Module 4

Stereotype, Prejudice and Discrimination

4.1 Defining Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination, how to reduce stereotypes,

prejudice and discrimination. Contemporary Indian context

Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination constitute three interrelated yet analytically

distinct components of intergroup relations, corresponding respectively to cognitive,
affective, and behavioral dimensions of social bias.

Stereotypes are generalized cognitive beliefs or associations that attribute particular

traits or characteristics to all members of a social group. These beliefs simplify social
perception but often lead to overgeneralization and inaccuracy.

Prejudice refers to negative attitudes, evaluations, or emotional responses toward

individuals based solely on their membership in a particular social group. It reflects the
affective component of bias and may exist even in the absence of direct experience.

Discrimination involves overt behavioral actions that disadvantage or treat individuals

unfairly because of their group membership. It represents the behavioral manifestation of bias
and can occur at both individual and institutional levels.

Although these three components are conceptually distinct, they are closely
interconnected. Stereotypes can give rise to prejudicial attitudes, which in turn may lead to
discriminatory behavior. Conversely, engaging in discriminatory practices can reinforce
existing stereotypes and prejudices.

Thus, understanding the distinction and relationship among stereotypes, prejudice,

and discrimination is essential for analyzing the persistence of social inequality and
intergroup conflict.

Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Efforts to reduce stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination have focused on

identifying social and psychological processes that can modify intergroup attitudes and
behaviors. Among these, intergroup contact, changes in social identity, and cultural
transformation are particularly significant.

1. Intergroup Contact Hypothesis

 Proposed by Gordon Allport, the contact hypothesis suggests that direct interaction
between members of different groups can reduce prejudice, provided certain conditions are
met. Early applications, such as school desegregation following the Brown v. Board of
Education, did not always produce immediate positive outcomes, highlighting that contact
alone is insufficient.

For intergroup contact to be effective, four key conditions must be satisfied:

●​ Equal status between groups in the interaction

●​ Personal interaction (meaningful, direct contact)

●​ Cooperative activities toward shared (superordinate) goals

●​ Supportive social norms from authorities and institutions

Meta-analyses by Thomas Pettigrew and Linda Tropp confirm that such contact
reduces prejudice by:

●​ Increasing knowledge about outgroups

●​ Reducing intergroup anxiety

●​ Enhancing empathy and perspective-taking

2. The Jigsaw Classroom

The jigsaw classroom, developed by Elliot Aronson, is a cooperative learning

method designed to reduce prejudice in educational settings. Students are placed in diverse
groups and assigned interdependent tasks, making each member essential for group success.

Outcomes of this method include:

●​ Reduced prejudice

●​ Increased liking among group members

●​ Improved self-esteem

●​ Enhanced academic performance (especially among minority students)

This approach demonstrates how structured cooperation can foster positive intergroup
relations.
3. Shared Identities and the Common Ingroup Identity Model

The Common Ingroup Identity Model, proposed by Samuel Gaertner and John
Dovidio, emphasizes transforming perceptions of “us” versus “them” into a more inclusive
“we.”

This occurs through:

●​ Decategorization: Viewing outgroup members as individuals rather than category

members

●​ Recategorization: Redefining group boundaries to include former outgroup members

within a shared identity

Such processes reduce bias by promoting a sense of common belonging and shared
goals.

4. Changing Cultural Norms and Motivations

Cultural and social norms play a crucial role in maintaining or reducing prejudice.
Change can occur through:

●​ Exposure to diverse representations in media and society

●​ Shifts in social norms, especially through peer influence and popular culture

●​ Legal and institutional reforms that discourage discriminatory behavior

Motivation to avoid prejudice may initially be external (e.g., fear of social

disapproval) but can become internalized, leading to more genuine and lasting attitude
change.

Contemporary Indian Context

Caste-Based Discrimination

Perhaps the most deeply ingrained form of discrimination in India is based on caste.
Historically, stereotypes associated with different castes dictated occupational roles and social
status. Even today, despite legal prohibitions, stereotypes persist. For example, individuals
from ‘lower’ castes may be stereotyped as lacking intelligence or being suited only for
manual labor. This can lead to prejudice in hiring practices and social interactions, resulting
in discrimination in education, employment, and access to resources. The Sachar Committee
Report (2006) highlighted the socio-economic disadvantages faced by Muslims, often
intertwined with caste-based biases.

