TUTORIA · Cracking the Digital SAT Manual 11 · Math

TUTORIA
[Link]

Cracking the
Digital SAT
MANUAL 11 · MATH
Ratios, Rates, and Percentages
One- and Two-Variable Data
Probability
Sample Statistics and Study Design

by Talal Ali Jan

Founder & CEO, Tutoria · Lead SAT Instructor · UPenn Alumnus

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Ratios, Rates, and Proportions

A ratio compares two quantities (3:5 or 3/5). A rate is a ratio between two different units (miles
per hour, dollars per pound). Keep the order of quantities consistent with how the problem
states them — if a ratio is “boys to girls,” the boys value always goes first, in every step of your
work.

Solving Proportions
A proportion sets two ratios equal. Cross-multiply to solve for an unknown.
Easy — A recipe calls for 2 cups of flour for every 3 cups of sugar. How much flour is needed
for 12 cups of sugar?

SAT Trap Alert

Keep matching units in matching positions. If flour is on top on the left side of the proportion,
flour must be on top on the right side too — flipping one side of the proportion is the most
common setup error.

Unit Conversion
Multiply by a conversion factor written as a fraction equal to 1 (e.g., 1 hour/60 minutes),
arranged so the unit you want to cancel is on the bottom.
Medium — Convert 90 kilometers per hour to meters per second.

Strategy Tip
Chain multiple conversion factors in a single line and cancel units like fractions — km cancels
with km, hr cancels with hr — leaving only the units you want. This is far less error-prone than
converting in several separate steps.

Scale Drawings
Medium — On a map, 1 inch represents 25 miles. Two cities are 3.5 inches apart on the map.
What is the actual distance?

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Combined Work Rate Problems

If Person A can complete a job in a hours and Person B can complete it in b hours, their
combined rate is 1/a + 1/b jobs per hour. Time working together = 1 / (1/a + 1/b).
Hard — Painter A can paint a house in 6 hours. Painter B can paint the same house in 4 hours.
Working together, how long will it take?

SAT Trap Alert

Add rates (jobs per hour), never add the times directly. “6 hours + 4 hours” is not how combined
work problems are solved.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Exercise: Ratios, Rates, and Proportions

1. A car travels 240 miles using 8 gallons of gas. At this rate, how many gallons are needed to
travel 420 miles?
A) 12
B) 14
C) 15
D) 16
2. Convert 5 meters per second to kilometers per hour.
A) 9
B) 12
C) 18
D) 24
3. A blueprint uses a scale of 1 cm to 4 meters. If a room measures 3.5 cm on the blueprint,
what is its actual length?
A) 10 m
B) 12 m
C) 14 m
D) 16 m
4. Machine A can complete an order in 5 hours. Machine B can complete the same order in 10
hours. Working together, how many hours will it take?
A) 3.33
B) 7.5
C) 3
D) 15
5. If the ratio of red to blue marbles in a bag is 3:5, and there are 40 marbles total, how many
are red?
A) 8
B) 15
C) 24
D) 25
6. A factory produces 150 units in 6 hours. At the same rate, how many hours are needed to
produce 500 units?
A) 18
B) 20
C) 22
D) 24

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Explanations: Ratios, Rates, and Proportions

1. B) 14
240/8 = 420/x → x = 14.
2. C) 18
5 m/s × (1 km/1000 m) × (3600 s/1 hr) = 18,000/1000 = 18 km/hr.
3. C) 14 m
1/4 = 3.5/x → x = 14 meters.
4. A) 3.33
Combined rate = 1/5+1/10 = 3/10 per hour. Time = 10/3 ≈ 3.33 hours.
5. B) 15
3+5=8 parts. 40/8=5 per part. Red = 3×5=15.
6. B) 20
150/6 = 500/x → x = 20 hours.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Percentages
Percent means “per 100.” To find a percent of a number, convert the percent to a decimal and
multiply.

Percent of a Number
Easy — What is 15% of 240?

Percent Increase and Decrease

New value = original × (1 + r) for an increase, or original × (1 − r) for a decrease, where r is the
percent as a decimal.
Medium — A shirt originally priced at $80 is discounted 25%, then an 8% sales tax is applied to
the discounted price. What is the final price?

SAT Trap Alert

A discount then a tax (or any two successive percent changes) do NOT combine into one
simple percent. 25% off then 8% tax is not the same as a flat 17% change — apply each step
to the running total, in order.

Finding Percent Change

Percent change = (new − old) / old × 100%.
Medium — A town's population increased from 400 to 460. What is the percent increase?

