence of modern communication systems?
11. Many ideas about governance come from texts composed by
scholars and advisors of the king. What might be some limitations
of relying only on such sources?
12. Read the source and answer the questions:
The Nāśhik cave inscription (2nd century CE) of Uṣhavadāta
records:
“Uṣhavadāta, son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapāna … has
bestowed this cave on the Saṁgha generally; he has also given
a perpetual endowment, three thousand—3000 kāhāpaṇas,
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 which, for the members of the Saṁgha of any sect, and any origin
dwelling in this cave, will serve as cloth money and money for
outside life (kuśhaṇa); and those kāhāpaṇas have been invested in
guild dwelling at Govadhana—2000 in a weavers’ guild, interest
one pratika (monthly) for the hundred, (and) 1000 in another
weaver’s guild, interest three quarters of a paḍika (monthly) for
the hundred.”
a. What does this source tell us about the economic role
of guilds?
b. Why were guilds trusted with money deposits?
c. Identify the donor and the donees from the given source.
13. Mark and locate on the map of India the following important
centres: Pāṭaliputra, Nāśhik, Ujjayinī, Vikramśhila, Kānchipuram,
Mathurā, Rājgṛiha.
14. Prepare a short presentation or poster on one of the following—
a. Life in the Vedic society
b. Early education system (gurukula)
c. Trade and guilds in early India
d. Role of women in early Indian society

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Society up to
1000 CE
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 Notes

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 Chapter 6

Democracy
The Big Questions
1. How has the idea of democracy evolved over time and shaped our
understanding of it today?
2. What are the different forms of democracy, and how are they
practised in India and other parts of the world?
3. What are the essential features of a democracy and how do they
extend beyond government institutions?
4. What are the challenges faced by Indian democracy?

LET’S RECALL

We have learnt in previous grades that democracy is a form of

government in which the source of power and authority lies with
the citizens of the country, who elect their representatives through
free and fair elections. Democracy is founded on the principles of
freedom, equality, justice, rights and duties, ensuring that citizens
have the right to vote, express their opinions, and participate in the
decision-making processes.

India is the world’s largest democracy. With a population of

over 140 crore and a voter base of over 96.8 crore (in 2024), India,
that is, Bharat, represents the largest participatory democracy, where
people choose their government by electing their representatives.
Our democracy serves as a beacon of hope and an example for the rest
of the world. However, like all democracies, India also faces certain
challenges, some of which we will examine later in this chapter.
A constitution plays a crucial role in safeguarding the rights of the
people in a democracy. In India, democratic principles are guided by
the Constitution of India, which was adopted on 26 November 1949
and came into force on 26 January 1950. The Constitution not only
guarantees but also protects the Fundamental Rights of all citizens.
It ensures that no citizen is discriminated against on the basis of
religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. It also encourages active
citizen participation in democratic processes at the national, state,
and local levels through elections.

Chapter [Link] 137 18-Jun-26 12:00:42 PM

 However, it is important to understand that the democratic ethos
in India did not emerge suddenly; rather, it evolved through a long
historical process. In this chapter, we will explore the genesis and
development of democratic ideas in India. We will also deepen
our understanding of democracy by examining its meaning, key
features, and various practices associated with it in India and
around the world.

Tracing Democratic Traditions from

Early Times
The idea of democracy has been a part of the Indian ethos since
early times. In the previous chapter, we read about Assemblies of

Samāno mantraḥ samitiḥ samānī

samānaṁ manaḥ saha chittam eṣhām |
Samānaṁ mantram abhimantraye vaḥ
samānena vo haviṣhā juhomi ||
Their counsel is one and the same; their assembly is one.
Their mind is one, and their intention together is one. I
invoke for you this same guiding resolve; with a common
offering, on your behalf, I make the oblation. (I make the
oblation on your behalf.)
– Ṛigveda, 10.191.3

Understanding Society:
India and Beyond Fig. 6.1. A verse from the Aikyamatya Sūktam of the Ṛigveda
Grade 9 – Part 1
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Chapter [Link] 138 17-Jul-26 5:37:26 PM

 Fig. 6.2. Members of the Constituent Assembly

the Vedic period such as Sabha, Samiti, and Vidhata that involved
collective decision-making. We also read about the functioning of the
early republican states (gaṇas or saṁghas). Thus, from the earliest
times, the king was not an independent ruler but rather worked
in consultation with assemblies, ministers, and officers of various
capacities.
A verse (Fig. 6.1) from the Aikyamatya Sūktam of the Ṛig Veda
emphasises the importance of collective thinking, shared discussion,
and unity of purpose. The values expressed in this verse help
us understand that democratic principles, such as consultation,
consensus, and shared responsibility have deep roots in India’s
intellectual and cultural traditions.
The functioning of the Bauddha Saṁghas—a monastic community
established by Gautama Buddha—also reflects India’s democratic
traditions. The Saṁgha encouraged debate and discussion, and its
members could choose their leader and make decisions through
voting, demonstrating collective decision-making.
Over the long passage of time, invasions by foreign invaders
disrupted the political and social fabric of some parts of the country.
By the 19th century, the British had colonised most parts of the
Indian subcontinent. Foreign rule altered political structures and
limited people’s participation in their governance. However, the long
struggle for independence from British colonial rule revived and
strengthened democratic ideas among the people.
Before India attained independence in 1947, the Constituent
Assembly was formed in 1946 to draft a constitution for the country.
As studied in earlier grades, it took the Assembly 2 years, 11 months,
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 and 18 days to draft the world’s longest written
Constitution. Apart from the indigenous democratic
traditions, the global spread of democratic values
also influenced the Constituent Assembly’s
Debates (CAD), contributing to the creation of a
robust, flexible, transformative, and responsive
constitution.
The CAD reflects the members’ belief that the
constitution should not be a rigid legal code, but
a dynamic document capable of evolving through
Fig. 6.3. Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar, Chairman of lawful amendments without compromising
the Drafting Committee its fundamental values. Accordingly, while
of the Constitution making provisions for establishing democratic
of India
institutions and processes that uphold liberty,
equality, justice, and fraternity, the Constitution also provides
for amendments under Article 368. This ensures that the
Constitution remains flexible and responsive to the changing
socio-political needs.

Principles of Democracy
A thriving democracy rests on certain non-negotiable principles. Let
us study the essential principles of democracy that are upheld in
India through various provisions of the Constitution.

Popular Sovereignty
In a democracy, the ultimate source of power lies with the people.
Thus, the idea of popular sovereignty means that the state derives its
authority from the people.
A government elected through free and fair elections formulates
policies and implements laws. Every citizen, 18 years of age and
above has the right to vote through a secret ballot. This right is known
as the Universal Adult Franchise. Citizens exercise their right to vote
to elect governments and representatives. You will read more about
elections in the next chapter.

THINK ABOUT IT

“ Why is it important that the ultimate source of power rests

with the people in a democracy?
“ How does people’s participation through voting strengthen
Understanding Society: popular sovereignty?
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 Rule of Law
Procedure
The Rule of Law is a fundamental principle of any democratic established
society. It ensures equality before the law and equal protection of by law:
the law, and establishes that no one is above the law. When laws are It refers
violated, disputes are resolved in a court of law through procedures to a legal
principle
established by law, not by force or personal influence. This prevents that stresses
misuse of power and protects people’s rights. No citizen can be on strict
punished without following the procedure established by law, adherence to
and everyone is provided a fair opportunity to defend their rights duly enacted
and valid
against arbitrary action. In this way, the rule of law promotes justice, laws. This
accountability, and trust in the democratic system. principle is
enshrined
Fundamental Rights in Article
21 of the
The Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution play Constitution
a crucial role in safeguarding the rights, freedom, and dignity of of India
which states,
citizens. There are six Fundamental Rights—the Right to Equality “no persons
(Articles 14–18); the Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22); the Right shall be
Against Exploitation (Articles 23–24); the Right to Freedom of deprived
Religion (Articles 25–28); Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles of life or
personal
29–30); and the Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32). Any liberty
violation of these can lead to appropriate legal action, and citizens except
can seek constitutional remedies under Articles 32 and 226 for according to
the protection and reinforcement of their fundamental rights. procedure
established
These rights are enforceable in courts of law and are indivisible by law.”
and inalienable, subject to reasonable restrictions in accordance
with the procedure established by law.

LET’S EXPLORE

Æ The Constitution not only guarantees Fundamental Rights to

citizens but also outlines their Fundamental Duties and the
Directive Principles of State Policy. Discuss their significance
and identify the differences among them.
Æ The Right to Education (Article 21A) was added in 2009,
ensuring free and compulsory education for children aged 6
to 14. Discuss its significance.

Equality before law: Every Equal protection of law: All

individual irrespective of status, persons in similar circumstances
identity, or rank is treated equally shall be treated equally by law
by the law. without arbitrary discrimination.
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 Separation of Powers
The separation of powers among the legislature, executive, and
judiciary—each with distinct responsibilities—enables democratic
institutions to function effectively and responsibly. The legislature
makes laws, the executive implements them, and the judiciary
interprets them, thereby preventing the concentration of power in
any one organ. This separation is essential for maintaining checks and
balances among the three organs of the government. For example,
while parliament has the power to amend the Constitution, the
judiciary can review such amendments to ensure they are consistent
with the spirit of the Constitution. Similarly, the executive power of
enforcement agencies is regulated by laws and rules framed by the
Parliament and can also be reviewed by competent courts. If a law is
inconsistent with the constitutional provisions, the judiciary has the
power to declare it unconstitutional.
Public
The judiciary upholds the Constitution and plays a vital role in
Interest
Litigation: A protecting and promoting democratic values and the rights of all
legal action sections of the society. It ensures the laws enacted by the Parliament
initiated in of India and the State Legislative Assemblies are in accordance with
a court of
the Constitution. The judiciary is an impartial and independent
law for the
enforcement institution that safeguards citizens’ rights and upholds the spirit
of public of the Constitution. Important initiatives, such as Public Interest
interest. Litigation (PIL), have also been taken by the judiciary from time to
time to ensure access to justice for all.

THINK ABOUT IT

What do you think would happen if the same organ of the

government made laws, implemented them, and enforced them?
Share your thoughts with your classmates.

Accountability and Transparency

Democratic governments are accountable to citizens. Through
elections, public debates, and engagement with civil society, citizens
can evaluate the actions of the government. This continuous public
involvement strengthens democracy and builds trust between
the government and the people. Several institutional and policy
frameworks ensure accountability and transparency in the Indian

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 democratic system. For example, the Right to Information (RTI) Act,
2005, allows citizens to seek information from government agencies.
You will learn more about this later in this chapter.

Multi-Party System
In a multi-party system, several political parties contest elections,
representing diverse voices and interests. This gives people the
power to choose those they consider most suitable. Each political
party is guided by certain ideas, values, and principles that shape its
policies and actions. In elections to the Parliament or State Assemblies,
the party—or a coalition of parties—that secures more than 50 per
cent of the seats forms the government, while the largest opposing
group becomes the opposition. Political parties represent a wide
range of socio-cultural, political, ideological, and regional interests,
reflecting the diversity of Indian society. They function within the
framework of rules and regulations laid down by the Representation
of the People Act, 1951.

Safeguarding the Rights of Vulnerable Groups

It is the duty of the government to protect all communities, regardless
of caste, gender, religion, or regional background. Given historical
factors that have led to an unequal distribution of opportunities and
resources, it is essential for the government to ensure that resources
are distributed equitably, especially to the most vulnerable sections
of society, without discrimination. For example, Article 46 of the
Constitution states that “the State shall promote with special care
the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the
people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation.”

DON’T MISS OUT

The real strength of democracy lies in its citizens—their

participation, awareness of duties and rights, and commitment
to honesty and fairness. Without these, no democratic process
or institution can function effectively or deliver meaningful
outcomes. The table on the next page highlights how different
democratic processes are supported by specific institutions and
the values they promote:

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 Process Institutions Democratic values

Legislative Legislature Representation,

Process (Parliament, State Deliberation, Dissent
legislature, and Local
bodies)

Electoral Process Election Commission Participation,

of India Equality

Civil Society:
Refers to the
voluntary
Judicial Process Courts Rule of law, Equality,
groups, NGOs Justice
and community
associations
that function Participatory Media, Civil Society Debate and
interdependently
within society.
Processes discussion, freedom
of expression

Accountability Comptroller and Transparency

Mechanisms Auditor General
(CAG), Central
Information
Commission (CIC),
Lokpal, Central
Vigilance Commission
(CVC)

Decentralisation Rural and Urban local People’s participation

bodies at grassroots level

Federalism Division of powers Devolution of power

between the centre
and the states is
guaranteed through a
written constitution

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 LET’S EXPLORE

The first column of the table below lists some key features of
democracy in India. Fill in the second column with suitable
examples from your state, town, or village. One row has been
completed for you.

Features of
Examples
Democracy

Popular Sovereignty

Rule of Law

Separation of
Powers

Question
Fundamental Rights Hour: The
first hour of a
parliamentary
session when
members ask
Parliamentary procedures such as questions
to the
Question Hour and the auditing
Accountability and government.
Transparency of government accounts ensure This helps
accountability. Laws like the Right to check the
Information provide transparency. government’s
work and hold
it accountable.

Multi-Party System

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 Role of Media in Democracy
In present times, the media has become an integral part of our lives. In
addition to keeping people informed about developments around the
world, it serves as a voice of the masses. Newspapers, news channels, and
social media platforms raise issues concerning the public and contribute
to their resolution through appropriate mechanisms. Owing to its critical
role in safeguarding people’s voices and upholding democratic principles,
media is often referred to as the ‘fourth pillar of democracy’.

Types of Democracy

Democracy

Direct Democracy Representative

• Citizens directly participate Democracy
in most decision-making (Indirect Democracy)
processes. • People elect their
• Some features of representative representatives.
democracy exist. • People do not directly govern.
• Difficult to follow in large countries. • Periodic elections.
• e.g. Switzerland. • Government is accountable to the
people.
• e.g. India.

Parliamentary Presidential Democracy

Democracy • The Executive is
• Members of the Executive independent of the
are also part of the legislature.
legislature. • President is elected by the people.
• The Executive is accountable to the • President is accountable to the
legislature. people.
• People elect the legislature but not • e.g. United States of America.
the executive.
• e.g. India and Canada.

Understanding Society: Fig. 6.4. Types of Democracy

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 You must have understood by now that though there are some
fundamental principles of any democracy, like freedom, equality,
participation, rule of law, rights, and duties, yet democracy does
not offer a single model of government. The characteristics and
features of democracy vary from country to country. Different
societies institutionalise democracy in diverse ways, depending
on how citizens participate in decision-making and how political
power is structured. As you have learnt in previous grades, there
are different forms of democracy—some involve direct citizen
participation, while others function through elected representatives.

Imagine your school is celebrating a ‘Youth for Democracy’ festival.

Students’ Councils from different countries are visiting your school. Each
follows its own model of functioning, similar to how countries around
the world practise democracy. Let us see what we can learn from them.
These examples show that systems may differ in how power is shared,
who participates in decision-making, and whether checks and balances
are in place.

Team A Team B

All students gather in one place The school holds elections

and elect their president once a every year. Every class elects
year. However, the president has a representative, who then
very limited powers. For major participates in the election of the
decisions, such as the canteen Students’ Council President. The
menu, they gather at a designated President and the representatives
place and vote using ballot papers. together make decisions.

Team C Team D

Students directly vote for the Elections are held, but only
School President as well as for selected candidates are allowed
members of the Council. The to contest. The School President
President acts as both the head of holds most of the power. The
the Students’ Council and the chief Student Council exists but has very
decision-maker. limited authority, and opposition
voices are weak or discouraged.
Fig. 6.5

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 LET’S EXPLORE

Select your ideal team from Fig. 6.5 and give reasons for
your selection.

Having understood the different types of democratic systems, let us

now look at how democracies function across the world:

Federalism:
Head of State
A system of Type of System of
government Country / Head of Key Features
Democracy Government
in which Government
power and
India Representative Executive President (Head Multi-party
responsibilities
are shared Democracy power lies with of State), Prime democracy,
between the (Parliamentary the council Minister (Head of Written
union and Democracy) of ministers Government) constitution,
the state headed by the Fundamental
governments
Prime Minister Rights and
as expressed
in the union, Duties,
state and Federalism
concurrent
Canada Representative Executive Governor-General Federalism,
list of the
Constitution Democracy power lies appointed by multi-party
of India, and (Parliamentary with the Prime the Monarch system
the residual Democracy) Minister (Head of State)
power remains on the advice
with union
of the Prime
government.
Minister (Head of
Government)
United Representative In a Monarch (Head Unwritten
Sovereignty:
Kingdom Democracy Constitutional of State), Prime constitution,
Derived from
the Latin word (Parliamentary Monarchy, Minister (Head of parliamentary
superanus, Democracy the executive Government) Sovereignty,
meaning with power lies multi-party
‘supreme’. It Constitutional with the Prime system.
refers to the
Monarchy) Minister
supreme,
final, and Switzerland Direct Executive The President is Written
independent Democracy Power lies with the Head of the constitution
legal authority
the Federal Government with multiple
of a State over
its territory Council parties
and citizens. United Representative Executive The President is Written
States of Democracy power lies with the Head of the constitution,
America (Presidential the President Government with two major
Understanding Society: Democracy) parties
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 LET’S EXPLORE

Work in pairs or small groups. Choose any two of India’s

neighbouring countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, or Sri Lanka) and find out the
following:

Æ Does the country hold regular elections?