Religious Stereotypes and Prejudice

India’s religious diversity is often accompanied by stereotypes. Muslims are

sometimes stereotyped as being ‘anti-national’ or ‘terrorist sympathizers’, leading to
prejudice and discrimination in housing, employment, and even everyday interactions.
Similarly, Christians in certain regions may be viewed with suspicion and subjected to social
exclusion. These stereotypes are often fueled by misinformation and political rhetoric. The
increasing incidents of hate speech targeting religious minorities demonstrate the dangerous
consequences of unchecked prejudice.

Gender Stereotypes and Discrimination

Gender stereotypes are pervasive in Indian society. Women are often stereotyped as
being emotional, nurturing, and less capable in STEM fields. This leads to prejudice in
educational and professional opportunities, contributing to the gender gap in workforce
participation. The preference for sons over daughters, rooted in patriarchal stereotypes,
results in sex-selective abortions and unequal access to healthcare and education for girls.
The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21) reveals a declining but still
significant sex ratio at birth in several states.

Regional Stereotypes and Discrimination

Stereotypes also exist based on regional identity. People from certain states, like Bihar
or Uttar Pradesh, are sometimes stereotyped as being less educated or prone to criminal
activity. This can lead to discrimination in employment and housing, particularly in
metropolitan cities. Northeastern Indians often face prejudice and discrimination in mainland
India, stemming from stereotypes about their physical appearance and cultural differences.
This has led to movements advocating for greater recognition and protection of their rights.

Psychological Mechanisms at Play

●​ In-group Bias: People tend to favor members of their own group and view
out-groups with suspicion.

●​ Confirmation Bias: Individuals seek out information that confirms their existing
stereotypes, reinforcing prejudiced beliefs.
 ●​ Scapegoating: Blaming an out-group for societal problems can provide a convenient
outlet for frustration and anger.

●​ Just-World Belief: The belief that the world is inherently just can lead people to
rationalize discrimination by blaming victims for their circumstances.

4.2 Racism: Current Forms and Challenges. Sexism: Ambivalence and Double
Standards.

Racism: Current Forms and Challenges

Decline of Overt Racism

A close examination of legislation, opinion polls, sociological data, and social

psychological research indicates that racial prejudice and discrimination have been
decreasing over the last several decades, although elements of it may once again be on the
rise, particularly in Western Europe.

In a classic study (1933), Daniel Katz and Kenneth Braly found that white college
students viewed white Americans positively (e.g., smart, industrious, ambitious), whereas
African Americans were viewed negatively (e.g., superstitious, ignorant, lazy). However,
follow-up surveys conducted from 1951 through 2001 showed that these negative images
largely faded and were replaced by more favorable ones.

Similarly, public opinion polls indicate that racial prejudice has dropped sharply since
World War II. Increased willingness to accept African Americans in employment, friendship,
neighborhood, and marriage reflects this change.

The election of Barack Obama has been seen as a significant sign of racial progress.
However, although perceptions of racial progress increased, support for policies addressing
racial inequality decreased, despite the persistence of racial disparities in various aspects of
society.

Persistence of Racism

Despite progress, racial biases continue to exist in employment, salaries, housing,

bank credit, and other domains. Thus, racism remains a fact of life and is not limited to the
actions of fringe individuals or groups.

Forms of Racism
Old-Fashioned Racism

Old-fashioned racism is blatant, explicit, and unmistakable.​

Example: Racist taunts and aggression during international sports events.

Modern Racism

Modern racism refers to a subtle form of prejudice that tends to surface when it is safe,
socially acceptable, or easy to rationalize.

●​ Many individuals are racially ambivalent.

●​ They wish to see themselves as fair but still harbor anxiety and discomfort toward
other racial groups.

Bias is most likely to emerge under ambiguous conditions.​

Example: When evidence in a legal case is ambiguous, individuals are more likely to judge a
Black defendant as guilty than a White defendant.

Aversive Racism

Proposed by Samuel Gaertner and John Dovidio, aversive racism refers to the
ambivalence between:

●​ Fair-minded attitudes (conscious level)

●​ Unconscious negative feelings and beliefs

Individuals may feel embarrassed, guilty, and ashamed when they recognize that their
behavior may be biased.