Successive Percent Changes Don't Add

Applying a p% increase followed by a q% decrease (or vice versa) is not the same as a single
(p − q)% change. Multiply the growth factors instead.
Hard — A price increases by 20%, then decreases by 20%. What is the net percent change
from the original price?

Strategy Tip
Pick a convenient starting value like 100 for abstract percent-change problems. It turns
percentages directly into the resulting number, avoiding decimal errors.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Reverse Percent Problems

Medium — After a 20% increase, a value is 96. What was the original value?

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Exercise: Percentages
1. What is 35% of 180?
A) 54
B) 60
C) 63
D) 70
2. A jacket originally priced $120 is marked down 30%, then a 5% tax is applied. What is the
final price?
A) $79.80
B) $84.00
C) $88.20
D) $90.00
3. A stock price rose from $50 to $56. What was the percent increase?
A) 6%
B) 10%
C) 12%
D) 14%
4. A value increases by 10% and then decreases by 10%. What is the net percent change from
the original?
A) 0%
B) -1%
C) +1%
D) -2%
5. After a 15% decrease, a quantity is 68. What was the original quantity?
A) 78.2
B) 80
C) 85
D) 78
6. A population grows by 8% each year. If the population is currently 2,500, what will it be in 2
years, to the nearest whole number?
A) 2,700
B) 2,864
C) 2,916
D) 3,000

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Explanations: Percentages
1. C) 63
0.35 × 180 = 63.
2. D) $90.00
120×0.7=84. 84×1.05=88.20. Trap: $90.00 assumes a flat 25% net change instead of applying
each step in order. Correct: 84 × 1.05 = $88.20.
3. C) 12%
(56−50)/50 = 6/50 = 12%.
4. B) -1%
100×1.1=110. 110×0.9=99. Net change = (99-100)/100 = -1%.
5. B) 80
original × 0.85 = 68 → original = 68/0.85 = 80.
6. C) 2,916
2500 × 1.08² = 2500 × 1.1664 = 2916.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

One-Variable Data: Center, Spread, and Shape

This topic covers every tool for summarizing a single list of numbers: measures of center (mean,
median, mode), measures of spread (range, standard deviation), and the overall shape of how
the data is distributed.

Mean, Median, Mode, and Range

Tip: Rewriting a data set in order from least to greatest before analyzing it prevents most
careless errors.
Mean = sum of the data set ÷ size of the data set.

Median is the middle value. Odd-sized set: position (n+1)/2. Even-sized set: average the two
middle values

Mode is the value that appears most often (a set can have no mode, one mode, or several).

Range = largest value − smallest value.

Frequency Tables and Histograms

A frequency table pairs each value with how often it occurs. To find the mean from a frequency
table, multiply each value by its frequency, sum the results, then divide by the total number of
data points.
Worked — 200 people enrolled in a yoga studio have ages 18 (34 people), 19 (21 people), 23
(37 people), 25 (38 people), 30 (46 people), and 45 (24 people). Find the mean and median
age.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Standard Deviation
Standard deviation measures how tightly clustered values are around the mean. A tightly
clustered data set has a lower standard deviation; a widely spread-out data set has a higher
standard deviation. The SAT never requires calculating standard deviation by hand — only
comparing which of two data sets has a higher or lower one.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Strategy Tip
Use Desmos as a statistics calculator, not just a grapher. Type a data set as a list — e.g.
L₁={1,2,4,8,8,9,10} — then type mean(L₁), median(L₁), or stdev(L₁) on the next line. For a
frequency table, list each value repeated by its frequency (or use L₂ for the frequencies and
mean(L₁,L₂) for a weighted mean). This turns a multi-step by-hand calculation into three typed
lines, and is a fast way to double-check an answer before moving on.

Box Plots
A box plot marks the minimum, first quartile (Q₁), median, third quartile (Q₃), and maximum.
Each of the four sections between these five marks contains about 25% of the data.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Exercise: One-Variable Data

1. The dot plot below shows the number of telephone lines in each country in Central America
and the Caribbean, rounded to the nearest 250 thousand. What is the median number of
telephone lines (in thousands)?

2. The dot plot below shows the length of coastline of each country in South America, in
thousands of kilometers, rounded to the nearest thousand. What is the mean length of coastline,
in thousands of kilometers?

3. During a five-day period, Marta's flower shop served a mean of 17 customers per day. In the
following month, over the same five-day period, she served 16 customers per day for four of the
days, but 25 customers on the fifth day. What is the difference between the means of the two
five-day periods?
A) 0.8
B) 1.0
C) 2.4
D) The two means are equal

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

4. The table below shows annual average per-pupil educational expenditures in the U.S. from
2008-2012: What is the range of the per-pupil expenditures?