Æ Who chooses the Head of the Government?
Æ Is there more than one political party?
Æ How much freedom do citizens have to express their opinions
and criticise the government?
How would you describe this system? Give reasons for your answer.

Æ Democratic or Partially democratic or Non-democratic

Democracy in Practice: India’s Living

Democracy
DON’T MISS OUT

India is the world’s largest democracy, and more people vote in

Indian elections than the total population of many countries.
In 2024, India had over 96.8 crore registered voters.

“ Huge representation: On average, a Member of Parliament

represents about 25 lakh people (2019). This shows the
enormous scale at which democratic representation operates
in India.
“ Many languages, one election: Elections in India are
conducted in 22 scheduled languages, along with several other
languages. Election symbols are used so that every citizen,
including those who cannot read, can vote independently.
“ Over one million polling stations: More than one million
polling stations, including those in remote areas, such as
mountains, forests, deserts, and islands, are set up. In some
cases, polling stations are created even for a single voter.
“ Thousands of political parties: India has over 2,800
registered political parties, reflecting the country’s social and
regional diversity and allowing many viewpoints to compete
peacefully.
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 Fig. 6.6. Unique Polling Stations

Based on the given facts and figures, imagine the strength of

Indian democracy.

India’s democracy stands out for its scale, depth, and inclusiveness.
With nearly a hundred crore voters, it represents an unparalleled
exercise in public participation. This vast electorate reflects not only
the size of the population but also the extensive reach of its democratic
institutions. The ability to conduct regular, nationwide elections
for such a large and diverse population highlights the institutional
strength and organisational capacity of Indian democracy.
What makes Indian democracy truly “living” is its diversity and
citizens’ active engagement in the electoral process. The Indian
electorate includes people from varied linguistic, religious, and
socio-economic backgrounds, all participating within a single
democratic framework. Hence, elections become a collective national
exercise in which voices from different regions and communities
are expressed through the ballot. This continuous and widespread
public participation reinforces India’s position as the world’s
largest democracy—not merely in terms of numbers, but through
the sustained involvement of its people in shaping governance
and public life. One of the most widely recognised features of a
democratic system is the conduct of periodic elections, which enable
people to choose their representatives. You will study this feature in
detail in the next chapter on ‘Elections’.
A deeper understanding of democracy also requires an appreciation
of citizens’ broader role in democratic processes. Participatory
democracy emphasises greater involvement of citizens not only
through elections but also through active engagement in shaping
policies and governance. Such participation takes place through
Understanding Society: mechanisms, such as local councils, public consultations, and
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 India’s constitutional framework operates through a three-tier
system comprising the Union, State, and Local governments,
facilitating administrative efficiency and democratic participation.
You have learnt about them in your Grades 6 to 8 Social Science
textbooks. Beyond the Panchayati Raj and Municipalities, the
Constitution also provides provisions to protect tribal heritage. In
specific north-eastern regions, Autonomous District Councils (ADCs)
are established, granting them legislative and judicial authority
to preserve tribal customs. Complementing this, the PESA Act
(Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas) of 1996 applies to tribal
areas in other states, empowering the Gram Sabha as the primary
decision-making body. By balancing these levels of authority, the
Constitution of India provides a unified national framework that
draws its strength from the diverse traditions of every community.

Case Study: Democracy at the Grassroots in India

Across India, several villages demonstrate how democracy
functions beyond elections through active participation in local
self-government. The following examples show how local bodies
of democratic institutions at the grassroots in India can play a vital
role in improving people’s lives.
1. Jethipura Gram Panchayat (Block Idar, Sabarkantha, Gujarat)
Development Through People’s Participation
Jethipura Gram Panchayat of Gujarat was awarded Nanaji
Deshmukh Rashtriya Gaurav Gram Sabha Puraskar (NDRGGSP) in
2019 for its exemplary performance. It not only ensured the
effective conduct of Gram Sabhas and proper maintenance
of records, but also went a step further by organising Special
Gram Sabhas. Other initiatives included timely and appropriate
action on issues related to education, sanitation, and welfare of

Fig. 6.7. Gram Panchayat meeting (Representative image)

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 women and children. It also conducted Mahila Sabhas and ensured
Quorum: The adequate quorum in Gram Sabhas, with active participation from
presence of marginalised sections of the society, including Scheduled Castes,
the minimum
Scheduled Tribes, and women.
number of
members in
the meetings 2. South Manubankul Gram Panchayat, Rupaichari Block,
of an assembly Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council, Tripura
to make the
proceedings Women-Friendly Panchayat
valid.
The South Manubankul Gram Panchayat in Tripura functions as
an active local government focused on improving people’s lives,
especially those of women. It promotes women’s participation
in decision-making and provides facilities related to health,
sanitation, and livelihoods. The Panchayat organises community
programmes, supports self-help groups, and ensures the effective
implementation of government schemes for village development.
It also works towards improving cleanliness, education, and
social awareness. Owing to its strong focus on women’s welfare
Cooperatives: and inclusive development, it has been recognised as a “women-
Groups formed friendly panchayat” at the national level by the Ministry of
by people to
work together Panchayati Raj.
for a common Cases like these show that democracy in India is not limited to
benefit;
voting during elections. When citizens actively participate in
members share
profits and grassroots and Panchayati Raj institutions, democracy becomes
responsibilities more responsive, inclusive, and effective at all levels.
equally.

LET’S EXPLORE

A democratic system seeks to promote participation, ensure

fairness, limit the concentration of power, and resolve
disagreements peacefully. Identify examples from the above case
study that reflect these features.

Democracy, however, is not limited to formal institutions of the

government. The spirit of democratic functioning also extends into
everyday social life. Civil society organisations, socio-religious and
community institutions, cooperatives, and trade unions often adopt
democratic decision-making methods.

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 Women and the Right to Vote: The Indian Experience
In a number of countries, women had
to wage a long and difficult struggle to
secure the right to vote. In Britain, women
received full voting rights only in 1928,
while in the United States of America, this
occurred in 1920, after decades of protests
and movements. These developments show
that democracy in these societies expanded
gradually.
Fig. 6.8
In contrast, women in India were granted
the right to vote. When the Constitution of India came into force in
1950, Universal Adult Franchise was extended to all citizens—men
and women alike—without discrimination, and Indian women did
not have to engage in prolonged legal battles or protest to secure
voting rights. However, the right to vote does not automatically
ensure equal participation. Social prejudices continue to act as
barriers and affect women’s adequate representation in politics.

Women’s Reservation in Local Bodies

Empowerment of women starts with their active participation in
institutions of decision-making. Article 243(d) of the Constitution
of India provides not less than one-third reservation for women
out of total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every
Panchayat. However, 21 States and 2 Union Territories have gone
even further and have made provisions of 50% reservation for
women in Panchayati Raj Institutions in their respective State
Panchayati Raj Acts.
Similarly, Article 243(t) of the Constitution of India provides
not less than one-third reservation for women out of the total
number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality.
As of 2023, 17 States and 1 Union Territory have given 50%
reservation for women in Urban Local Bodies.

LET’S EXPLORE

India continues to work towards more inclusive institutions.

Discuss in class about the advantages of increased representation
of women in the legislature.

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 DON’T MISS OUT

The Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005, was enacted in India

Legislation: through democratic processes of representation and legislation.
Laws made Over time, concerns raised by citizens, journalists, civil society
by the
groups, and elected representatives regarding transparency and
government.
These laws accountability were examined by parliamentary committees and
help maintain addressed within government institutions. These discussions
order and highlighted the need for a law that would enable citizens to access
regulate
information held by public authorities. The proposal for an RTI
society.
Act was reviewed by expert groups, debated in the Parliament,
and refined through consultations with various stakeholders.
Elected representatives played a key role in shaping the final
legislation by incorporating safeguards related to national
security and administrative efficiency. After being passed by the
Parliament, the RTI Act came into force in 2005. This Act empowers
citizens to seek information from government departments,
thereby strengthening accountability and democratic governance.

These examples show how civil society and community institutions

act as bridges between citizens and the State. Through Public Interest
Litigation (PIL), campaigns, and community organisations, they help
make democracy more inclusive and responsive.

THINK ABOUT IT

As we studied in earlier grades, the village serves as a unit of

grassroots democracy in India, empowering rural communities
to participate in decision-making processes. Many Indian leaders,
such as Chaudhary Charan Singh and Babu Jagjivan Ram, who
emerged from these rural backgrounds, advocated for the rights
of the rural poor and other marginalised sections of society.
Explore and discuss the contributions of eminent Indian leaders
who worked towards strengthening grassroots democracy.

Challenges to Democratic Practices in India

Democracy requires constant care, awareness, and active
participation from both institutions and citizens. While the
Constitution guarantees valuable rights to all citizens, it also expects
individuals to exercise these rights responsibly. In this sense,
Understanding Society: democracy is not limited to elections—it is reflected in everyday
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 behaviour, decision-making, and civic responsibility. Actions, such
as damaging public property, spreading misinformation, or violating
public rules weaken democratic values. Similarly, indifference
towards public issues can adversely affect the health of a democracy.
India has made significant progress in ensuring representation and
participation. However, it continues to face several challenges, such
as illiteracy, misinformation, and inequality. In recent times, the
spread of fake news, especially through social media and other digital
platforms, has emerged as a major concern. Such misinformation
can influence public opinion, create confusion, and sometimes even
lead to conflict. Issues like poverty, regionalism, gender inequality,
and social discrimination also create barriers to equal participation.
In addition, gaps in the effective implementation of laws and policies
may reduce public trust in institutions.

LET’S EXPLORE

In small groups, identify two or three examples of information

shared on social media that you believe may be misleading or false.
Discuss what made you question their reliability and how such
information can influence people’s opinions. Reflect on why access
to accurate and authentic information is important in a democracy.

Emergency
One of the major challenges to democracy in India was recorded
when an Emergency was imposed in 1975–77. In the early 1970s, Emergency:
public dissatisfaction with the government led by Indira Gandhi Articles 352,
356, and
was growing. Rising unemployment, inflation, and allegations of
360 of the
misgovernance led to widespread protests. In June 1975, a National Constitution
Emergency was imposed by the government on the grounds of of India deal
internal disturbance. During this period, a majority of Fundamental with the
provisions for
Rights were suspended, the press was censored, and numerous
declaration
political leaders and activists were arrested. Democratic institutions of National
came under severe strain, and citizens’ freedom was restricted. Emergency,
Mass movements led by Jayaprakash Narayan—a political leader President’s
Rule, and
and socialist thinker, popularly known as Lok Nayak—mobilised
Financial
students and citizens, especially in Bihar and Gujarat. Emergency,
The Emergency was lifted in 1977, and general elections were respectively.
held, allowing people to express their will through the ballot.
The defeat of the ruling government demonstrated the strength
of Indian democracy and highlighted the importance of
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 Civic
constitutional safeguards, civil liberties, and active citizen
responsibility:
Civic participation in protecting democratic values. This period
responsibility highlighted both the vulnerabilities and the resilience of
also includes democratic institutions in India.
respecting
others’
rights, using
social media
Democracy and You
responsibly, Being well-informed is one of the vital responsibilities of a young
abiding by
citizen. Reading newspapers, watching news programmes, and
laws and rules,
appreciating using the internet responsibly help us stay aware of national and
the country’s international events. Access to authentic information enables us to
diversity, and form informed opinions on public issues, understand how democracy
participating in
operates in practice, and contribute positively to society. Programmes
activities that
strengthen like the National Service Scheme (NSS) and the National Cadet Corps
unity. (NCC) are designed to instil civic responsibility, social awareness,
and respect for democratic ideals. Through community service,
teamwork, and organised activities, you can learn the importance of
participation, responsibility, and service to the nation.

LET’S EXPLORE

Observe Fig 6.9 and explore the various other digital and non-digital
ways through which you can participate in a democracy.

Understand the
Constitution
Participate in
nation-building
activities
(NCC, NSS,
Bharat Scouts Follow
& Guides) fundamental
duties

Take
Be media leadership in
literate school and
community

Fig. 6.9. Youth and Democracy

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 THINK, DISCUSS, ACT

Think: How do your actions as a student contribute to your school

community and to democracy in a larger context?
Discuss: Talk to your classmates about a social or community issue
that you care about. How can you, as a student, make a difference?
Act: Choose one activity to fulfil your civic responsibility this
month. Reflect on how your actions contribute to strengthening
democracy and community spirit.

Democracy is not merely a system of government but a continuous

process shaped by institutions and active citizenship. From early
ideas of collective decision-making to the constitutional framework
of the modern Republic, democratic principles have evolved to
ensure authority is exercised with accountability. India’s democracy
stands out for its scale, diversity, and resilience. It functions through
elections, constitutional values, and everyday civic practices. While
challenges remain, sustained public participation and respect for
democratic norms keep it vibrant. Ultimately, the strength of a
democracy depends not only on its institutions and laws but also
on informed and responsible citizens who actively participate in
shaping their society.

Before we move on...

Æ Democracy is a system of self-governance that involves
institutions, rules, and practices enabling people to participate
in decision-making at the local, state, and national levels; it is
not limited to elections alone.
Æ Democratic processes are guided by principles, such as
transparency, participation, inclusion, fairness, equality,
accountability, and respect for diverse opinions.
Æ Democratic ideas in India have deep roots in ancient traditions,
such as the Sabhā and Samiti mentioned in Vedic texts, which
emphasised consultation and collective decision-making. Such
ideas and values, along with later developments from around
the world, shaped the modern democratic system.
Æ India’s democracy is based on its Constitution, which provides
for popular sovereignty, universal adult franchise, fundamental
rights and duties, the rule of law, and the separation of powers.

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 Æ India is considered the world’s largest democracy due to the scale
of citizen participation, particularly the number of registered
voters, although challenges remain in ensuring deeper inclusion
and representation.
Æ Democracies across the world follow different systems but
share common democratic values and principles.
Æ Citizens contribute to democracy through civic awareness,
responsible use of media, participation in community activities,
and respect for democratic values in everyday life.

Questions and activities

1. Read the passage and answer the questions that follow:
A school cabinet was responsible for planning a Republic Day
celebration, and members had different opinions on which
activities to include. After a discussion, they decided to vote,
and the activities supported by the majority were selected.
a. Which democratic values are reflected in this situation?
b. How does voting help resolve differences of opinion?
c. Why is the majority decision important in a democracy?
d. Mention responsibilities of elected representatives after a
decision is made.
2. How would democracy be affected if citizens stopped following
laws and civic responsibilities? Explain with an example.
3. Which situation best reflects the idea of popular sovereignty
and why?
a. A law is passed without public discussion
b. Citizens vote to choose their representatives
c. A court gives a final judgment
d. A minister takes an independent decision
4. The Rule of Law is violated when:
a. Laws are applied equally to all
b. Courts review government actions
c. Powerful individuals are treated above the law
d. Citizens challenge laws through legal means
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 5. Why is the Rule of Law essential for protecting democracy?
6. Is voting alone enough to make a country democratic? Support
your answer with examples from the chapter.
7. Social media allows people to express opinions freely.
a. How can this strengthen democracy?
b. How can it weaken democracy if used irresponsibly?
8. Write a paragraph on what democracy means to you as a young
citizen.
9. Conduct a model parliament session or Gram Sabha in class
on local issues—cleanliness, responsibilities towards public
property, or school safety.
10. Choose any one democratic institution in India (such as
Parliament, Election Commission, Judiciary, or Panchayat).
Prepare a short note explaining:
a. Its role in democracy
b. How it ensures accountability and participation.
11. What role does the Constitution play in strengthening democracy
in India?
12. What challenges do you think democracy in India faces today?

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 Notes

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 Chapter 7

Elections
The Big Questions
1. Why are elections essential to a democratic system?
2. How do electoral systems and rules shape political representation
and fairness?
3. What role do institutions and laws play in ensuring free and fair
elections?
4. What challenges do elections face in practice, and how can these
challenges affect democracy?

Why do Elections Matter?

Elections are one of the most important processes for exercising Direct
democratic rights. Regular and periodic elections lie at the core of Elections:
democracy. Representatives to public offices can be chosen through Elections in
either direct or indirect elections. In India, members of the Lok which citizens
vote directly to
Sabha at the central level, members of the Vidhan Sabha (Legislative choose their
Assembly) at the state level, and members of local bodies (like representatives
Panchayats, municipal corporations, etc.) are elected through direct or leaders.
elections every five years. In contrast, the President, Vice President,
and members of the Rajya Sabha are elected through indirect Indirect
elections. Elections:
Elections in
You read about a case in Grade 8 where Gurmat was elected as class which citizens
representative (CR). Can we allow her to continue as the CR in Grade 9 vote for
representatives
without facing a fresh election? Similarly, can the government
who then
continue beyond the prescribed term without seeking the people’s choose/elect
mandate again? And can we exercise our choice if only one political the leaders.
party is contesting the election? The answer to all these questions
is No, because one of the most crucial elements of democracy
is participating in the periodic election of those who will make
decisions on our behalf. Elected representatives are accountable to
the people. The right to elect our representatives and holding them
accountable is ensured through periodic elections, and our vote is
the principal means by which we exercise this right.