Implicit Racism

Implicit racism operates unconsciously and unintentionally. Individuals who wish to be

fair may still exhibit biased judgments and behaviors without awareness.

●​ Measured using the Implicit Association Test

●​ Found across cultures and even among children

●​ Predicts subtle behaviors such as eye contact, seating distance, and interaction
patterns
 Example: Defendants with more stereotypically Black features are more likely to receive
harsher sentences.

Conditions Under Which Bias Emerges

Racial bias is more likely to appear when:

●​ There is low accountability

●​ Situations are ambiguous

●​ Social norms are unclear

●​ Justifications are available

Example: Umpires showed racial bias only when their decisions were less monitored.

Interracial Perceptions

Interracial perception is often associated with stronger feelings of hostility, fear, and
distrust due to:

●​ Lack of contact between groups

●​ Anxiety about appearing racist

Research shows that individuals may:

●​ Perceive hostility more quickly in Black faces

●​ Interpret neutral expressions as threatening

Higher implicit bias is associated with stronger perceptual distortions.

Neuropsychological Evidence

Brain-imaging studies indicate:

●​ Greater activation of the amygdala in response to outgroup members

●​ Stronger emotional reactions to racial outgroup faces

These effects are more pronounced when the target makes direct eye contact, suggesting
perceived threat.

Interracial Interactions
 Interracial interactions are often complex and challenging due to multiple
psychological processes:

1. Anxiety About Appearing Racist

Individuals regulate their behavior to avoid appearing prejudiced, leading to awkward

and less natural interactions.

2. Cognitive and Emotional Exhaustion

Such interactions require effortful control and may impair performance on subsequent
tasks.

3. Metastereotypes

Individuals think about how they are perceived by others, leading to increased
self-consciousness and tension.

4. Avoidance Behavior

People may avoid interracial interactions or engage less fully, which can worsen
intergroup relations.

Example: Individuals may avoid mentioning race even when relevant, even at the cost
of task performance.

Developmental Aspects

Children become increasingly aware of racial sensitivities with age. Older children
may avoid race-related discussions more than younger children, sometimes resulting in
poorer performance in tasks where race is relevant.

Sexism: Ambivalence and Double Standards

Nature and Contemporary Forms of Sexism

Overt and blatant forms of sexism have become less socially acceptable over time,
although they continue to exist with considerable frequency and intensity. Contemporary
research increasingly focuses on modern and implicit forms of sexism, which often escape
conscious awareness yet continue to exert significant discriminatory effects in everyday
social and institutional contexts.

Prescriptive Nature of Gender Stereotypes

 A distinguishing feature of gender stereotypes is that they are prescriptive rather than
merely descriptive. They do not simply describe how men and women are perceived but also
define how they are expected to behave. For instance, women are often expected to be
nurturing, while men are expected to be unemotional. Even though qualities such as ambition
and assertiveness are socially valued, women who display these traits are frequently judged
more harshly than men. This reflects the presence of double standards, which are central to
the operation of sexism.

Ambivalence in Sexism

Sexism differs from many other forms of prejudice because of the close and
continuous interaction between men and women. Unlike other group divisions, men and
women typically belong to the same families, grow up together, and maintain intimate social
relationships. As a result, sexism is characterized by ambivalence, involving a complex
mixture of both positive and negative attitudes and beliefs.

Ambivalent Sexism

The concept of ambivalent sexism, developed by Peter Glick and Susan Fiske,
captures this duality. It consists of two interrelated components. Hostile sexism reflects
overtly negative and resentful attitudes toward women, particularly in relation to their
perceived challenge to male authority and power. Benevolent sexism, in contrast, involves
subjectively positive but patronizing beliefs, such as the idea that women are pure, fragile,
and in need of protection. Although benevolent sexism appears favorable on the surface, it
reinforces traditional gender roles and contributes to the maintenance of gender inequality.
Research has shown that these two forms of sexism are positively correlated and are more
prevalent in societies characterized by greater gender inequality.

Double Standards in Evaluation

Sexism is further reflected in persistent double standards in evaluation and judgment.