5. The box plot below summarizes resting heart rates, in beats per minute, of members at a
gym. What is the range of resting heart rates?

A) 16
B) 31
C) 62
D) 70

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Explanations: One-Variable Data

1. 0 (thousand)
Count the dots from left to right until you reach the middle position of the data set; the median
value is read directly off the horizontal axis at that position.
2. 2 (thousand km)
Multiply each x-axis value by its number of dots, sum the results, and divide by the total number
of dots to find the mean.
3. A) 0.8
Second period mean: (16×4 + 25)/5 = 89/5 = 17.8. Difference from the original mean of 17 is
17.8 − 17 = 0.8.
4. $641
Range = maximum − minimum = $11,864 − $11,223 = $641.
5. C) 62
Range = maximum − minimum, read directly from the two endpoints (whiskers) of the box plot.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Probability
Probability = number of favorable outcomes ÷ number of possible outcomes, and always falls
between 0 (impossible) and 1 (certain).
Easy — A drawer has 6 green socks, 4 blue socks, and 2 red socks. What is the probability of
randomly selecting a blue sock?

The Complement Rule

P(not A) = 1 − P(A). Often faster than computing directly, especially for “at least one” questions.
Easy — Using the sock drawer above, what is the probability of not selecting a blue sock?

Geometric Probability
When probability is based on area (or length) instead of a count, use shaded area ÷ total area.

Medium — If a point is selected at random from the square above, what is the probability it
lands in the shaded region?

Independent Events
The probability of two or more independent events all occurring is the product of their individual
probabilities.
Medium — What is the probability of flipping a coin and getting heads AND rolling a 6-sided die
and getting a 2?

SAT Trap Alert

Independent events (unrelated) multiply; mutually exclusive events (can't both happen)
use the addition rule instead. Confusing the two is a common conceptual error — always
check whether the events can influence each other before picking a rule.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Worked Examples: Multi-Step Probability

Hard — There are 496 employees in a company, one of whom is to be selected at random to
win a car. If the probability that a supervisor will be selected is 3/16, how many supervisors work
at the company?

Hard — A box contains only pens and pencils. There are three times as many pens as pencils.
The pens are either green or blue, and 5 times as many pens are green as are blue. What is the
probability that a randomly selected item is a blue pen?

Hard — There are 20 apples and 15 oranges in a bin (35 total). If only apples are removed so
that the probability of randomly drawing an apple becomes 2/5, how many apples must be
removed?

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Exercise: Probability
1. A bag contains 496 marbles, one of which is to be picked at random to win a prize. If the
probability that a red marble is selected is 5/16, how many red marbles are in the bag?
A) 124 B) 145 C) 155 D) 160
2. A drawer contains only socks and gloves. There are four times as many socks as gloves.
The socks are either black or white, and 3 times as many socks are black as are white. What is
the probability that a randomly selected item is a white sock?
A) 1/5 B) 1/8 C) 1/12 D) 1/16
3. There are 30 red and 20 blue chips in a jar. If only blue chips are added so that the
probability of drawing a blue chip becomes 5/8, how many blue chips must be added?
A) 10 B) 20 C) 30 D) 40
4. A spinner is divided into 8 equal sections numbered 1–8. What is the probability of NOT
spinning a multiple of 3?
A) 1/4 B) 3/8 C) 5/8 D) 3/4
5. What is the probability of rolling two standard 6-sided dice and getting a sum of 7?
A) 1/12 B) 1/9 C) 1/6 D) 5/36

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Explanations: Probability
1. C) 155
(5/16)×496 = 155.
2. A) 1/5
Let gloves=g, socks=4g. White socks=w, black=3w, so 4w=4g → w=g. Total items=g+4g=5g.
P(white sock)=w/5g=g/5g=1/5.
3. C) 30
Let x=blue chips added. (20+x)/(50+x)=5/8 → 160+8x=250+5x → 3x=90 → x=30.
4. D) 3/4
Multiples of 3 in 1–8: {3,6} → 2/8=1/4. P(not) = 1−1/4 = 3/4.
5. C) 1/6
Six combinations give a sum of 7 (1+6, 2+5, 3+4, 4+3, 5+2, 6+1) out of 36 total outcomes: 6/36
= 1/6.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Two-Variable Data: Tables and Scatterplots

This topic covers relationships between two variables: two-way frequency tables (categorical
data) and scatterplots (numerical data), plus recognizing whether a relationship is linear or
exponential.

Two-Way Frequency Tables

A two-way table cross-tabulates two categorical variables. Say 120 students were asked
whether they prefer dogs or cats, broken down by grade:

Dog Cat Total

9th grade 25 15 40
10th grade 20 20 40
11th grade 15 25 40
Total 60 60 120

Joint Frequency
A single cell — how many fall into two specific categories at once. “How many 9th graders
prefer dogs?” → read the cell directly: 25.