Chapter [Link] 161 18-Jun-26 12:01:22 PM

 An election is a process through which we exercise the right to vote
and fulfil our responsibility as citizens.

Accountability Representation

Legitimacy Elections Equality

Fig. 7.1. Importance of elections in a democracy. (Fill in the two empty

boxes to indicate why elections are important for democratic functioning,
and discuss how each one of them is ensured through elections.)

DON’T MISS OUT

Have you heard the term ‘psephology’? It refers to the scientific

study of elections. The term is derived from the Greek word
psēphos, meaning ‘pebble,’ and logy, meaning ‘systematic study.’
In ancient Greece, pebbles were used for voting, leading to the
origin of the term ‘psephology.’

Inside India’s Election Machinery

For democracy to be realised, elections must be conducted in a free,
fair, and transparent manner. The electoral process in a vast and
diverse country like India, where millions of people vote across
thousands of constituencies, requires laws, a well-organised and
coordinated system at all levels—national, state, and local—and a
robust machinery to manage it. This is where the electoral system
and the various stakeholders, like the Election Commission of India
(ECI), various political parties, civil society, media, and the voters,
come to play their roles. Our Constitution and various parliamentary
laws provide for the functions and powers of all these stakeholders.
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 Fig. 7.2. Indian elections— a festival of democracy

The Electoral System

The first step towards successfully conducting elections is deciding on
the method of converting the votes cast into seats in the legislature.
The way an electoral system allocates seats is what distinguishes it
from other systems. The framers of our Constitution discussed the two
most common electoral systems and ultimately chose the plurality
system, also known as the ‘First-Past-The-Post’ (FPTP) system.
We elect members of the Lok Sabha and the Vidhan Sabha using the
FPTP, and the elections to the Rajya Sabha and those of the President
and the Vice President are conducted using the system of proportional
representation (Fig. 7.3).
The Vidhan Sabhas are directly elected bodies that make laws for
their respective States and some Union Territories. Elections to the
Vidhan Sabha are conducted in the same manner as those to the
Lok Sabha, using the FPTP electoral system. In six states—Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Uttar
Pradesh—the legislature has a bicameral structure. This means it
has two houses—the Upper House, known as the Vidhan Parishad
(Legislative Council), and the Lower House, known as the Vidhan
Sabha (Legislative Assembly). The Vidhan Parishad consists of
representatives elected by the members of the Vidhan Sabha and
local bodies, and also by graduates and teachers in the State having
such a Parishad. In addition, the Governor of the State nominates
some members to represent fields, such as art, science, social service,

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 literature, and co-operatives. The elections to the Vidhan Parishad
are held under the system of proportional representation by means
of a single transferable vote (Fig. 7.3).

Electoral Systems
Proportional
First Past The
Feature Majority System Representation
Post (FPTP)
(PR)

Haritbhumi Ratnadweep Swarnalok

Name of the Country
(Imaginary)

100 seats
Seats in the 25 seats 25 seats
(nationwide list)
Parliament

Party M
Party A Party X
Party N
Main Political Party B Party Y
Party O
Parties Party C Party Z
Party P

Each voter Each voter

votes for one votes for one Voters vote for
candidate in their candidate. To win, a party, not a
constituency. The a candidate must person. Seats in
candidate with receive more than the Parliament
How Voting the most votes 50% of the votes. are allotted in
wins, even if the If not, the top proportion to the
Works?
votes are less than two candidates total votes received
50% of total votes compete again in by each party.
polled. the second round.

Party M: 40%
Party A: 40% Party X: 45%
Party N: 35%
Party B: 35% Party Y: 40%
Sample Results Party O: 15%
Party C: 25% Party Z: 15%
(Vote Percentage) Party P: 10%

No one got 50% Seats distributed:

in Round 1. In M: 40; N: 35;
Party A forms the Round 2, Party Y O: 15; P: 10
Who forms the government. wins with 55%,
and forms the Power is shared
Government? proportionately.
government.

164

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 Total valid votes
Quota = +1 = Minimum votes
Seats to be filled +1 to win

Counting and Transfer of Votes

1. Voters mark their preference.

2. First preference votes are counted for all candidates. Those
who receive the minimum votes required to win (quota) are
declared elected.
3. The candidate who receives the lowest votes is eliminated.
Their votes are transferred to those who are mentioned as
second preference on those ballot papers.
4. Process continues till the required number of candidates are
elected.

Fig. 7.3. Single transferable vote system

LET’S EXPLORE

Different democracies use different electoral systems. Make groups

of 5–6 students. Each group will select six countries from different
continents. Prepare and present a case study on the type of electoral
system(s) operating in those countries, and discuss their latest
election results of those countries.

The Laws
Let us now briefly examine the major legislations that govern the
conduct of elections in India—The Representation of the People
Act, 1950 (RPA, 1950), and the Representation of the People Act,
1951 (RPA, 1951). There also exists ‘The Presidential and Vice-
Presidential Elections Act, 1952’. The Representation of the People
Act, 1950 deals mainly with the allocation of seats and delimitation
of constituencies, the preparation and revision of electoral rolls,
and ensuring that every citizen above 18 years of age and above
has the right to vote without discrimination. The Representation
of the People Act, 1951 deals with all the other aspects of the
conduct of elections and post-election disputes. It lays down
rules for nomination of candidates, election campaigns, voting
procedures, and resolution of disputes. Together, these Acts
ensure the integrity, transparency, and accountability of India’s
electoral process. 7– Elections
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 The Representation of the People Act, 1951 also lists out the
electoral offences and corrupt practices. For example:

Any gift, offer, or promise made by a candidate (or

with their consent) to a person in order to make them
contest, withdraw, vote, or refrain from voting.

Appealing people to vote or refrain

from voting on the basis of religion,
caste, race, community, or language.

Candidates or any other person on their behalf are

prohibited from taking any assistance in favour of the
candidate from government-related personnel. This
includes gazetted officers, judges and magistrates, armed
forces personnel, police personnel, and excise officers.

Delimitation Commission
Did you know that the boundaries of your parliamentary and
assembly constituencies are not permanently fixed? The boundaries
of the constituencies change over time depending on shifts in the
population density. Without delimitation, one Member of Parliament
(MP) might represent five lakh people, while another might represent
twenty-five lakh, defeating the objective of equal representation.
Delimitation is the process of determining the number of seats and
fixing the territorial boundaries in each state for elections to the Lok
Sabha and the Vidhan Sabha. It aims to ensure that the ratio of seats
to population is as close to equal as possible across all constituencies.

DON’T MISS OUT

Article 82 of the Constitution of India mandates the establishment

of a Delimitation Commission. India has had four Delimitation
Commissions—in 1952, 1963, 1973, and 2002. Can you find out the
reason for the long interval between 1973 and 2002 with the help
of your teacher?

Election Commission of India (ECI)

The Constitution of India has vested in the Election Commission of
India (ECI) the superintendence, direction, and control of the entire
Understanding Society: process for the conduct of elections.
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 LET’S RECALL

The ECI is an autonomous permanent constitutional body that was

established on 25 January 1950. It conducts elections to the Lok
Sabha, the Rajya Sabha, the Vidhan Sabha, the Vidhan Parishad,
the President, and the Vice President of India. Articles 324 to 329 of
the Constitution provide for the establishment of an ECI and define
its powers and duties.

At the State level, election work is supervised by the Chief Electoral

Officer of the State, who is appointed by the ECI from among the
civil servants in consultation with the concerned State Government.
Various State Government officers, such as District Magistrates,
Sub-Divisional Magistrates, and Tahsildars, etc., are also assigned
election duties by designating them as District Election Officers,
Returning Officers, Electoral Registration Officers, and so on.
Let us look at what the ECI actually does. Remember, you have already
studied a few of its functions in Grade 8; let us now understand them
in detail.
€ ECI creates the electoral roll: The ECI sends official
enumerators to every household to collect data about the
eligible electors. As you have studied, only citizens who
meet the eligibility criteria can vote. Based on the collected
information, electoral rolls are prepared for each constituency,
organised polling station-wise. Only those whose names appear
on the roll are allowed to vote. The ECI also conducts Special
Intensive Revision (SIR), which
involves updating, verifying, and
correcting the electoral rolls.
Through SIR, it ensures that no
eligible citizen is left out and no
ineligible person is included in
the electoral roll. This exercise
ensures the addition of all voters,
especially the young voters
who have just turned 18 and
may be left out due to a lack of
awareness or any other reason.
The SIR also deletes the names of
the voters on the basis of death
of the voter, change of residence, Fig. 7.4. An officer on election duty verifying
duplicate enrolment, and being voter’s name from electoral roll
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 permanently untraceable. The ECI also gives time to raise claims
or objections against the revised electoral roll and settles the
claims and objections before publishing the final electoral roll.

THINK ABOUT IT

You will turn 18 in a few years. As a responsible citizen, you should

register yourself as a voter. Find out the various steps of the
procedure for registration and the list of required documents
for the same. Discuss, with anyone who has just turned 18 and
has registered as a voter, the ease or difficulty faced in the voter
registration process.

LET’S EXPLORE

Æ Do you know what ETPBS is?

ETPBS stands for Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot
System. It enables service voters to cast their vote on an
electronically received postal ballot from their preferred
location, which is outside their originally assigned voting
constituency.
Æ Find out who are classified as service voters and who can vote
using ETPBS?

€ ECI decides the schedule and date for the election: When
the constitutionally mandated term of the Legislature ends,
which is five years or when the Legislature is dissolved before the
completion of its term, the ECI activates the machinery needed
to conduct an election. While deciding the election schedule for
a country as large and diverse as India, the ECI must consider
several factors, such as weather conditions, agricultural cycle,
school and university examination schedules, festivals, etc.
€ ECI registers political parties and allocates symbols: Only
political parties registered with the ECI can contest elections.
Apart from the candidates affiliated to the political parties,
independent candidates (who are not affiliated to any political
party) can also contest elections. The ECI ensures inner party
democracy by insisting upon the political parties to hold their
organisational elections periodically. The ECI also classifies
political parties as recognised national or state/regional parties
or registered-unrecognised parties. National and state parties,
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 are allotted election symbols. The ECI also acts as a quasi-judicial
body in addressing disputes regarding the recognition of
political parties and the allotment of symbols.

DON’T MISS OUT

Every year, 25 January is celebrated as National Voters’ Day, and

there is a voters’ pledge that goes as follows —

“We, the citizens of India, having abiding faith in democracy, hereby

pledge to uphold the democratic traditions of our country and
the dignity of free, fair and peaceful elections, and to vote in every
election fearlessly and without being influenced by considerations
of religion, race, caste, community, language or any inducement”.

Fig. 7.5. Voters’ Pledge

[Link]

€ Ensuring free and fair elections: For elections to be

meaningful, the entire process must be conducted in a fair
and transparent manner. If fairness is not ensured, public
confidence in electoral institutions may gradually weaken.
Consider situations in which candidates are influenced by
personal favours, votes are not counted accurately, or some
participants face difficulties in exercising their right to vote
due to accessibility issues. In such cases, although elections
may be held, their democratic value is reduced. This shows that
democracy is not only limited to conducting elections, but also
in ensuring that the electoral process is inclusive, impartial,
and trustworthy.
The ECI has taken several initiatives to make the process
of elections more inclusive (see Fig. 7.7 and Fig. 7.8). These
initiatives focus on infrastructure accessibility as well as
technology-assisted inclusion, particularly for Persons with
Disabilities (PwDs), Senior Citizens, transgender persons, and
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). Voting from
home for senior citizens above 85 years of age and persons
with disabilities (PwDs) with a benchmark disability of 40%
was extended across India for the first time during the 2024
General Elections.

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 ETPBS (Electronically Transmitted
Suvidha: An exclusive app for Postal Ballot System): Developed
contesting candidates and political for ‘Service Voters’, allowing them to
parties. Here, candidates can get all receive and cast their postal ballots
the nomination-related forms and electronically from anywhere outside
updates. They can also use the app their constituency.
to apply for permissions (meetings,
rallies, vehicles, loudspeakers, etc.)
and check the real-time permission Voter Helpline App: This is
status through the app. a multipurpose app, which
can be used for various voter
ES
DAT services including registration,
I transposition, verification,
ND

etc. With the help of this

CA

VOTERS
app, voters can also get all
the information related to
LS

election and related news

C IA

ERONET: Brings in and updates, too.

I
FF

seamless processing of O
E L E C T I ON
forms and easy handling
Saksham App: The ECI has
of the databases. It facilitates
taken into consideration the
efficient form-processing,
need for easing the voter
simplified dashboards,
identification and registration
role-based access, and
process for persons with
maintenance of E-Rolls.
disabilities (PwDs) by offering
customised services. The
Saksham App provides a
number of features to help
PwDs in registration for voting,
finding polling station, etc.

Sugam: A web-based application

for managing vehicles diverted/ cVIGIL App: With this app, voters can
requisitioned from other
report any Model Code of Conduct
departments for election work.
violations and election misconducts
All details of the departments,
within minutes of witnessing them.
vehicle registration numbers,
The flying squads will navigate to the
driver contacts, and periodical
spot of incidence with the help of
fuel allotment to the vehicles are
auto location to take prompt action.
uploaded on this app.
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond Fig. 7.6. Digital ecosystem for electoral services and voter engagement
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 No Voter to Be Left Behind

Fig. 7.7. EVM with Braille

Fig. 7.8. Voting from home for senior citizens

India’s electoral exercise is unparalleled, and distinct from

those in other parts of the world, with over 96.8 crore eligible
voters spread across diverse regions and terrains. The ECI
manages this exercise autonomously, ensuring free and
fair elections nationwide. To carry out its functions, such as
updating electoral rolls, candidate nominations, regulating
campaigns, law enforcement, coordination among states,
extensive security arrangements, counting of votes, declaration
of election results, and dispute resolution, the ECI makes
extensive use of information and communication technologies,
and e-governance. The ECI has also taken several initiatives to
make the process of elections more inclusive.

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 DON’T MISS OUT

The International Election Visitors’ Programme (IEVP) is a

flagship programme of the ECI for international cooperation and
engagement with Election Management Bodies (EMBs) of other
countries and international organisations. The ECI has signed
Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) with 28 EMBs and three
international organisations, namely, the International Foundation
for Electoral Systems (IFES), International Institute for Democracy
and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), and the United
Nations.

Political Parties
How do we learn about various issues that affect citizens in their daily
lives? How do voters get to know about the candidates contesting
elections? How is the election agenda set? What role do political
parties play in elections? There are often dozens of contestants
for each constituency. Most candidates belong to a political party,
though some contest independently. Voters learn about candidates,
their policies, their vision for development, and their positions on
various social, economic, cultural, and political issues primarily
through the political parties.

They help ensure that the

Organise public democracy functions effectively
opinion.
by providing governance,
accountability, representation,
and public engagement.
Campaign
Political parties
on specific You will become eligible to vote
are essential to a
issues. in another four or five years;
democratic system,
as they work directly however, you must have heard or
at the grassroots Offer voters read about various promises that
level. meaningful political parties make during the
choices. election campaigns. They present
their agenda, elaborate on their
Enable voters to promises in election rallies, and
make informed
decisions during discuss and debate on issues
elections. of local, state, national, and
international concern through
Fig. 7.9. Importance of Political Parties
various media platforms.
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India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 LET'S MAP

1. Choose any three states (including yours). Find the symbols

of state parties belonging to those states and plot them on
the given map of India. List down their major agenda, as
mentioned in their manifesto in the latest Lok Sabha/Vidhan
Sabha/Local Body Elections.

Fig. 7.10
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 2. Form groups of 4–6 students. Identify and compare the policy
preferences on the following parameters for two political
parties in the last Lok Sabha Elections using credible sources
like party manifestos, newspapers, etc. Present the points of
comparison in a poster using bullet points, symbols, colour
coding, etc.

Any policy/law
Party’s that aligns with
Policy area Source
viewpoint the party’s
viewpoint

Education

National
security

Social welfare

Environment

Economy

Health

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Grade 9 – Part 1
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 India has a multi-party system, which
means that many political parties exist Citizens
and compete in elections. This system
reflects the country’s rich diversity
of languages, cultures, religions, and
regions. Political Parties
(Organise Public Opinion)
If there are so many political
parties, can someone simply leave
one party and join another whenever
they wish? Yes, they can. However, Contest Elections
(Plan Campaigns and Prepare
once a person has been elected on a
Manifestos)
particular party’s ticket, leaving that
party is considered as Defection.
Defection refers to abandoning or
switching from the political party
under whose banner the candidate Opposition
Winning Party
was elected. This may involve joining Party
another party or choosing to act
independently of the party’s decisions,
particularly in matters such as voting Forms Ensures
in the legislature. Such actions, if Government Accountability
understood in the context of party
discipline and political stability, are
Formulates and Participation
considered as political opportunism.
Implements in Debates,
On the contrary, defection can also be Policies Committees
viewed as a way to uphold conscience
or respond to changing public Fig. 7.11. Role of Political Parties
expectations.

DON’T MISS OUT

The Anti-Defection Law in India was passed in 1985 through the

52nd Constitutional Amendment Act. The purpose of the law is
to prevent defection, thereby providing stability to the elected
government. According to this law, if a member of the Parliament
or a State Assembly voluntarily gives up their party membership
or votes against the party’s instructions (whip), the member
can be disqualified from the respective House. The Speaker
or Chairman of the House decides what needs to be done in
such cases.