Early research demonstrated that identical work was evaluated more favorably when
attributed to a male rather than a female author, and that women’s achievements were often
explained in terms of luck rather than ability. Although later studies suggest that such explicit
biases are not always consistently observed, more subtle forms of bias continue to operate.
Women who perform in roles traditionally associated with men may still be evaluated less
favorably.
Occupational Inequality and Workplace Discrimination

Gender-based inequalities remain evident in occupational patterns and workplace

experiences. Men and women continue to be concentrated in different types of jobs, often
reflecting traditional notions of “masculine” and “feminine” roles. Even when equally
qualified, men are more likely to be preferred for positions associated with leadership and
authority, whereas women are often channeled into roles emphasizing care and support.
Furthermore, women frequently experience lower pay than men for comparable work and
encounter structural barriers, such as the glass ceiling, which restrict their advancement to
higher positions. Workplace environments may also be characterized by harassment,
exclusion, and other forms of discrimination.

The Double Bind for Women

A significant manifestation of sexism is the double bind faced by women in

professional contexts. Women who display agentic qualities such as competence,
independence, and leadership are often perceived as capable but lacking in warmth or social
skills. Conversely, women who conform to communal expectations may be viewed as likable
but less competent. This creates a contradictory situation in which women are evaluated by
different standards than men, often making it difficult for them to succeed without incurring
negative judgments.

4.3 Causes of the Problem: Intergroup conflicts, Cognitive and Socio-Cultural Factors.

The persistence of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination can be understood

through a combination of intergroup, cognitive, and socio-cultural factors. These dimensions
interact dynamically, reinforcing biased attitudes and behaviors in society.

Intergroup Conflicts and Motivational Factors

A fundamental cause of prejudice lies in the human tendency to categorize the social
world into ingroups (“us”) and outgroups (“them”). This division is considered an adaptive
feature of human social evolution, promoting group cohesion but also fostering bias against
outsiders. Individuals tend to favor their ingroup in evaluation, resource allocation, and social
interactions.

Motivational processes further intensify these biases. When individuals experience

threats to safety or self-esteem, they are more likely to exhibit hostility toward outgroups
perceived as threatening. Similarly, reminders of mortality can heighten ingroup attachment
and increase negative stereotyping and prejudice toward outgroups.

Intergroup conflict is particularly evident when groups compete for limited resources.
Such competition leads to heightened prejudice and discrimination, as demonstrated in
classic field research where rivalry between groups quickly produced hostility, which was
later reduced only through cooperative, superordinate goals.

Social identity also plays a crucial role. Individuals derive part of their self-concept
from group memberships, and thus, favoring the ingroup and derogating the outgroup
enhances self-esteem. This tendency is stronger when group identity is salient or central to
the individual. Additionally, individuals who endorse hierarchical social structures may show
a stronger preference for their group’s dominance and are more likely to justify inequality.

Cultural contexts influence these processes. For instance, individuals in

individualistic cultures may display more explicit ingroup favoritism as a means of
enhancing self-esteem, whereas collectivistic cultures may emphasize harmony but still
maintain subtle group distinctions.

Cognitive Factors

Cognitive processes play a central role in the formation and maintenance of

stereotypes. One key mechanism is social categorization, where individuals classify people
into groups to simplify social perception. While this helps in efficient information processing,
it often leads to overgeneralization and biased judgments.

People tend to exaggerate differences between groups and underestimate variability

within outgroups, a phenomenon known as the outgroup homogeneity effect. This leads to
the perception that “they are all the same,” reinforcing stereotypes.

Stereotypes are maintained through several cognitive biases. Individuals may form
illusory correlations, perceiving relationships between group membership and certain traits
even when none exist. Attributional biases also play a role, as people often explain outgroup
members’ negative behaviors as inherent traits while attributing ingroup members’ behavior
to situational factors.

When individuals encounter group members who contradict stereotypes, they often
create subtypes rather than revising the overall stereotype, allowing the stereotype to persist.
Moreover, stereotypes can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, where expectations influence
behavior in ways that elicit confirming responses from others.

Importantly, stereotyping can occur automatically and unconsciously. Even

individuals who consciously reject prejudice may still activate stereotypes at an implicit
level. Efforts to suppress stereotypes can sometimes backfire, especially under conditions of
cognitive load, fatigue, or stress, reducing individuals’ ability to regulate biased responses.