You have already read that the Election Commission registers and
recognises political parties. It does so based on specific criteria.
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 Criteria for National and
State Party Recognition

Criteria for Criteria for

National Party Recognition State Party Recognition
(Any one condition should be (Any one condition should
fulfilled) be fulfilled)

ƒ Secures not less than 6% of ƒ Secures not less than 6%

valid votes polled in any four of the valid votes polled at
or more states in a General a general election to the
Election to the Lok Sabha or to Legislative Assembly of
the Legislative Assembly, and the State concerned and,
in addition, it wins four seats in in addition, wins at least
the Lok Sabha from a single or two seats in the Legislative
more states. Assembly of that State.
ƒ Wins at least 2% of seats in the ƒ Secures not less than 6%
Lok Sabha, and the candidates of the valid votes polled at
are elected from at least three a general election to the
states. Lok Sabha from the State
concerned, and in addition,
ƒ It is recognised as a State Party wins at least one seat in the
at least in four states. Lok Sabha from the State
concerned.
ƒ Wins at least 3% of the seats
Registered at the General Election to the
Unrecognised Political Legislative Assembly of the
Parties (RUPP) State concerned or at least
three seats in the Legislative
ƒ The parties that have not Assembly, whichever is more.
secured enough percentage ƒ Wins at least 1 seat in the Lok
of votes in the Legislative Sabha for every 25 seats or
Assembly or the General any fraction thereof allotted to
Elections. the State at a General Election
ƒ Parties that have never to the Lok Sabha from the
contested elections since their State concerned.
registration. ƒ Secures not less than 8% of
the valid votes polled in the
State at a General Election to
the Lok Sabha from the State
or to the Legislative Assembly
of the State.

Fig. 7.12

LET’S EXPLORE

Find out the number of State parties and Registered Unrecognised

Political Parties (RUPP). You may visit the website of ECI.

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 LET’S EXPLORE

The year 1967 witnessed an end to the era of single-party dominated

elections in India and an era of alliances began. Even though various
states witnessed politics of alliance starting from 1967, it was in 1977
that various political parties formed an alliance as the Janata Party
against the backdrop of the National Emergency (1975–1977). The
Janata Party formed the first coalition government at the national
level, which was popularly known as the Janata Government. Since
the late 1990s, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), led by the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and the United Progressive Alliance
(UPA), led by the Indian National Congress (INC) until the UPA's
dissolution in 2023 and subsequent reconstitution as the Indian
National Developmental Inclusive Alliance, have been the major
political alliances in Indian elections.
Find out the name and the composition (number and name of the
national and state parties) of the alliances that won in the following
elections to the Lok Sabha.

Year Alliance Won National parties State parties

1977

1999

2004

2009

2014

2019

2024

Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

In India, conducting elections for over 96.8 crore (in 2024) voters
with thousands of polling stations and hundreds of political parties,
spread across diverse regions and socio-economic realities, is a
challenging task. For challenges such as misinformation, fake news,
intimidation, etc., the ECI addresses them through RPA 1950 and

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 In tim i d ati o n

M i s i n f o r mati o
n
Fake New
s

Fig. 7.13. Challenges to free and fair elections

1951, the Model Code of Conduct, EVMs, Voter Verifiable Paper Audit
Trail (VVPAT), voters’ awareness campaigns, and other measures.
With constant vigilance and active citizen participation, elections
can become more representative and the democracy more robust.

LET’S ANALYSE

Look at the road to free and fair elections above (Fig. 7.13). Fill in
the empty potholes with some more challenges after discussing
them with your teachers and parents. How can we overcome these
challenges?

Before we move on...

Æ Casting a vote is a constitutional right as well as a duty of every
citizen.
Æ Elections are the soul of democracy as they give every citizen an
equal voice in the formation of a government.
Æ The various laws, such as the Representation of the People Act
of 1950 and 1951, and bodies like the Delimitation Commission
and the ECI, ensure that the entire process of elections remains
Understanding Society: free, fair, and transparent.
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 Æ Political parties play a fundamental role by presenting diverse
view points in terms of programmes and policies, thus helping
voters make informed choices.
Æ Despite numerous challenges to conducting free and fair
elections, the ECI tries to ensure that elections at multiple levels
are carried out impartially.

Questions and activities

1. What reforms have been introduced by the ECI to make voting
more inclusive for the following groups?
a. People with Disabilities
b. Service Voters
c. Senior Citizens— above 85 years of age
d. Prisoners
e. Persons in preventive detention
2. What are the various functions of the Election Commission
of India? Which of these functions is most important for the
conduct of free and fair elections? Explain.
3. Elections are the soul of a democracy. Do you agree? Why or
why not?
4. Explain at least three differences between the national and
state/regional political parties.
5. Why should you vote? Arrange the following in the descending
order of your choice. Discuss the reasons for your choice.
a. Opportunity to choose my representative
b. Makes me a responsible person
c. Opportunity to change the non-performing representative
d. Strengthens democracy
6. What is the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) initiative of the
ECI? Explain the objectives and the necessity of conducting SIR.

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 7. Match the political party name with its symbol.

Political Parties Name Symbol

Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

Communist Party of India

(Marxist) [CPI (M)]

Indian National Congress (INC)

National People’s Party (NPP)

8. Read the case study below and answer the following questions.
Ishani and her mother were in the local market, day before the
state assembly elections. She noticed wall writing and campaign
posters pasted everywhere. Large groups of campaigners were
distributing pamphlets and raising slogans in support of the
respective candidates. Ishani has turned 18 and will be voting for
the first time. She had registered to vote through the ECI’s online
portal. The next morning, she, along with her mother and her
disabled elder brother, went to the polling station, which was
well guarded by the police personnel. A wheelchair was made
available to them, and volunteers guided them to the polling
booth. Inside the polling booth, there were only three people
who were performing all duties. Ishani had forgotten her voter
ID card and Aadhaar card, but her identity was verified with
an alternative document. After casting her vote, she was also
able to see the VVPAT slip. While leaving, she wondered how
the police personnel vote, as they must be on duty from early
morning till late evening. When she went home, she narrated
her entire experience to her 89-year-old grandmother, who cast
her vote from home.

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 a. What initiatives were taken by the ECI to enable the voters
to cast their vote?
b. If Ishani was allowed to vote even without carrying her
Voter ID card or Aadhaar card, which other document
might she be carrying that is valid for voting?
c. Cite the examples of violations of the Model Code of
Conduct.
d. Give a suitable title to the passage.
e. Find out how the police and army personnel cast their votes.
9. A comparative chart of three countries is given below. Based on
the information given in the chart, answer the questions.

Country A Country B Country C

Written Written Written

constitution, constitution, constitution,
periodic periodic monarchy, no
elections, elections, voting rights,
Political
voting rights, voting rights, no political
Dimension
party system one political party.
varies from party.
two-party to
multi-party.

Average Above-average High standard

Economic
standard of standard of of living.
Dimension
living. living.

a. What is the difference between having a voting right in

a country with a multi-party system and another with a
single-party system?
b. In which of the above countries would you like to stay and
why?
10. What are the challenges to conducting free and fair elections?
11. On the Stage.
Elections are to be held in your school for the posts of Head
Girl, Head Boy, and Sports Captain. Assume the roles of an
Election Commissioner, Returning Officer, Polling Agent,
Candidate, Campaigner, Polling Officer, Police Personnel, and a
Journalist, and perform their roles while ensuring free, fair, and
transparent elections.
7– Elections
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 12. Try and make videos or audios on topics like: My Vote My Nation;
No Voter to be Left Behind; How to Eliminate the Ill of Money
Power, etc.
13. Select one national or state political party. Using authentic and
reliable sources such as the Election Commission of India (ECI)
website, the official website of the selected political party, and
newspapers. Prepare a comparative chart of the last two State
Legislative Assembly elections. The chart should include the
following details for the chosen party:
a. Some promises made in the Election manifesto
b. Percentage of votes polled
c. Number of seats won
d. Number of women who contested
e. Number of women candidates elected
Present the data for both elections in a clear and comparative
format, citing all sources used.
14. Do you think ‘One Nation, One Election’ can improve the
efficiency of the electoral process? Divide the class and discuss
into two groups—one to examine its potential advantages and
the other to analyse its limitations.

Notes

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 Chapter 8
Building Blocks in Economics:
The Problem of Choice
The Big Questions
1. What does economics deal with?
2. What are the key questions in economics?
3. How do different economic systems address these questions?

If you had to choose, would you spend your pocket money on snacks
or save it for a new pair of shoes? If your school library had only five
copies of a new storybook but 20 students wanted to read it, who Market: A
place where
should get the book first? Can the students share them or should the
buying and
school buy more copies? Which type of crop should a farmer grow selling of
based on the condition of the soil, rainfall, and market demand? products and
Should an enterprise employ more labour or capital in the production services takes
place. It could
process? Should the government spend more on building highways
be a physical
or hospitals? market or a
These are not random questions; rather, these are examples of virtual one on
the internet.
economic choices that individuals, enterprises, and governments
have to make.
Some of our preferences are needs, such as essentials like food, water,
and shelter, while others are wants, like gadgets, vacations, or luxury
items. Human wants are unlimited and keep changing; for instance,
people may want to upgrade from a bicycle to a motorbike and then
to a car.

Needs

Wants

Fig. 8.1. Needs vs wants

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 LET’S EXPLORE

Æ List three things your parents bought this month. Can you
classify them into needs or wants?
Æ Do you think having too many wants may create problems?
Why or why not?

Choices and Limited Resources

Resources: Resources are required to satisfy
Factors human needs and wants. In
used for the
Grade 8, you have learnt about
production
of goods and factors of production—land, labour,
services. These capital, and technology—which are
can be natural, used for the production of goods
like water
and services. However, both natural
and coal, or
human-made, and human-made resources are
like capital and limited in quantity. They can be
technology. Medical equipment put to many alternative uses such
as allocating money to buy fruit
or a pair of shoes. Not just
households, economies also have
to decide how to use their scarce
resources in the best possible
way to meet unlimited wants and
improve people’s quality of life. For
example, pictures in Fig. 8.2 show
the alternative uses of steel.
Aircraft manufacturing When one alternative is chosen,
the other options are given up.
The value of what is given up is
known as the opportunity cost.
Let us understand this through an
example. Imagine that a farmer has
a piece of land and can choose to
grow either barley or wheat on
it. With limited land, water, and
labour, the farmer must decide
Refrigerator manufacturing how much of each crop to produce.
Fig. 8.2. Alternative uses of steel Consider the following table, which
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 shows various combinations of quantities of barley and wheat that
can be grown by the farmer.

Combination Barley (in kg) Wheat (in kg)

A 0 100

B 25 90

C 50 70

D 75 40

E 100 0

When these combinations are plotted on a graph (Fig. 8.3),

where the x-axis represents the quantity (in kg) of barley grown,
and the y-axis represents the quantity (in kg) of wheat grown, a
downward sloping curve is derived.
120
y-axis

A
100
100 B

80
80
Wheat (in kg)

60
60

D
40
40

20
20
Production
E x-axis Possibility
0 Curve (PPC):
0 20
20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 The curve
Barley (in kg) showing
different
Fig. 8.3. Production Possibility Curve combinations
of goods
This is called the Production Possibility Curve (PPC), which shows that can be
the trade-off between barley and wheat produced. As the farmer produced
using all
moves from point A to E, they produce more barley and lesser wheat.
available
However, to grow more barley, some wheat must be sacrificed—this resources.
is the opportunity cost of growing barley. All the points on the PPC
show the maximum output that can be produced through efficient
use of resources by avoiding wastage. This helps in better planning
and decision-making by enterprises and the governments.
8 – Building Blocks
in Economics:
The Problem of Choice
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 LET’S EXPLORE

Æ Ask your parents about how they make choices for everyday
purchase. What is the opportunity cost of making a particular
decision?
Æ How do you decide to spend your time? Is time a scarce
resource?

Economy: What does Economics Deal with?

The state of a
country or region The word Economics comes from the Greek word oikonomia, which
in terms of the in turn is composed of two words: oikos, which is usually translated
production and
as ‘household’; and nemein, which is best translated as ‘management’.
consumption
of goods and So, economics refers to household management. In the case of limited
services, and the resources and unlimited wants, not just families but also nations
flow of money. must plan how to use their resources efficiently.

Economic Since resources have competing uses, individuals, enterprises,

entities: One and governments must decide how to best allocate them, as these
who participates decisions affect the well-being of people and society as a whole.
in an economic The discipline of Economics deals with how choices are made by
activity, for
optimising the use of limited resources to satisfy the needs and wants.
example,
producers, It explains how different economic entities—consumers, producers,
consumers, governments, and financial institutions—interact in an economy.
government, and For example, how people work and earn wages, how wealth and
enterprises.
resources are distributed, how prices are determined in the
Data: Facts market, how education and technology drive investment, and how
and statistics government policies and trade influence prices in the market,
collected employment, and so on.
together for
reference or However, good decisions rely on data and analysis, not guesswork.
analysis. For example, families allocate their money for essential items (such
as food, medicines, and school supplies), non-essential items (such
Surveys: as jewellery, entertainment, and restaurant meals) and savings.
A systematic
Governments use revenue from taxation to plan expenditure on
method for
collecting and infrastructure and welfare programmes. Enterprises study market
analysing data trends and new innovations to better serve customers and maximise
related to profits. Economists study the available alternatives, associated
the economic
opportunity costs, and potential outcomes to help individuals,
conditions and
behaviours of enterprises, and institutions make decisions. They use data from
populations. government reports such as economic surveys and financial
statements of companies, and their analysis helps to understand the
Understanding Society: potential risks and opportunities. The scope of their work includes:
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 Policy- Business
making: consulting:
Guiding Helping firms
governments plan growth
on taxation or improve
or welfare efficiency.
spending.

Research and Finance:

education: Advising
Studying investors
economic on where to
trends and invest.
teaching
others.

Fig. 8.4. Scope of work of Economists

Economic Survey: A Report on Indian Economy

The Economic Survey of India is

an important annual document
prepared by the Ministry of Finance
and presented in Parliament before
the Union Budget. It reviews the
country’s economic performance
during the past year and analyses
various sectors of the economy such
as agriculture, industry, services, and
other areas like employment, inflation,
education, health, infrastructure, etc.
It discusses future challenges and
opportunities for the economy. This Policy:
helps people understand how the Indian economy is performing A course or
principle of
and what steps the government may take to improve growth and
action adopted
development. It also acts as a blueprint for the upcoming Union or proposed by
Budget by providing crucial insights for policymakers while organisations
making policy-related decisions. It is also useful for citizens as it or individuals.
explains economic data in a clear manner.
You can have a look at the latest economic survey at:
[Link]
8 – Building Blocks
in Economics:
The Problem of Choice
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 Key Questions in Economics
Any mismatch between unlimited wants and limited resources gives
rise to three key questions that the discipline of economics seeks
to address.

Unlimited Limited
Wants Resources

SCARCITY

CHOICES

What to Produce How to Produce For Whom to Produce

Fig. 8.5. Key questions that economics seeks to address

Economy: What to Produce and for Whom?

System of
This fundamental question concerns which goods and services, and
production,
distribution, in what quantities, should be produced to meet the needs of the
trade, and economy over a given period. For instance, should farmers produce
consumption water-intensive crops such as sugarcane and paddy, or drought-
of goods and
resistant crops such as millets and pulses? Producing sugarcane yields
services within
a specific high profits and supports industries such as sugar, whereas producing
area such as a millets and pulses saves water, improves soil health, and promotes
country. sustainable agriculture. Here, the opportunity cost of producing
sugarcane is the forgone gains from saved water and improved soil
health. This type of decision reflects the trade-off between short-term
economic gains and long-term sustainability by accounting for the
opportunity costs of various alternatives. Similar trade-offs have to
be made by companies, governments, and consumers.
The question of ‘for whom to produce’ delves into the purpose of
goods and services produced, how they are produced and distributed,
Understanding Society: and who benefits from their production. Since resources are limited
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 and people have different needs, income levels, tastes, and lifestyles,
producers decide which group of consumers they want to serve.
For example, shoes are a common product, but different types of
shoes are produced for different groups of people depending on
their needs and purchasing power.

ƒ School shoes are produced for students. They are usually simple
in design, durable, and affordable.
ƒ Office-wear shoes are made for working professionals. These
shoes focus on comfort, formal appearance, and quality, often
using leather or polished materials.
ƒ Sports shoes are produced for athletes and fitness enthusiasts.
They are designed using special rubber soles and lightweight
materials to provide grip, flexibility, and support.
ƒ Casual shoes or slippers are produced for daily use by people
and need to be comfortable yet affordable.
The decision of ‘for whom to produce’ also affects the materials used.
For instance, leather shoes are generally targeted at office-goers and
high-income customers, whereas rubber or synthetic shoes are aimed
at sports players, factory workers, or people who need affordable
and durable footwear. Producers analyse what consumers like, how
much money they have, and how much demand there is, before
deciding what to make. This makes sure that limited resources are
used well and not wasted.

THINK ABOUT IT

Should the government allocate more funds to healthcare and

education or to defence and space exploration? Why or why not?

How to Produce?
After deciding what to produce, the next question is how to produce
it—which methods, resources, and technologies should be used. For
example, whether a manufacturer should automate processes or
employ more labour for producing goods.
To answer this question, producers must select the right mix of
factors of production—land, labour, capital, and technology.
Production can be labour-intensive (using more workers and less
machinery) or capital-intensive (using more machines and technology
and less workers). Usually, economic activities related to agriculture
and handicrafts rely more on labour, whereas industries such as
8 – Building Blocks
steel and automobile manufacturing depend more on machinery. in Economics:
The Problem of Choice
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 Land Labour

Factors of Production

Capital Technology
Fig. 8.6. Factors of production

However, the choice of the production technique employed depends

on the cost of capital, choice of technology, and the nature of the
product. The availability of various factors of production and their
relative cost, and the laws as well as regulations in the country
determine the decision by enterprises to address this key question.
A garment manufacturer must choose between labour-intensive and
capital-intensive methods of production. If machines are expensive,
the firm will rely more on labour, but if machines become affordable,
it may shift to automation. The choice also depends on the level of
technology available—advanced technology encourages machine
use, while limited technology leads to manual production. The
nature of the product is important too, as customised or designer
clothes require skilled labour, whereas mass-produced garments are
better suited for machines. Additionally, if labour is cheap and easily
available, labour-intensive methods are preferred, but if labour is
costly or scarce, machines become more efficient. Government laws
and regulations, such as labour laws or incentives for machinery,
also influence this decision.

Economic Systems and How Choices are Made

In an economy, the answers to these three key questions depend on
how the resources used to produce goods and services are organised
and who controls the decision-making regarding them. The system
that defines the mechanisms for the production, consumption, and
distribution of goods, services, and resources is known as the
economic system of a country.
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond
The three kinds of economic systems are explained in the following
Grade 9 – Part 1 pages.
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 Planned Economy Planned
economy:
In a planned economy, a central planning authority of the An economic
government, such as the planning commission, makes all major system in which
economic decisions in the market, that is, what and how much will be the allocation of
resources, and
produced, how they will be produced, and who will get to use them prices of goods
and at what prices. The government has ownership in most resources and services are
and sectors like land, factories, banks, and transport. With limited determined by
private ownership, enterprises usually follow the central authority’s the government.
targets rather than market demand, and are heavily regulated by the
government through strict permits and licenses to produce goods
and services. However, this prevents a large number of enterprises to
operate in the market and thus restricts competition among private
enterprises. As a result, there is little motivation among enterprises to
improve quality or innovate. Some examples of planned economies Market
economy:
are the former Soviet Union, North Korea, and Cuba.
An economic
system in which
Market Economy the allocation
In a market economy, the questions of what, how, and how much to of resources,
produce are addressed mainly by the forces of demand and supply and the prices
of goods and
with little government intervention. Often, the government acts like
services are
a referee in a football match. It ensures safety and law and order, and determined
it does not control prices or production. The ownership of factories, primarily by
shops, land, and other resources, largely rests with individuals and market forces.
private companies. Many producers offer similar products, which The role of the
government
encourages better quality, lower prices, and innovation in production is to provide
of goods and services. Some of the prominent examples include public goods
the United States of America, Japan, and Hong Kong. However, and physical
governments play an important role even in these economies. infrastructure.

LET’S EXPLORE

Æ In your opinion, should the government completely stay out

of enterprise decisions?
Æ Can you think of an example where government action helped
or harmed an industry or sector?

Government Role
Ensures safety and law and order
without controlling prices.
Market
Private Ownership Economy
Individuals and enterprises own
factories, shops, and land.
8 – Building Blocks
in Economics:
Fig. 8.7. Role of government and private ownership in a market economy The Problem of Choice
191

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 Mixed Economy
Mixed
economy: The A mixed economy combines features of both market and planned
market system economies. In this system, private individuals, enterprises, and the
of resource
government play important roles in making economic choices and
allocation
in which the decisions. We also find large public sector companies that play a
government and very improtant role in the market. In reality, most economies have
private sector features of mixed economic systems that allow the existence of
coexist and
private ownership, with some degree of government regulation.
compete with
each other in A few examples of mixed economies include India (post-1991), China
the market. The (post-1978), Germany, and Sweden. Even market economies like the
private players
United States of America and Singapore have significant government
are regulated by
the government. involvement in the market.
Almost all
economies are
mixed. Government

Fair Competition Rules

Public goods: Market
Goods and
Consumer Protection
services that Profit-making
are available to
Transparency Businesses
all individuals
without anyone
Public Goods Innovation
being excluded.
The use of public
Mixed
Welfare Programmes Economy Competition
goods by some
people does
not prevent
others from Fig. 8.8. The role of government and market in a mixed economy
using them—for
example, parks,
roads, police
services, street DON’T MISS OUT
lights, and basic
education. India’s economic system has also evolved over time in response to
changing needs and challenges. In the decades after Independence,
India followed a more state-led approach similar to a planned
economy. The government played a major role in controlling
industries, allocating resources, and regulating production
through licenses and permits, while many key sectors, such as
banking, transport, and heavy industries were dominated by
the public sector. However, by 1991 the country faced serious
economic difficulties. As a result, the government introduced
major economic reforms that reduced excessive regulations,
encouraged private enterprise, opened the economy to global
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 trade and investment, and increased competition. These reforms
gradually shifted India towards a more market-oriented system
while still retaining an important role for the government. You will
study more about these changes in your higher grades.

This chapter has shown that economics is essentially about making

choices in a world of scarce resources and unlimited wants.
Individuals, enterprises, and governments must constantly decide
how to best use available resources, keeping in mind the opportunity
cost of each decision. These choices are reflected in the three key
economic questions—what to produce, how to produce, and for
whom to produce. Different economic systems provide different
ways of answering these questions, but most modern economies
combine elements of both market and planned economic systems.
Understanding these ideas helps us appreciate how everyday
decisions, public policies, and economic systems together shape the
production, distribution, and use of resources in an economy.

Before we move on...

Æ Economics deals with how individuals and societies make
choices to use limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants. Every
choice involves an opportunity cost—giving up one option for
another.
Æ Every economy faces three central questions—what to produce,
how to produce, and for whom to produce—to decide how best
to use scarce resources.
Æ Different systems answer these questions differently: market
economies rely on private decisions and demand and supply
whereas, planned economies depend on government control,
and mixed economies combine both.

Questions and activities

1. Why do you think people’s wants keep changing over time? How
does this affect production in an economy? Why cannot all our
wants be satisfied?
2. ‘Human wants are unlimited and keep changing’. How do you
think this constant desire for more creates pressure on the
environment? Can the fulfilment of wants and the extraction of
resources be balanced? 8 – Building Blocks
in Economics:
The Problem of Choice
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 3. Can you think of a resource in your region that is scarce but
used wastefully? How could it be managed better?
4. Which economic system—market, planned, or mixed—do you
think gives people the most freedom? Which economic system
is best suited for promoting innovation? Why?
5. Critically examine why pure economic systems rarely exist in
reality. Assess the limitations of such systems and justify why
a mixed economy is often considered a more practical and
effective approach in real-world contexts.
6. A student has ₹100 and must choose between buying a notebook
or saving the money for buying a tennis racket later. Which
economic concept best explains this situation?
a. Demand b. Opportunity cost
c. Production d. Inflation
7. How does understanding opportunity cost improve the quality
of economic decision-making?
8. Can effective economic decisions be made without reliable data?
Support your answer with an example.
9. Analyse how a country’s present economic choices can shape
its long-term future. Why is it important to consider future
consequences while making economic decisions today?
10. Identify a news article from any newspaper of your choice
about a product or commodity (such as vegetables, fruits, fuel,
or electronics) where producers or companies are deciding
how much to produce or supply. Write 2–3 sentences explaining
the example you found and why the production decision
was made.

Notes

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 Chapter 9

The Price Puzzle:

What Drives the Market
The Big Questions
1. What are the factors that influence the demand for and supply of
goods and services in a market?
2. How are prices of goods and services determined through demand
and supply interactions?
3. What is market equilibrium, and does it exist in the real world?
4. How and why does the government intervene in the market?

What happens if the mangoes your parents bought last week are
now half the price? Why are vegetables expensive in the morning
but are cheaper in the evening? Or why does the price of onions
seem to change every few months? Why does the same flight seat
cost ₹3,000 on one day but ₹9,000 on another day? Why do shops and
malls announce discounts at certain times of the year? Have you ever
wondered about the reasons behind these situations in a market?
In the Grade 7 chapter ‘Understanding Markets’, you learnt about the
interaction among buyers and sellers and how prices adjust when the
seller sets them too high or too low. Prices do not change randomly;
they react to what people want, how much is available, the seasons,
festivals, trends, and sometimes even rumours. Whether it is snacks,
movie tickets, mobile phones, or vegetables, the prices of all goods
and services are determined by two powerful forces constantly at
work, that is, demand and supply.
This chapter explores the concepts of demand, supply, and price
determination and provides a glimpse of the outcomes of their
interplay in real-world situations.

Chapter [Link] 195 18-Jun-26 11:33:29 AM

 Demand
As the mango season approaches, the prices of mangoes are
Purchasing
generally high, so people tend to buy them in smaller quantities.
power:
It is a measure But when prices start falling, people prefer to buy larger quantities.
of how much The quantity of a product that people are willing and able to buy at a
one unit of particular price, depending on their needs, preferences, season, trend,
a particular
and income, is called the demand for the product. Demand is not just
currency
can buy at a the desire to buy something; it is the willingness complemented by
particular time. the ability or purchasing power to buy it.
As with mangoes, when the price of any
product rises, the quantity demanded
P Q P Q
decreases, and when the price falls,
the quantity demanded increases.
Fig. 9.1. P= Price, Q= Quantity This phenomenon is called the Law of
Demand, which highlights the inverse relationship between the
price of a product or service and its quantity demanded.
Let us understand this with an example. At the beginning of the
mango season, the price of mangoes was very high (₹150 per kg).
Srivalli, a consumer, bought only 1 kg. As more mangoes became
available in the market, over time, the price fell to ₹100, so she bought
2 kg, and later, when the price dropped to ₹50 per kg, she bought
3 kg. The quantity of a good or service that an individual consumer
wants to buy at different prices, keeping other factors constant, is
known as individual demand. For Srivalli, the individual demand
is shown in the table below, which is also known as the ‘demand
schedule’. This demand schedule, when represented graphically, is
called the ‘demand curve’.

Demand Schedule Y Demand Curve

D
A
150
Quantity
Price of mangoes (₹)

Price of mango
demanded by
per kg B
Srivalli 100

₹ 150 1 kg C
50
₹ 100 2 kg
D’

₹ 50 3 kg 0 X
1 2 3
Quantity of mangoes (kg)
(a) (b)
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond Fig. 9.2. Individual demand schedule (a) and Individual demand curve (b)
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 The y-axis in the Fig. 9.2 (b) represents the price of mangoes (in ₹), and
the x-axis shows the quantity demanded of mangoes (in kg). Srivalli
bought 1 kg of mangoes at ₹150 (represented at point A). As the price
fell to ₹100 per kg, she bought 2 kg (at point B). But as the price fell to
₹50, she bought 3 kg (at point C). When the points of intersection, such
as A, B, and C, are connected, the downward sloping line DD’ is called
the demand curve. The downward-sloping individual demand curve
represents the inverse relationship between price and the quantity
of a product demanded by the buyer, assuming other factors like
income, taste, etc., to be constant.
What happens when others want to buy mangoes too? The total
quantity of mangoes demanded by all potential buyers at different
prices is known as market demand, that is, the sum of all individual
demand. Let us consider two more consumers, Alex and Israt, whose
individual demand is given in the schedule below:
Table 9.1. Individual and market demand schedule

Market
Price Q1 (Srivalli) Q2 (Alex) Q3 (Israt)
Demand (QD)

₹150 1 kg 2 kg 3 kg 6 kg
₹100 2 kg 4 kg 6 kg 12 kg
₹50 3 kg 6 kg 9 kg 18 kg

By summing the demand of all three consumers, Q1+Q2+Q3, the

market demand QD is derived. When the market demand is plotted at
Individual Demand Curve Market Demand Curve
Demand Curve of Srivalli Demand Curve of all the buyers
Y Y
DD Dm
150 E
150 A
Price of mangoes (₹)

Price of mangoes (₹)

F
100 B 100

50 G
C 50
DD’ Dm’

X X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 1314 15 1617 18
Quantity of mangoes (kg) Quantity of mangoes (kg)
(a) (b) 9 – The Price Puzzle:
Fig. 9.3. Individual demand curve (a) and market demand curve (b) What Drives the
Market
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 different prices, we get the market demand curve DmDm’ as shown
in Fig. 9.3 (b).

DON’T MISS OUT

Did you notice that the market demand curve is flatter than
Srivalli’s individual demand curve? Why is that? Market demand
aggregates many consumers, so the same price change creates
a larger total quantity response. When the price falls from ₹150
to ₹50, Srivalli’s demand increases by 2 kg, but market demand
increases by 12 kg, making the market curve flatter and more
responsive.

Other Determinants of Demand

When a new model of a popular smartphone is launched, long
queues and pre-bookings indicate the rush to buy it, even if it is more
expensive. So, the demand for a product does not necessarily change
only because of price. Many other factors influence how much people
want to buy, even when the price of the good or service remains the
same. Let us see some of these factors at play.

Related goods: Price of related goods

Products whose
demand is The demand for a good can be affected by changes in the prices of
interconnected, related goods. There are two types of related goods:
meaning a change
in the price or a) Substitute goods – These goods can replace each other, like tea
availability of one and coffee. If tea’s price remains the same while coffee becomes
directly affects more expensive, people who consume coffee may switch to
the demand for tea, thereby increasing its demand. If Srivalli cannot afford
the other.
to buy mangoes at the market price, she may buy bananas.
When the price of a good rises, people tend to replace it with
another relatively cheaper alternative. Hence, if the price of
the substitute good increases, the demand for the other related
good will increase.
b) Complementary goods – These goods are generally used together
to provide utility to the consumer, for instance, smartphones
and earphones, or cars and petrol. If the demand for printers
increases, the demand for printer cartridges may also rise, even
though the price of cartridges remains unchanged. Similarly, if
movie tickets become more expensive, people may refrain from
going to the cinema, so demand for popcorn sold in cinema halls
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond may also fall.
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 Income of the consumer
When household income rises, consumers can afford to buy more
or choose higher-quality products. A rise in income generally makes
people feel more confident about their ability to spend, so the
quantity demanded for several goods rises, even if prices remain
the same.

Taste and preference of the buyer

Every consumer has specific tastes and preferences for certain
products, which determine their demand. For example, Srivalli likes
mangoes and cannot substitute them by oranges, even if oranges are
cheaper than mangoes.
The demand also depends on the size and composition of the nation’s
population. For example, being the most populous nation, India’s
domestic consumer demand contributes to its economic growth.
In addition, the population’s composition shapes the demand for
types of products and services. More children indicate increased
demand for sports shoes, more working adults means a higher
demand for formal shoes, and more elderly people imply a higher
demand for comfortable or orthopaedic shoes.

THINK ABOUT IT

What happens when you consume the first mango? It tastes

delicious, right? The second one is good? The third one and so on?
You are barely interested in eating mangoes by this point. Why do
you think this happens?
This is because the additional utility or usefulness derived from
a product declines as more of it is consumed. This is known as
the diminishing marginal utility principle in economics. As the
utility derived from a successive quantity of products falls, the
willingness to pay for the products also decreases, so demand falls.

Seasonality
Have you seen crowded bookshops at the beginning of the new
academic session? Or customers flocking to sweet shops during the
festive season? Or sweaters and jackets being demanded during the
winter season? This is because individuals may demand different
products at different times of the year, and these changes often depend
on weather, festivals, and cultural habits rather than the price of
the good. 9 – The Price Puzzle:
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 Future price expectations
Future price expectations influence current demand even when
current prices have not changed. If consumers expect prices to fall,
they postpone purchases, decreasing present demand. If they expect
prices to rise, they buy immediately, increasing present demand. For
example, people delay buying durables before Diwali or the New
Year, expecting festival discounts.

LET’S EXPLORE

Æ Create your own demand schedule for buying notebooks at

different prices. At what price would you buy the most? At
what price would you stop buying altogether? What could be
the reason behind your choices?
Æ Ask your family members if they postponed or advanced
buying any product because of future expectations of changes
in price?