Socio-Cultural Factors

Stereotypes and prejudice are deeply embedded in cultural and social contexts.
Individuals acquire many biases through socialization, often unconsciously, by observing
family members, peers, and societal norms. From early childhood, individuals begin to
internalize culturally shared beliefs about different social groups.

Cultural institutions, including education systems, traditions, and social norms,

play a significant role in shaping and maintaining group-based distinctions. Gender roles, for
example, are reinforced through early socialization, leading to deeply ingrained stereotypes
that influence perceptions and behavior across the lifespan.

The mass media is another powerful agent in perpetuating stereotypes. Repeated

portrayals of certain groups in stereotypical roles influence public perceptions and can
normalize biased attitudes. At the same time, media also has the potential to challenge and
change stereotypes by promoting diversity and inclusive representations.

Cultural narratives and societal structures may also legitimize inequality, making
prejudice appear normal or justified. However, socio-cultural change—through education,
policy interventions, and evolving social norms—can play a crucial role in reducing prejudice
and promoting more egalitarian attitudes.

4.4 Aggression: Determinants of aggression, disinhibition, forms of aggression in society,

Aggression and violence

Aggression

Aggression refers to any behavior that is intended to cause harm to another individual
who is motivated to avoid that harm. It is an intentional and observable act, distinguishing it
from mere feelings such as anger or hostility. Aggression can be expressed in multiple forms,
including physical harm, verbal abuse, or social manipulation. Although aggression is a
natural aspect of human behavior and may have evolutionary roots, excessive or uncontrolled
aggression can lead to serious personal and societal consequences, including violence, crime,
and social instability. Social psychology seeks to understand why aggression occurs, under
what conditions it is likely to arise, and how it can be controlled.

Determinants of Aggression

Aggression is determined by a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and

social factors. Biological theories suggest that aggression may have adaptive value, as it helps
individuals defend themselves, compete for resources, and ensure the survival of their genes
and offspring. However, biological predispositions alone cannot explain aggressive behavior,
as social and environmental influences play a crucial role in shaping how and when
aggression is expressed.

One of the most influential explanations of aggression is the role of frustration. When
individuals are prevented from achieving their goals, they experience frustration, which can
create a tendency toward aggression. This frustration may not always be directed toward the
actual source of the problem; instead, it may be displaced onto a more convenient or less
threatening target, often referred to as a scapegoat. Environmental factors such as crowding,
excessive noise, and high temperatures can intensify frustration by increasing physiological
arousal, irritation, and discomfort, thereby making aggressive responses more likely.

The cognitive neoassociationist model provides a deeper explanation of how

environmental cues influence aggression. According to this model, repeated associations
between certain stimuli and anger can lead those stimuli to automatically trigger aggressive
thoughts and emotions. For example, if a person repeatedly experiences anger in a particular
situation, merely encountering that situation in the future may provoke aggression.
Furthermore, arousal from unrelated sources, such as physical exercise or excitement, may be
misinterpreted as anger, a process known as misattribution of arousal, thereby increasing the
likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Aggression is also learned through observation and imitation, as explained by Albert

Bandura. Individuals, especially children, observe aggressive models in their environment,
including parents, peers, and media figures. Exposure to aggression in films, television, or
video games increases the likelihood that individuals will imitate such behavior, particularly
when it appears to be rewarded or goes unpunished.
 Individual differences also play a significant role in determining aggression. Gender
differences have been widely observed, with men typically displaying higher levels of
physical aggression, while women are more likely to engage in relational or indirect
aggression, such as gossiping or social exclusion. These differences are influenced by both
biological factors, such as hormonal variations, and social factors, such as gender role
expectations. Personality traits further influence aggression. Individuals high in agreeableness
tend to be less aggressive, whereas those with Type A personality traits, high impulsivity, or
threatened self-esteem are more likely to behave aggressively. Alcohol consumption is
another important determinant, as it impairs cognitive functioning, reduces self-control, and
narrows attention to immediate provocations, thereby increasing aggressive tendencies.

Situational and environmental factors strongly influence aggression. Three key aspects of
the physical environment have been consistently linked to increased aggression:

●​ Heat: High temperatures lead to physiological arousal, discomfort, and irritability,

which can trigger aggressive behavior.

●​ Crowding: Being in a crowded environment creates stress and a sense of loss of

personal space, increasing the likelihood of aggression.