Supply
Supply is the quantity of a product that sellers are willing and able
to offer at a particular price. As price increases, quantity supplied
increases, and as price decreases, quantity supplied falls. This is
because higher prices increase profitability, incentivising producers
to increase output, and also attract new firms to the market. This
is known as the law of supply. Individual supply is the quantity a
particular seller offers at different prices.
Y
Supply Curve
S
150
Supply Schedule
Price of mangoes (₹)

Price of mango 100

Qs by seller A
per kg

₹ 50 1 kg 50

₹ 100 2 kg

₹ 150 3 kg 0 X
1 2 3
Quantity of mangoes (kg)
(a) (b)
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond Fig. 9.4. Individual supply schedule (a) and
Grade 9 – Part 1 Individual supply curve (b)

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 At the start of mango season, supply is low, making mangoes costly.
Mid-season, the supply increases and prices fall. This shows how
prices depend on the interaction between demand and supply.
When supply is less than demand, prices rise; when supply exceeds
demand, prices fall.
Market supply is the sum of all individual supplies. For example,
when mango prices are ₹50/kg, a seller supplies 1 kg; at ₹100/kg,
he supplies 2 kg; at ₹150/kg, the seller supplies 3 kg. This pattern
of higher prices leads to greater quantity supplied, which gives an
upward-sloping supply curve as shown in Fig. 9.4.
Now consider three sellers, A, B, and C, in the market, who offer
mangoes for sale in different quantities at different prices. So, their
supply schedule is as follows:
Table 9.2. Supply schedule of sellers

Market supply (kg)

Price Seller A Seller B Seller C
(A+B+C=QS)
₹ 50 1 3 2 6
₹ 100 2 4 6 12
₹ 150 3 7 8 18

By combining the quantity supplied by all three sellers (A+B+C),

the market supply QS is derived. By plotting the market supply with
corresponding prices, the market supply curve is obtained.

Individual Supply Curve Market Supply Curve

Supply Curve of seller A Supply Curve of all the sellers (A+B+C)
Y Y
SS’
SM’
150 C 150
C
Price of mangoes (₹)

Price of mangoes (₹)

B B
100 100

A A
50 50

SS SM

0 X 0 X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Quantity of mangoes (kg) Quantity of mangoes (kg)
(a) (b)
9 – The Price Puzzle:
Fig. 9.5. Individual supply curve (a) and market supply curve (b) What Drives the
Market
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Chapter [Link] 201 18-Jun-26 11:33:31 AM

 Low Wheat Price High Chickpea Price

₹ ₹
Lower Profit Higher Profit

Farmer’s choice

Plant Plant
Wheat? Chickpeas?

More Chickpeas
Next Season?

Fig. 9.6. Prices affecting supply decisions

Other Determinants of Supply

Price of related goods
Suppose a farmer faces two choices. If wheat prices are low but
chickpea prices are high, he will grow more chickpeas in the next
season. Therefore, the supply of one good depends on the profitability
of other alternatives for the supplier.

Number of sellers in the market

If there are more sellers in a market due to higher competition
and increased production, the market supply of the product would
exceed the demand. As a result, prices would fall. Likewise, if there
are fewer sellers in the market, supply would be lower than demand,
and prices would rise.

Technology
Improvement in technology reduces the cost of production, allowing
producers to produce more and supply more and vice versa. For
example, with improved techniques such as drip irrigation and
weather sensors, crop production may rise, leading to a higher supply.
Understanding Society:
Similarly, the adoption of cold storage facilities in the transportation
India and Beyond of mangoes to distant markets, thereby increasing market supply.
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 Future expectations
If producers or suppliers expect a boom in the demand for goods
in the near future, they will produce more, and supply will rise.
Similarly, if the producer is expecting lower demand, they will
reduce production, leading to a fall in supply. For instance, if potato
wholesalers expect prices to rise during the peak season, they might
hold back supply now to sell later at higher prices.

LET’S EXPLORE Market

equilibrium:
What happens to the supply of a product in case of a change in Market
the cost of inputs, discovery of an alternate input, depletion of equilibrium is
resources, change in weather, disaster, etc.? Discuss in class using the point where
supply of goods
examples of diverse goods and services.
and services
equals demand,
meaning there is
Market Equilibrium no excess supply
(surplus) or
Every market involves negotiation between what buyers are willing excess demand
to pay and what sellers are willing to accept. Thus, prices are (shortage) in
determined by the interaction between demand and supply. the market, and
prices tend to
The table below shows the quantities of mangoes demanded and remain stable
supplied at the selected prices. At a lower price, there is excess unless external
factors change.
demand, whereas at a higher price, there is excess supply.
Table 9.3

Quantity
Quantity Quantity
Price Supplied and
demanded (Qd) of supplied (Qs) of Outcome
(₹) Quantity
Mangoes (in kg) Mangoes (in kg)
Demanded
40 38 6 Qs<Qd Excess Demand

100 12 12 Qs= Qd Market Equilibrium

150 8 43 Qs > Qd Excess Supply

Equilibrium Price = ₹ 100 Equilibrium Quantity = 12 kg

At a price of ₹100, the quantity demanded equals the quantity

supplied. This point is known as the market equilibrium. At this point,
there is no pressure for prices to change, and the market is ‘cleared’,
which means that there is neither a shortage (excess demand) nor a
surplus (excess supply).
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What Drives the
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 Y

DM

Price
SM’

₹100 E

SM DM’

0 X
12 kg Quantity

Fig. 9.7

On the graph in Fig. 9.7, equilibrium is where the demand curve

DMDM’ intersects the supply curve SMSM’, that is, at point E, where
the equilibrium price = ₹100 and the equilibrium quantity = 12 kg.

LET’S ANALYSE

Using data from Table 9.3, plot the demand and supply curve at
the three prices, i.e., ₹40, ₹100, and ₹150. Identify and mark excess
demand and supply on the graph. Think about how equilibrium
could be reached in these scenarios.

Does Market Equilibrium Exist in the Real World?

In theory, equilibrium is an intersection point between demand
and supply. But in the real world, markets are dynamic with
constantly changing conditions. For example, changes in technology,
wages, interest rates, as well as wars, political events, pandemics,
weather, and natural disasters alter demand and supply. Therefore,
‘equilibrium’ in the real world is never stable and moves all the time,
i.e., the market is always in a process of adjusting to a new equilibrium,
never fully settling at the previous one. For example, during the
COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the demand for face masks surged
rapidly. As a result, the supply could not catch up immediately, and
the price of masks rose significantly. Over time, suppliers adjusted
to the increased demand and prices fell. Once the pandemic
was over, demand reduced further, and the prices reduced to
pre-pandemic levels.
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India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 Tariffs by hotels: An example of dynamic markets

Hotels do not charge the same price (also called

tariff) for rooms all the time. Their prices
change according to demand, season, and
special situations. This shows how markets are
dynamic, meaning prices keep changing based
on varying conditions.
Suppose a hotel in Goa has 100 rooms. The
room tariff changes as follows:

ƒ Off-season weekday (Monday in July):

₹1,500 per night
ƒ Weekend during tourist season (Saturday in December): ₹8,000
per night
ƒ New Year’s Eve (very high demand): ₹25,000 per night
If a group tour cancels its booking, the hotel may reduce tariff by
40 per cent overnight to quickly fill empty rooms. Hotels may also
change tariff several times in a day to earn maximum revenue. Revenue:
These tariff changes depend on other factors such as: Total amount
of money a
ƒ How fast rooms are getting booked business earns
Tariff charged by nearby hotels from the sale
ƒ of goods or
ƒ Festivals, conferences, or events in the area services, or
Weather forecasts other operating
ƒ activities, before
ƒ Number of days left before arrival any expenses
Past booking trends are deducted.
ƒ
This example shows how prices in a market change with changes in
demand and supply in real-world markets.

THINK ABOUT IT

Can you think of another real-life example (other than hotels)

where prices change frequently? Explain why the prices keep
changing.

Our choices today affect future resources. For example, high

demand for fast fashion, overfishing and overuse of groundwater
can harm future supply. So, should we focus only on short-term
gains, or also think about long-term sustainability? How could this
affect the market equilibrium?
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 Price ceiling: Role of Government in the Economy
An imposed
price control Today, India is the fourth-largest economy in the world. It is a
that sets the market-based, regulated economy in which prices depend on
maximum
demand and supply. However, markets do not always work fairly.
amount a seller
can charge for Markets allocate goods and services based on willingness and
a product or ability to pay. Suppose essential goods like medicines become very
service. expensive, will they be accessible to all? In such cases, fairness and
equity in allocation are required, particularly to ensure the welfare
Price floor: An
imposed limit on of vulnerable and low-income groups.
how low a price So, the government plays an important role in the economy in the
can be charged
following key aspects.
for a product,
good, or service.
For a price floor Regulation of Unfair Practices
to be effective,
it must be set The government regulates unfair practices to protect consumers,
above the market workers, and producers from exploitation and injustice. For
equilibrium price. example, the government sets maximum prices (price ceiling) for
essential goods like medicines to prevent overcharging. Similarly, the
Monopoly:
A market
government sets a minimum wage to ensure workers earn enough
structure with for their hard work. This lower limit is known as the price floor.
a single seller
Sometimes a single or a few sellers dominate the market; they can
or producer
controlling the charge higher prices and supply less than a competitive market
entire supply of would. This form of monopoly would be detrimental to consumer
a unique product welfare as it may charge higher prices, provide poorer quality
or service,
of goods and services, restrict supply, and so on. The government
facing no close
substitutes, regulates such practices by keeping the prices and quantity supplied
allowing them in check.
significant power
to set prices and
output. THINK ABOUT IT

Have you ever seen or heard of the government fixing prices or

wages (for example, bus fares, medicines, or minimum wages)?
Share an example and why you think it was done.

Many regulators such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) for banking,
the Central Consumer Protection Authority for violation of consumer
rights and unfair trade practices, the Telecom Regulatory Authority
of India (TRAI) for the telecommunications sector, the Securities
and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) for the securities market,
and so on, ensure transparency in the market. Do you remember
some regulators from the Grade 7 Social Science textbook
Understanding Society:
India and Beyond chapter ‘Understanding Markets’?DON’T MISS OUT
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 During COVID-19, the demand for sanitisers surged, leading to Hoarding:
stockouts and sharp price increases. Some shopkeepers began Accumulation
of goods,
hoarding and black-marketing. The government intervened by commodities,
declaring sanitisers essential commodities under the Essential or money by
Commodities Act, 1955, capping the maximum retail price at ₹100 individuals,
for 200 ml bottles. Meanwhile, many companies started production, or firms
beyond what
and sanitisers soon became widely available at fair prices. How do is immediately
such price controls affect suppliers and consumers? While in this necessary,
case the price control was for an emergency, do you think such typically driven
controls should be in practice forever? by fear of future
shortages,
anticipated
Provision of Public Goods price increases,
or speculative
Public goods are goods and services that are provided by the motives.
government for the benefit of all citizens, for example, roads,
bridges, public parks, and streetlighting are provided for public Black marketing:
The illegal trade
use; national defence protects the country from external threats; of goods and
sanitation, and drainage systems improve living conditions, and services that
so on. These goods are usually not provided by private companies are banned or
because they do not generate direct profit. regulated.
Suppose your neighbourhood needs a park. Building it is expensive,
but many families would benefit from it. If each family contributed
₹5,000, the park could be built. However, many families may think,
“If others pay, the park will be built anyway, and I can use it without
paying.” Because of this thinking, not enough money is collected, and
the park is never built even though everyone needs it. This explains
why goods that benefit everyone often require government provision
or funding to ensure social welfare, economic development, and
equal access to essential services.

LET’S EXPLORE

From your surroundings, list two goods or services that are provided
by the government (for example: roads, streetlights, parks, police,
and so on.). Choose one of the goods you listed and answer:
Æ Who does benefit from it?
Æ Why would it be difficult for a private company to provide this
service on its own?
Æ Imagine the government stops providing this good or service,
what problems might people in your area face?

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 Limitations of Government Intervention
Although government regulations are required when markets
are inefficient, they must be implemented carefully, as excessive
government intervention can have adverse effects.
a) Price distortions and reduced producer incentives
When the government fixes prices below market levels,
producers may lose motivation to supply goods or services. For
instance, if the government sets a maximum price for wheat at
₹20 per kg while the market forces set it at ₹30 per kg, farmers
receive less than what they would in a free market. This may
lead to reduced production and shortages.
Ease of doing b) Compliance burdens
business: How
Government intervention often requires extensive regulations,
simple it is to
start, run, and licenses, permits, and compliance procedures. This can hurt
close a business businesses, especially small enterprises and hamper ease
in a country, of doing business. For instance, a small restaurant may need
measured by
multiple permissions related to food safety, fire safety, pollution
regulations,
bureaucratic control, and local clearances. The time and cost involved can
efficiency, discourage small entrepreneurs from starting or expanding
and legal businesses.
frameworks.
c) Discourages innovation and entrepreneurship
Heavy regulation and price controls reduce incentives to
invest in new ideas or better technology. For example, in the
case of price distortions, farmers won’t invest in better seeds,
irrigation, or technology, if they cannot earn adequate returns.
This reduces long-term productivity and output.

LET’S RECALL

In the chapter ‘Democracy’, you have read that a democratic

government is accountable to the people and is expected to act in
their interest.
Æ According to you, how should a democratic government
decide when and how much it should intervene in markets to
protect people’s welfare?
Æ Whose voices should a democratic government consider while
making such decisions—consumers, producers, workers, or
others? Why?

Understanding Society:
India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 Understanding how these economic systems work and the general
principles of economics help to see the logic behind the choices people
make, whether it is the price they pay, the jobs they do, or the policies
governments implement. It provides the tools to think critically, use
resources wisely, and make informed decisions in a world where
every choice affects individuals, society, and the economy.
Markets are not machines with fixed equilibria but dynamic systems
that constantly adapt, evolve, and respond to changing conditions. The
next time you notice a price change—whether it is books, vegetables,
or sports equipment—pause and ask, what is really happening
here? Is supply changing? Is demand shifting? Is the market moving
toward equilibrium or being pushed away from it? Is government
intervention helping or hurting? While understanding these forces,
you are not merely learning key principles in economics; instead,
you are decoding how market dynamics work in real life.

Before we move on...

Æ Demand is the quantity consumers are willing and able to
buy at different prices. The Law of Demand shows an inverse
relationship, that is, as price falls, quantity demanded rises.
Demand is influenced by income, prices of substitutes and
complements, tastes, seasonality, future expectations, and
population.
Æ Supply is the quantity sellers are willing and able to offer at
different prices. The Law of Supply shows a direct relationship—
as price rises, quantity supplied increases. Supply depends on
prices, related goods’ prices, the number of sellers, technology,
input costs, and other factors such as weather.
Æ Market equilibrium occurs when the quantity demanded equals
quantity supplied. Fundamental markets constantly adjust
toward a new equilibrium as conditions change—weather,
trends, technology, income, and so on, create dynamic pricing
conditions.
Æ Government intervenes when markets fail and produce unfair
outcomes (unaffordable essentials), under-provide public
goods, and enable monopolies. However, excessive government
regulations may also have adverse effects.

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What Drives the
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 Questions and activities
1. An increase in income always leads to a rise in demand for
goods. Defend or refute, giving reasons for the same.
2. If petrol prices double, what happens to
a. Demand for diesel cars
b. Demand for electric cars
c. Demand for car accessories
d. Demand for public transport
3. A farmer traditionally irrigates fields manually
(labour-intensive). He installs drip irrigation (a technology
upgrade) that reduces water use by 40 per cent and increases
yield by 30 per cent. How does this affect
a. His cost of production
b. His willingness to supply at different prices
c. The overall market supply if many farmers adopt this
technology
4. During online festival sales, the prices of many products are very
low. Use the concept of demand and supply to explain why the
sellers sell at such a low price. What happens to the equilibrium
when the price is lowered? Does this benefit only consumers or
sellers as well? Explain.
5. Suppose the government sets a maximum sale price for an
essential vaccine below the market-driven price. What is likely
to happen? Choose from the options below and elucidate your
point.
a. Surplus b. Shortage
c. No effect d. Fall in demand
6. The government levies higher taxes on products such as tobacco
and alcohol to promote healthier choices among citizens. Can
you find out other goods where price controls have been set in
place? What are the reasons for the same?
7. Can excessive government regulation hurt markets? Explain
with suitable examples.

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India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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Chapter [Link] 210 18-Jun-26 11:33:50 AM

 8. In the table below, different prices of guava are given.
a. Think and write how much guava you will buy at
each price.
b. Ask the same question to three of your friends and fill in
the table.
c. Also make a graph for each one of you and one final graph
for the total quantity.

Price You Friend 1 Friend 2 Friend 3 Total

₹100/kg

₹80/kg

₹50/kg

₹20/kg

9. Visit the nearby vegetable market and try to find answers to the
following questions.
a. Who decides the prices of different vegetables in the
vegetable market?
b. Sometimes the prices of a few vegetables is too high, and
sometimes too low. Why is this?
c. The price of tomatoes is high in the morning and eventually
gets lower by the evening. Have you ever noticed this?
Comment.
10. Categorise the following combination of goods into substitute
goods and complementary goods.

a. Movie ticket in the cinema hall and popcorn

b. Eraser and pencil
c. Laptop and computer
d. Air Conditioner and cooler
e. Notebook and pen
f. Apple and banana
g. Mobile and earphones
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 11. Fig. 9.8 shows the demand curve DD’ and Supply curve SS’.
Based on the figure, answer the following questions:

a. What does point E represent in this market?

b. What is the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity at
point E?
c. Point A lies on DD’. Point B lies on SS’. What do the points
A and B indicate about demand and supply? What does the
gap between A and B (both on the upper dashed price line)
represent?
d. Point F lies on DD’. Point C lies on SS’. What do the points
F and C indicate about demand and supply? What does the
gap between C and F (both on the lower dashed price line)
represent?
e. If the price stays at the lower dashed line, what could
happen next in a free market?
Y

D S’
400

A B
300
Price(₹)

200

C F
100
S D’
X
10 20 30 40 50
Quantity (kg)

Fig. 9.8

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India and Beyond
Grade 9 – Part 1
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 12. Draw a market equilibrium graph using the following demand
schedule.

Price (₹) 10 20 30 40 50

Q.D. (kg) 5 10 15 20 25

Q.S. (kg) 25 20 15 10 5

a. Plot the demand and supply curve using the above data.
b. Identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
c. Observe the above data and analyse what happens if the
price is set at ₹20 or ₹40.

9 – The Price Puzzle:

What Drives the
Market
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 JAIPUR

Political Map of India

214

Map and Image [Link] 214 18-Jun-26 11:34:12 AM

 Physical Map of India

215

Map and Image [Link] 215 18-Jun-26 11:34:13 AM

Map and Image [Link] 216
216
Political map of the world, with names of a few countries

18-Jun-26 11:34:14 AM
Map and Image [Link] 217
Arctic Circle ARCTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC EUROPE
NORTH
OCEAN AMERICA ATLANTIC ASIA
OCEAN
Tropic of Cancer
PACIFIC
AFRICA OCEAN
Equator

217
SOUTH ATLANTIC INDIAN OCEAN
AMERICA OCEAN
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALIA

Antarctic Circle SOUTHERN OCEAN

ANTARCTICA

Physical map of the world

18-Jun-26 11:34:15 AM
 Images and maps from external sources
NCERT thanks the following organisations and individuals for
permission to use their images

1. Organisations and individuals

ƒ Fig. 1.1. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 1.2. Courtesy: National Museum
ƒ Fig. 1.3. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 1.4. Courtesy: National Museum
ƒ Fig. 1.5. Courtesy: National Museum
ƒ Fig. 1.6. [Link]
AD)_at_the_underground_Shiva_(Prasanna_Virupaksha)_temple_in_Hampi.jpg
ƒ Fig. 1.7. Courtesy: National Museum
ƒ Fig. 1.8. Courtesy: National Museum
ƒ Fig. 1.9. Courtesy: National Museum
ƒ Fig. 2.5. Courtesy: Indian Express
ƒ Fig. 2.7. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 2.9.(a) [Link]
the_Warren_Catchment_east_of_Adelaide_in_the_Mount_Lofty_Ranges_South_Australia_1992.jpg
ƒ Fig. 2.13. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 2.16. [Link]
Pits_%288409974927%[Link]
ƒ Fig. 2.20. Courtesy: Hindustan Times
ƒ Fig. 2.28. Courtesy: ANI
ƒ Fig. 2.29. [Link]
YgHPdHPkD5VJMA?hl=en
ƒ Fig. 2.30. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 2.31. [Link]
jpg
ƒ Fig. 2.32. Public domain
ƒ Fig. 2.33. Courtesy: Indian Express
ƒ Fig. 2.34. [Link]
[Link]
ƒ Fig. 2.35. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 2.36. [Link]
Ambala_Station_during_partition_of_India.jpg
ƒ Fig. 3.13. Courtesy: Hindustan Times
ƒ Fig. 4.1. Seal from Mohenjodaro M375A; p.93 and p.386, Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions 1.
Collections in India JP Joshi and Asko Parpola (Eds.) Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India
No. 86; Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, Series B 239. Helsinki 1987
ƒ Fig. 4.2. Courtesy: Ravi Korisettar
ƒ Fig. 4.6.(a,b,c,d) Courtesy: Ravi Korisettar

218

Map and Image [Link] 218 19-Jun-26 12:16:00 PM

 ƒ Fig. 4.7.
Æ [Link]
found_in_the_vicinity_(FindID_401114).jpg
Æ [Link]
pick_(FindID_762762).jpg
Æ [Link]
Æ [Link]
ƒ Fig. 4.9. Courtesy: Ajithprasad, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, The Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda)
ƒ Fig. 4.10. Courtesy: Ajithprasad, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, The Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda)
ƒ Fig. 4.11.(a) Courtesy: Ravi Korisettar, Robert Bruce Foote Sanganakallu Museum, Ballari,
Karnataka
ƒ Fig. 4.11.(b) Courtesy: Ajithprasad, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, The Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda
ƒ Fig. 4.12. Courtesy: Ravi Korisettar, Robert Bruce Foote Sanganakallu Museum, Ballari,
Karnataka
ƒ Fig. 4.13. Courtesy: Ajithprasad, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, The Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda
ƒ Fig. 4.15. Courtesy: Ravi Korisettar, Robert Bruce Foote Sanganakallu Museum, Ballari,
Karnataka
ƒ Fig. 4.16. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 4.18. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 4.19. Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, Govt. of India
ƒ Fig. 4.20. Courtesy: Dr RS Bisht & ASI
ƒ Fig. 4.25. Wikimedia Commons: Louvre Museum, Cuneiform tablet 2800BCE. Los Angeles County
Museum of Arts (LACMA) Gallery: [Link]
ƒ Fig. 4.28.
Æ [Link]
Æ [Link]
Æ [Link]
jpg?utm_source=[Link]&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=thumbnail_
unscaled
ƒ Fig. 4.29. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 4.33.
Æ [Link]
Æ [Link]
Æ [Link]
ƒ Fig. 4.35. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 4.37.
Æ [Link]
Æ [Link]
Æ [Link]

219

Map and Image [Link] 219 18-Jun-26 11:34:15 AM

 ƒ Fig. 5.1. [Link]
according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg
ƒ Fig. 5.2. [Link]
page_sample_i,_Mandala_1,_Hymn_1_(Sukta_1),_Adhyaya_1,_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9,_Sanskrit,_
[Link]#
ƒ Fig. 5.5. Courtesy: ASI
ƒ Fig. 5.7. [Link]
Hinduism,_king_Jayanatha,_Sanskrit.jpg
ƒ Fig. 5.13. [Link]
ƒ Chapter 6 Title: [Link]
New_Parliament_building,_New_Delhi.jpg
ƒ Fig. 6.2. [Link]
Assembly_Members_1950.jpg
ƒ Fig. 6.3. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 6.6
Æ Courtesy: PIB
Æ Courtesy: ECI
ƒ Fig. 6.8. [Link]
the_fore-finger_of_a_voter_before_allowing_her_to_cast_the_vote_at_a_polling_station_in_Delhi_
on_14_January_1952.jpg
ƒ Fig. 7.5. [Link]
ƒ Fig. 7.8. Courtesy: ECI

2. Royalty free stock from [Link]

ƒ Fig. 2.9.(b), 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.14, 2.15, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.21, 2.22, 2.23 (a), 2.23 (b), 2.23 (c), 2.24,
2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28, 2.29, 2.30
ƒ Chapter 3 Title, Fig. 3.1, 3.4, 3.6, 3.9, 3.12, 3.20, 3.23, 3.24, 3.26, 3.31, 3.32, 3.33, 3.37, 3.38, 3.41,
3.42, 3.43, 3.45, 3.46, 3.47, 3.48, 3.53, 3.54
ƒ Fig. 4.5, 4.7, 4.18, 4.22, 4.23, 4.24, 4.27, 4.31, 4.34, 4.35, 4.36, 4.38
ƒ Chapter 5 Title, Fig. 5.1, 5.11
ƒ Chapter 7 Title, Fig. 7.2, 7.4
ƒ Fig. 8.1, 8.2, 8.5

3. AI generated images
ƒ Chapter 1 Title
ƒ Chapter 2 Title, Fig. 2.6
ƒ Chapter 4 Title
ƒ Fig. 6.7
ƒ Chapter 8 Title
ƒ Chapter 9 Title

220

Map and Image [Link] 220 19-Jun-26 12:16:20 PM

 Understanding Society
India and Beyond
Social Science Textbook for
Grade 9 | Part 1

0 [Link] 1 20-Jun-26 10:54:57 AM

 0908 – Understanding Society: India and Beyond
ISBN 978-93-5729-100-2
Social Science Textbook for Grade 9 Part 1

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

June 2026 Jyeshtha 1948  No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the publisher.
PD 2000T HK  This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by
way of trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed
of without the publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or
© National Council of Educational cover other than that in which it is published.
Research and Training, 2026  The correct price of this publication is the price printed on
this page, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or
by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should
be unacceptable.

OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION

DIVISION, NCERT

NCERT Campus
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708
108, 100 Feet Road
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Publication Team

Head, Publication : M.V. Srinivasan

Division
Chief Editor : Bijnan Sutar
Chief Business Manager : Amitabh Kumar
Chief Production Officer : Deepak Jaiswal
(In charge)
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark Editor : Hemant Kumar
Assistant Production : Prakash Veer Singh
Published at the Publication Division Officer
by the Secretary, National Council
of Educational Research and Cover Design, Illustrations, and Layout
Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New The Banyan Tree
Delhi 110 016 and printed at Salasar
Imaging Systems B-19, Sector - 88, Cartographer
Phase-2, Noida, Gautam Budh Nagar, Arkaprovo Das
Uttar Pradesh – 201305

0 [Link] 2 20-Jun-26 10:54:59 AM

 Foreword
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 envisions an education system
that is firmly rooted in India’s civilisational wisdom, values, and ethical
traditions. The rich intellectual heritage simultaneously enables learners
to engage meaningfully with the complexities and possibilities of a
rapidly changing world. The National Curriculum Framework for School
Education (NCF-SE) 2023 provides concrete expression to this vision
by laying out a coherent curricular pathway across stages of schooling
that nurtures critical thinking, creativity, and sensitivity, along with the
values and dispositions that are needed for responsible citizenship in an
interconnected global society.
Learners have progressed through the Foundational, Preparatory,
and Middle Stages, where their inherent potential has been nurtured
holistically. Now, they enter the Secondary Stage with enhanced capacity
for reflection, reasoning, enquiry, and self-expression. Spanning across
Grades 9 to 12, also known as the adolescent stage, it marks a crucial
period in the intellectual and personal growth of the students. It prepares
them to engage with abstract ideas, complex social realities, ethical
dilemmas, and the expanding universe of knowledge, while deepening
their understanding of the self and the world around them.
The NCF-SE 2023 recommends that the curriculum for Grades 9–10
equips students with the skills that are needed to grow as they advance
in their lives. Students can use these skills for reasoning, argumentation,
and effective communication. It endeavours to enhance their analytical
and descriptive capabilities to prepare them for the challenges and
opportunities that await them. A diverse curriculum, covering ten subjects:
three languages—including at least two languages native to India—
Science, Mathematics, Social Sciences, Art Education, Physical Education
and Well-being, Individuals in Society/Environmental Education, and
Vocational Education, promotes their holistic development.
As envisaged in the NCF-SE 2023, the Secondary Stage provides learners
with opportunities to engage more deeply with the study of society
and develop the ability to analyse social processes, interpret diverse
perspectives, and reflect on issues that shape their lives. Social Science
learning at this stage is expected to cultivate analytical and discursive
abilities, encourage critical inquiry, promote intercultural understanding,
and enable learners to participate with confidence and responsibility in
civic and social life. It is in this spirit that Understanding Society: India
and Beyond, the Grade 9 Social Science textbook for the Secondary Stage,
has been conceptualised and developed.

iii

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 The textbook presents a range of themes and perspectives that reflect the
socio-cultural and geographical diversity of India and the wider world,
enabling learners to relate their lived experiences to broader social
realities. The content has been carefully selected to engage students
with questions related to society, governance, environment, culture,
economy, and human relationships. This approach aims to encourage
learners to think critically and empathetically about the world they
inhabit. At the same time, the textbook draws upon India’s intellectual
and cultural traditions, weaving into its elements of Indian Knowledge
Systems and our shared heritage, while meaningfully connecting them
with contemporary concerns and experiences.
While Understanding Society: India and Beyond serves as a central
learning resource, it also invites students to engage with a broader world
of books, media, digital archives, libraries, and community knowledge.
The role of teachers, parents, and school libraries is, therefore, pivotal
in nurturing a rich culture of reading, dialogue, and independent
exploration at this stage. The textbook integrates technology through the
use of QR codes in each unit, which provide additional reading material
and resources.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges
with deep appreciation the contributions of the Textbook Development
Team, subject experts, pedagogues, practising teachers, reviewers, and
all others who have supported the development of this textbook. We
hope that Understanding Society: India and Beyond will inspire learners
to think deeply, communicate confidently, and participate thoughtfully
in the intellectual and social life of our nation and the world. We also
warmly welcome suggestions and feedback from all its users for further
improvement in the subsequent editions.

Dinesh Prasad Saklani

Director
June 2026 National Council of Educational
New Delhi Research and Training

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 A Note for the Teacher
The secondary stage marks an important phase in the intellectual,
emotional, and social development of learners. Students entering Grade
9 are made capable of abstract thinking, evidence-based reasoning,
reflection, and independent inquiry. Aligned with the vision of the
National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and the National Curriculum
Framework for School Education (NCF-SE) 2023, this textbook seeks
to nurture informed, responsible, and reflective citizens. The focus is
on developing the competencies required to engage thoughtfully with
the world.
Social Science in Grade 9 brings together the disciplines of History,
Geography, Political Science, and Economics. While each discipline
offers its own lens for understanding society, learners may be guided to
recognise the connections among them. Historical developments influence
political institutions; geographical conditions shape economic activities;
economic processes affect social relations; and political decisions impact
both people and the environment. Such an integrated understanding
enables students to appreciate the interconnectedness of human societies.
The textbook has been designed to support inquiry-based and experiential
learning. Illustrations, maps, infographics, timelines, and other visual
materials have been carefully selected to support understanding of
concepts. Each section has been designed to build competencies, such as
critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and ethical reasoning.
The section ‘Your journey through the textbook’ illustrates the various
pedagogical tools that have bee used in this textbook.
This textbook also gives ample opportunities to teachers to play a crucial
role in creating learning environments where students actively participate
in the construction of knowledge. Students may be given opportunities
to examine sources, interpret maps and visual data, identify patterns,
analyse causes and consequences, and draw comparisons and conclusions
based on evidence. In this process, a variety of resources such as primary
sources and other credible resources can serve as valuable pedagogical
tools that connect classroom learning with contemporary realities.
Emphasise the development of critical thinking. Encourage learners to
evaluate evidence, appreciate multiple perspectives, and understand that
many social issues require careful analysis rather than simple answers.
Such skills are increasingly important in a world where information is
abundant but not always accurate.
Ultimately, the study of Social Science at this stage helps learners develop
a nuanced understanding of society, appreciate multiple perspectives,
and recognise their role as active participants in a democratic and
interconnected world.

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 Letter to the Student
Dear Student,
Welcome to Grade 9. This is an important stage in your learning
journey, where you will explore ideas with greater depth, curiosity, and
independence. As you grow in understanding and awareness, you will
also develop the ability to think critically, ask thoughtful questions, and
connect your learning to the world around you. The knowledge and
experiences you gain at this stage will help shape your perspectives and
prepare you to participate thoughtfully and responsibly in society.
In the middle stage (Grades 6–8), you explored Social Science through five
broad themes—India and the World: Land and the People; Tapestry of
the Past; Our Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Traditions; Governance
and Democracy; and Economic Life Around Us. These themes helped
you discover new ideas and reflect on important questions about society
and human life. From exploring how geographical features have shaped
civilisations to understanding how the past influences our identities, and
from recognising the importance of responsible citizenship to examining
the economic life of a large country like India, you explored important
aspects of human society.
Building on these experiences, Social Science in Grade 9 will help
you develop a deeper understanding of society through its four core
disciplines: Geography, History, Political Science, and Economics. While
each discipline focuses on a distinct aspect of human life and society,
together they will help you understand the interconnected nature of the
world around you.
This textbook emphasises meaningful learning, critical thinking, and
the real-life application of knowledge. You will be encouraged to ask
questions, analyse information, examine multiple perspectives, and form
reasoned conclusions. Activities, projects, discussions, and inquiry-based
tasks are included to help you learn through exploration and experience,
both individually and collaboratively.
Illustrations, maps, charts, tables, and other visual materials have been
carefully selected to support understanding and interpretation. Each
section has been designed to build competencies such as critical thinking,
communication, collaboration, and ethical reasoning.
As you explore society in greater depth, this journey will help you
understand how the past, present, and future are interconnected and
how each shapes the lives we lead today. It will also encourage you to

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 recognise your role as an informed, empathetic, and responsible citizen,
rooted in constitutional values such as democracy, justice, equality, and
respect for diversity.
We hope this book inspires curiosity, confidence, and a lifelong love for
learning, and helps you understand the world and your role in shaping a
better future.
With best wishes for a meaningful learning journey.

vii

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 Your Journey through This Book
This new textbook offers many features that we hope you will find both
engaging and enjoyable. As you explore the book, you will come across
carefully chosen illustrations, including photographs, maps, diagrams,
and infographics that support and enrich your understanding. These
visuals are meant to help you observe closely, think critically, and connect
ideas more clearly.
Each section in the chapter is designed to encourage inquiry, discussion,
and reflection. Your teacher will guide you in using the textbook effectively
and help you make the most of the learning opportunities it offers. Let us
take you on a brief tour of the book and its key features.