●​ Noise: Loud, persistent, or unpredictable noise can cause irritation and reduce
tolerance, leading to aggressive responses.

Broader societal factors also contribute to aggression. Individuals who experience relative
deprivation, meaning they perceive themselves as worse off compared to others, may develop
feelings of resentment and injustice, which can lead to aggression, particularly when they feel
unable to improve their situation through legitimate means. Cultural influences also shape
aggression. For example, societies that endorse a culture of honour encourage individuals to
respond aggressively to threats in order to protect their reputation or property. Similarly,
certain groups may develop a subculture of violence, where aggressive behavior is
normalized, encouraged, and even rewarded.

Disinhibition of Aggression

Disinhibition refers to the weakening or removal of the internal and social restraints
that typically prevent individuals from behaving aggressively. Although most societies
promote norms of non-violence and prosocial behavior, these norms can be overridden under
certain conditions, leading individuals to act aggressively.
 One of the most important processes contributing to disinhibition is deindividuation.
This occurs when individuals in a group lose their sense of personal identity and
accountability, often due to anonymity and reduced self-awareness. As a result, they may
engage in behaviors that they would normally avoid, including aggression. Deindividuation
helps explain collective forms of aggression, such as mob violence, crowd disturbances, and
hooliganism.

However, not all group-based aggression can be explained by a loss of control.

Emergent norm theory offers an alternative explanation, suggesting that individuals in a
group may adopt new norms that arise within that specific situation. In such cases, aggression
occurs not because individuals ignore social norms, but because they conform to a new group
norm that supports aggressive behavior.

Disinhibition can also be influenced by several additional factors:

●​ Alcohol consumption, which reduces self-control

●​ Exposure to aggressive models, which normalizes violence

●​ Reduced self-awareness, which weakens moral restraint

Interestingly, disinhibition does not always lead to negative outcomes. In some contexts,
it can increase prosocial behavior, depending on the norms present in the group.

Forms of Aggression in Society

Aggression manifests in a wide variety of forms in society, ranging from subtle

interpersonal behaviors to extreme acts of violence. It can be expressed physically, verbally,
or socially, depending on the context and intention.

Social psychologists have focused particularly on four major forms of aggression that
have significant social impact:

●​ Domestic violence: This involves physical, emotional, or verbal aggression within the
family. It includes violence between intimate partners, as well as aggression toward
children or other family members. Although male-to-female violence is more
commonly reported, women can also be perpetrators.
 ●​ Sexual harassment: This includes unwanted sexual advances, comments, or
behaviors that create an uncomfortable or hostile environment, particularly in
workplaces or educational settings.

●​ Sexual aggression: This refers to severe forms of aggression such as rape and sexual
assault. Such behaviors are often influenced by harmful societal beliefs, including
rape myths, which falsely suggest that victims are responsible for the assault or that
they derive pleasure from it.

●​ Terrorism: This is a highly organized and extreme form of aggression aimed at

creating fear and achieving political or ideological goals. It involves large-scale
violence and has widespread social consequences.

Aggression can also be classified into different types based on its expression and purpose:

●​ Direct aggression: Harm inflicted in a face-to-face manner

●​ Indirect aggression: Harm carried out through others or behind someone’s back

●​ Hostile aggression: Driven by anger, with harm as the primary goal

●​ Instrumental aggression: Goal-oriented, where aggression is used as a means to

achieve another objective

These classifications demonstrate that aggression is a multifaceted phenomenon that

extends beyond physical violence to include psychological and social harm.

Aggression and Violence

Aggression and violence are closely related but differ in degree and severity.
Aggression includes a wide range of harmful behaviors, whereas violence refers specifically
to extreme forms of aggression that involve serious physical harm or threat to life. Examples
of violence include assault, murder, and acts of terrorism.

Terrorism represents one of the most extreme and complex forms of violence.
Although such acts may appear irrational, they are often the result of a gradual process
influenced by personal grievances, social conditions, and ideological beliefs. The staircase
model of terrorism explains how individuals progressively move toward extreme violence
due to increasing dissatisfaction, perceived injustice, and lack of alternatives.
 Despite the common perception that violence is increasing, research suggests that it
has actually declined over time. However, due to constant exposure to violent events in
media, individuals often overestimate its prevalence, a phenomenon explained by the
availability heuristic.