1. Each chapter begins with ‘The Big Questions’ for giving you an idea
of what you are going to learn in chapters.

2. Besides ‘The Big Questions’, you will find a QR code that links to
videos, puzzles, games, stories, and other interactive content related
to the chapter. Scan it (with an adult’s help if needed) and explore the
material to deepen your understanding.
3. As we move through the chapter, you will find some sections
called ‘Let’s Explore’. These sections include engaging activities
and questions designed to deepen your understanding, encourage
curiosity, and help you learn through exploration and experience.

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 4. Definitions of technical and difficult terms are given in margins to
aid your learning.
5. ‘Think About It’ sections in each chapter propose activities, in-text
exercises, and questions that invite deeper reflection. These will
encourage you to connect concepts with your own experiences and
present-day concerns.

6. ‘Don’t Miss Out’ highlights and lesser-known facts that spark curiosity
and interest. It encourages you to pause, explore further, and enjoy
discovering beyond the main narrative.

7. ‘Let’s Recall’ revisits important ideas and concepts that you have
already studied in earlier grades or chapters. It helps you recall prior
knowledge and connect it with new ideas and learning in the chapter.

LET’S RECALL

How is nitrogen useful for plants? Remember that you learnt

this in the chapter ‘The Invisible Living World: Beyond Our
Naked Eyes’, in your Grade 8 Science textbook.

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 8. ‘Let’s Map’ uses maps and visuals to locate important places, regions,
and events discussed in the chapter. It helps you to strengthen spatial
understanding and connect events with geography.
Note: All maps used in the textbook may be treated as approximate
and not exact.

9. ‘Let’s Analyse’ encourages you to examine events, ideas, and sources

more closely. It helps to develop critical thinking by asking why and
how, not just what happened.

10. ‘Timelines’ present events in a sequential order to help you understand

when they occurred and how they are connected. They help you see
patterns of change and continuity over time.
Note: Dates are generally subject to revision based on new findings.
All timelines displayed in this book are based on accurate radiocarbon
dates.

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 11. At the end of every chapter, “Before we move on” summarises the core
ideas and key learnings explored in the chapter. This is followed by a
range of exercises, questions, and projects that encourage reflection,
application, and deeper understanding.
Your teacher will guide you through this journey of learning, and we
encourage you to discuss and try some activities with your parents or
guardians. Exploring together can make the experience even more
meaningful and fun.
We hope you enjoy this journey through the textbook and discover new
ideas along the way.

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 A Note on the Pronunciation of Sanskrit Words
Since this textbook is in English, we use the Roman alphabet. But we
will also encounter some words in Sanskrit and other Indian languages.
The Roman alphabet cannot make their pronunciation clear without
some additional marks or signs, such as dashes, dots or accents, called
‘diacritical marks’ or simply ‘diacritics’. You can ignore all these marks if
you wish, as their standard spelling and their spelling with diacritics will
generally be the same. However, as we are using only a few simple marks,
you will find it easy to get used to them. You will also find that they help
you pronounce Sanskrit and other Indian language words correctly.
For those who wish to know the precise correspondence between the
Devanāgarī alphabet and the Roman script in our system, the tables of
letters are as follows:

Transliteration Table
Common Indian Language Alphabet—Devanāgarī to Roman script
अ आ इ ई उ ऊ
Vowels

a ā i ī u ū
ऋ ṛi ॠ ṝi ए e ऐ ai ओ o औ au
क ka ख kha ग ga घ gha ङ ṅa
च cha छ chha ज ja झ jha ञ ña
ट ṭa ठ ṭha ड ḍa ढ ḍha ण ṇa
Consonants

त ta थ tha द da ध dha न na
प pa फ pha ब ba भ bha म ma
य ya र ra ल la व va
श śha ष ṣha स sa ह ha ळ ḻa
अं aṁ अः aḥ

Conjunct Consonants – a few examples based on the first table

क्ष kṣha त्र tra ज्ञ jña श्र śhra र््ण rṇa न््ध््य ndhya च््छ chchha

ƒ Sanskrit has clear rules regarding where to use anusvāra (bindu – अं = ṁ)—
(the pure nasalised consonant)—and where to use a nasal pañchamākṣhara
(ṅ, ñ, ṇ, n, m).

xii

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 • Accordingly, during transliteration, wherever there is rule or option
of pañchamākṣhara, only the pañchamākṣhara would be used.
E.g.: • पञ््चचाङ्ग = pañchāṅga ं ागं = paṁchāṁga
Not – पच
• सङ््ख ख््यया/संख््यया = saṅkhyā Not – saṁkhyā
• In places other than the above, anusvāra would be used.
E.g.: • अश
ं = aṁśha, Not – anśha
• In Hindi and other Indian languages too, the same above rule will
apply.
E.g.: • कंगन ⇒ कङ्गन = kaṅgan Not – kaṁgan
ƒ The rule of ‘schwa-deletion’ (or syncope) found in many contemporary
Northern, Western and Eastern Indian languages like Hindi, etc., needs
to be followed, wherein, many-a-times the last and sometimes a middle
‘a’ gets deleted.
E.g.: • तबला = tablā Not – tabalā
• However, there is strictly no schwa-deletion in original Sanskrit
words.
E.g.: • राम = Rāma Not – राम् = Rām, nor – रामा = Rāmā
• योग = Yoga Not – योग् = Yog, nor – योगा = Yogā

[A short, crisp and constricted ‘अ’ ‘a’ should be pronounced at the end of
these Sanskrit words.]
• English spelling of words found in the Indian constitution, laws,
names of government schemes or contemporary persons, places,
languages, brands, etc. should be retained as they are. Here, many
original Sanskrit words have been standardised in their Hindiised
forms, with schwa-deletion applied. The spellings of such names
in respective languages should be adhered to. However, where
appropriate, diacritic markings can optionally be used without
changing the standard spelling.
E.g.: • भारत = Bharat or Bhārat Not – Bhārata
• जल जीवन मिशन = Jal Jeevan Mission Not – Jala-Jīvana Mission
• रबीन्दद्रनाथ ठाकुर = Rabindranath Tagore Not – Rabīndranāth Ṭhākur

xiii

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0 [Link] 14 20-Jun-26 10:55:14 AM
 National Syllabus and Teaching Learning
Materials Committee (NSTC)
1. M. C. Pant, Former Chancellor, National Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration (NIEPA), New Delhi—Chairperson
2. Manjul Bhargava, Professor, Princeton University, Princeton,
New Jersey, USA—Co-Chairperson
3. Shekhar Mande, Former DG, CSIR, Distinguished Professor, Savitribai
Phule Pune University, Pune—Co-Chairperson
4. Sudha Murty, Chairperson, Infosys Foundation, Bengaluru
5. Raghuvendra Tanwar, Chairman, Indian Council of Historical
Research, New Delhi
6. Sujata Ramdorai, Professor, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada
7. Shankar Mahadevan, Music Maestro, Mumbai
8. U. Vimal Kumar, Prakash Padukone Badminton Academy, Bengaluru
9. Kamakoti Veezhinathan, Director, IIT Madras, Chennai
10. Surina Rajan , IAS (retd.), Former DG, Haryana Institute of Public
Administration (HIPA), Gurugram, Haryana
11. Chamu Krishna Shastri, Chairperson, Bhartiya Bhasha Samiti,
Ministry of Education, New Delhi
12. Sanjeev Sanyal, Member, Economic Advisory Council to the Prime
Minister (EAC-PM), New Delhi
13. R. Venkat Rao, Former Vice-Chancellor of the National Law School of
India University (NLSIU), Bengaluru
14. Gajanan Londhe, Head, Programme Office, NSTC, NCERT, New Delhi
15. Rabin Chettri, Former Director, SCERT, Sikkim
16. Pratyusa Kumar Mandal, Professor, Regional Institute of Education,
NCERT, Mysuru
17. Amarendra Prasad Behera, In-charge Joint Director, CIET, NCERT
18. Dinesh Kumar, Dean (Research), National Institute of Education,
NCERT, New Delhi
19. Kirti Kapur, Former Faculty, Department of Education in Languages,
NCERT, New Delhi
20. Ranjana Arora, Head, Department of Curriculum Studies and
Development, NCERT, New Delhi—Member Secretary

0 [Link] 15 20-Jun-26 10:55:14 AM

 Textbook Development Team
Team Leader
B.R Mani, Head of Department, Department of Archaeology, Indian
Institute of Heritage, Noida
Team Co-Leader
Abhay Kumar Singh, Vice-Chancellor, Jharkhand State Open University,
Ranchi
Contributors
Aasheerwad Dwivedi, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Management
Studies, Shri Ram College of Commerce, University of Delhi, Delhi
Ajithprasad P., Professor (Retd.), Department of Archaeology and Ancient
History, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat
Ankur Kakkar, Chief Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC, NCERT,
New Delhi
Aparna Pandey, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences,
(DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Arkaprovo Das, Cartographer, New Delhi
Aruna Sinha, Professor Emerita, Department of History, Faculty of Social
Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Bhawna Paliwal, Educator and Senior Consultant, Programme Office,
NSTC, NCERT, New Delhi
Bhuwan Jha, Associate Professor, Department of History, Satyawati
College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Diya Tanmay Devare, Assistant Professor, Symbiosis College of Arts and
Commerce, Pune
Himanshu Roy, Professor, Centre for Political Studies, School of Social
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Lopamudra Basu, Assistant Professor and Head, Department of
Geography, Heramba Chandra College, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
Mahendra Kumar Khuntwal, PGT Economics, Mayo College, Ajmer
Neerja Singh, Professor, Department of History, Satyawati College
(Evening), University of Delhi, Delhi

0 [Link] 16 20-Jun-26 10:55:14 AM

 Nikhil Bellaryakar, Historian, Author, and Translator, Pune
Pramod Kumar, Senior Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC, NCERT,
New Delhi
Pratik Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Ram Lal Anand
College, University of Delhi, New Delhi
Pratyusa Kumar Mandal, Professor, Regional Institute of Education,
NCERT, Mysuru
Radha Narayanan, Co-Founder and Creative Head of Gurucool Fun,
Chennai
Ravi Korisettar, Adjunct Professor, National Institute of Advanced Studies,
IISc Bangalore, Bengaluru
Ritendra Sharma, Dean, Centre for Indic Studies, Indus University,
Ahmedabad
Rupak Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Social Science-SSL,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Sandeep Chatterjee, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Shaheed
Bhagat Singh College, University of Delhi, New Delhi
Sandeep Kumar Verma, Assistant Professor, Department of History,
Satyawati College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Sangeeta Pethiya, Assistant Professor, Regional Institute of Education,
NCERT, Bhopal
Sanjay Singh, Professor, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow
Sanjeev Sanyal, Member, Economic Advisory Council to the Prime
Minister (EAC–PM), New Delhi
Shankar Kumar, Associate Professor, Department of History, Hindu
College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Shashank Tiwari, Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science,
Delhi College of Arts and Commerce, University of Delhi, New Delhi
Sonali Chitalkar, Associate Professor, Department of Political Science,
Miranda House, University of Delhi, Delhi
Srishti Chauhan, Researcher, Economic Policy, National Institution for
Transforming India (NITI) Aayog, New Delhi
Sukhvinder Singh, Associate Professor, Department of Curriculum
Studies & Development (DCS&D), NCERT, New Delhi

xvii

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 Surendra C. Thakurdesai, Professor and Head, Department of Geography,
Gogate Joglekar College, Ratnagiri
Tannu Malik, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences
(DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Tarinee Awasthi, Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities and
Languages, Flame University, Pune
Vandana Mishra, Professor, Centre for Political Studies, School of Social
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Varada A. Sambhus, Associate Professor, Centre for the Study of Law and
Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Member Coordinator
Mily Roy Anand, Professor and Head, Department of Gender Studies
(DGS), NCERT, New Delhi
Member Co-Coordinator
Bhairu Lal Yadav, Associate Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Reviewers
Anurag Behar, CEO, Azim Premji Foundation, Bengaluru, Member,
National Curriculum Framework Oversight Committee
Badri Narayan Tiwari, Vice-Chancellor, Tata Institute of Social Sciences,
Mumbai
Birbal Luniwal, Assistant Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Gouri Srivastava, Head and Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Himanshu Kumar Chaturvedi, Director, Indian Institute of Advanced
Study, Shimla
Heeraman Tiwari, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal
Nehru University, New Delhi
Jaya Singh, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences (DESS),
NCERT, New Delhi
Kumari Rohini, Assistant Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi

xviii

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 Lavanya Vemsani, Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Shawnee
State University, Ohio, USA
M.V. Srinivasan, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences
(DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Prashant Divekar, Head, Centre for Teacher Training, Jnanaprabodhini,
Pune
Pratima Kumari, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences
(DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Premkant Mishra, Senior TGT – Social Science, DPS Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi
Sainath Kabade, Assistant Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Sanjiv Ranjan, Associate Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Savita Sagar, Assistant Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Seema Shukla Ojha, Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Shankar Sharan, Professor (Retd.), Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Subhash Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Education in Social
Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi
Vanthangpui Khobung, Assistant Professor, Department of Education in
Social Sciences (DESS), NCERT, New Delhi

xix

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 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
 before law and equal protection of laws;
 irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
 of opportunity in public employment;
 by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
 of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
 of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
 of protection of life and personal liberty;
 of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
 of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
 for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
 for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
 freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
 freedom to manage religious affairs;
 freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
 freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain
educational institutions.
Cultural and Educational Rights
 for protection of interests of minorities;
 for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions;
 saving of certain Laws 31A–31D.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
 by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

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 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
gratefully acknowledges the guidance and support of the esteemed
Chairperson and Members of the National Curriculum Frameworks
Oversight Committee for their invaluable contributions in overseeing
of the National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF–SE)
2023 perspectives into the textbook. NCERT is also deeply grateful to the
Chairperson, Co-Chairperson, and Members of the National Syllabus
and Teaching–Learning Materials Development Committee for their
continuous guidance and thorough review of the textbook.
Furthermore, NCERT extends its heartfelt thanks to the Team Leader,
Co-Team Leader, and Members of the Social Science textbook development
team, as well as other contributing teams, for their support and guidance.
The Council acknowledges the support of Amarendra Behera, Professor
and Joint Director, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET);
Pratyusa Kumar Mandal, Professor, Regional Institute of Education (RIE)
Mysore; Sunita Farkya, Professor and Head, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics (DESM); Indrani Bhaduri, Professor and Head,
Educational Survey Division (ESD); Vinay Singh, Professor and Head, The
Department of Education of Groups with Special Needs (DEGSN); Mily
Roy Anand, Professor and Head, Department of Gender Studies (DGS);
and Jyotsna Tiwari, Professor and Head, Department of Education in
Arts and Aesthetics (DEAA), along with their teams, for their meticulous
efforts in ensuring the seamless integration of cross-curricular aspects
throughout the textbook and linkages with other curricular areas. Thanks
are also due to the Principals, Faculty Members, and Teachers of the
Demonstration Multipurpose (DM) Schools of NCERT and its constituent
units for their inputs on the cross-cutting themes. NCERT is also indebted
to Gouri Srivastava, Head, Department of Education in Social Sciences
(DESS), for her constant assistance and advice.
The unstinting efforts and exemplary dedication of the Social Science
team at the National Syllabus and Teaching Learning Materials
Committee (NSTC) Programme Office in assisting with the development
of this textbook at every stage are gratefully acknowledged. Special
recognition is extended to Riddhi Garg for her professional editing
efforts across multiple versions of the text. Thanks are also due to Saket
Bahuguna, Yadunath Deshpande and Siddhartha A. Bhargava from NSTC
Programme office for their valuable inputs.

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 NCERT also expresses its appreciation to the illustrators and designers
for the textbook’s appealing design and visual quality.
The Council further appreciates the dedication and consistent efforts
of Km. Anubha Choudhary and Vanshika Bansal, Junior Project
Fellows, DESS, throughout the development of the textbook. We
greatly acknowledge the support provided by the faculty members
and administrative staff of the Department of Gender Studies and the
Department of Education in Social Sciences in the development of
this textbook.
The Council also acknowledges the valuable contributions of
Asma Khanam and Alpana Saha, Assistant Editors (Contractual),
Ilma Nasir, Editor (Contractual), and Shilpa Mohan, Editor for
copyediting and giving final shape to the book. The efforts of
Pawan Kumar Barriar, In-charge, DTP Cell, NCERT, and Vivek Rajpoot,
Upasana, Shiv Shankar Dubey, Manoj Kumar, Vipan Kumar Sharma,
and Vijay Shukla, DTP Operators (Contractual) are acknowledged
along with contributions of Lomesh Giri and Maya, Proofreaders
(Contractual).
Copyright permissions have been applied for all the texts. The publisher
extends apologies for any omissions and would be glad to hear from
any such unacknowledged copyright holders.

xxii

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 Contents
Foreword iii
A Note for the Teacher v
Letter to the Student vi
Your Journey through This Book viii
A Note on the Pronunciation of Sanskrit Words xii

Chapter 1 Understanding Social Science 1

Geography
Chapter 2 Shaping of the Earth’s Surface 13
Chapter 3 Atmosphere and Climate 39

History
Chapter 4 Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation 61
Chapter 5 State and Society up to 1000 CE 95

Political Science
Chapter 6 Democracy 137
Chapter 7 Elections 161

Economics
Chapter 8 Building Blocks in Economics:
The Problem of Choice 183
Chapter 9 The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Market 195

Image Credits 218

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 Vasudhaiva Kuṭumbakam:
The whole world is family.

xxiv

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