Marginal Frequency
A row or column total, sitting in the margin of the table. “How many students total prefer
cats?” → read the column total: 60.

Relative Frequency
A frequency divided by a total, expressed as a fraction or percent. This is where it gets tricky,
because which total you divide by changes the answer completely:

● “What fraction of all 120 students prefer dogs?” → 60/120 = 1/2. (divide by the grand
total)
● “What fraction of 9th graders prefer dogs?” → 25/40 = 5/8. (divide by the 9th-grade row
total only)

Same question style (“what fraction prefer dogs”), two totally different denominators, two totally
different answers. That's the entire trap in one example.

Conditional Frequency (or Probability)

A frequency divided by a row or column total (not the grand total) — “given that,” restricting to
one row or column first. This is really just the second relative-frequency case above, with
different wording: “Given that a student is in 9th grade, what's the probability they prefer dogs?”
→ restrict to the 9th-grade row (40 students), then ask what fraction of those prefer dogs →

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

25/40 = 5/8. Same calculation as the relative-frequency-within-a-row case — “conditional” and

“relative frequency within one row/column” are the same move with different names.

Strategy Tip
Before dividing anything, underline or circle whichever total the question restricts you
to. If it says “of all students,” “overall,” or “in the survey” — grand total, bottom-right corner. If it
says “given that,” “among,” “of the students who,” or names one specific grade/category — that
row or column's total, not the grand total. Getting the numerator right is rarely the problem on
these; picking the wrong denominator is.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Scatterplots and Lines of Best Fit

A scatterplot shows individual data points for two numerical variables. A line (or curve) of best fit
summarizes the trend, letting you predict a value even for an x not directly shown on the graph.
● Positive association: as x increases, y tends to increase (points trend upward).
● Negative association: as x increases, y tends to decrease (points trend downward).
● No association: no consistent pattern.

Strategy Tip
Interpolation (predicting within the range of given data) is reliable; extrapolation
(predicting far outside it) is not. If a question asks you to predict a value well beyond the
plotted x-range, treat the answer with more caution — the trend may not continue.

Strategy Tip
For any “which equation best models this scatterplot” question, use Desmos’s
regression feature instead of estimating slope by eye. Enter the plotted points into a
Desmos table (or read off 4-5 approximate coordinates from the graph), then fit a line with
y₁~mx₁+b. The output gives you the exact slope and intercept to match against the answer
choices — far more reliable than visually estimating the trend line, and it works the same way for
a quadratic (y₁~ax₁²+bx₁+c) or exponential (y₁~a*b^x₁) fit if the scatter clearly curves rather than
running straight.

Recognizing Linear vs. Exponential Trends

Linear: a constant difference between consecutive y-values for equally spaced x-values.
Exponential: a constant ratio between consecutive y-values. Check consecutive differences
first; if they're not constant, check ratios.

Strategy Tip
When a table of paired values makes it hard to tell linear from exponential by eye, let
Desmos fit both and compare. Open a table in Desmos, enter the x-values in one column and
y-values in the next, then on a new line type y₁~mx₁+b for a linear fit or y₁~a*b^x₁ for an
exponential fit. Desmos returns the best-fit m, b (or a, b) instantly — if the linear fit’s r² is close to
1, the relationship is linear; if the exponential fit is the better match, it’s exponential. This is
faster and more reliable than eyeballing differences and ratios by hand, especially under time
pressure.

Worked Examples
Medium — The scatterplot below shows the percentage P of paper consumed in the U.S. that
has been recycled from 1990 to 2012, where t is years since 1990. Which equation best models
the relationship?

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

A) P = 0.8t+35
B) P = 1.3t+35
C) P = 1.7t+35
D) P = 3t+35

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Exercise: Two-Way Tables

1.
Time period Fewer than 100–499 pages 500 or more Total
100 pages pages
Old/Middle English 1 2 2 5
Neo-classical 0 1 2 3
19th century 1 7 6 14
20th century 1 0 2 3
Total 3 10 12 25

Several English professors categorized literary works from their seminars by time period and
length, shown above. What percentage of books with 500 or more pages are from the 19th
century?
A) 17
B) 43
C) 50
D) 56

2. Michael asked the 10TH and 11TH graders at his school which sport they preferred between
basketball and football. The table above displays a portion of the results. If 20% of the surveyed
students who prefer football are in 10TH grade, then how many of the surveyed 11TH
superscript graders at Michael’s school prefer basketball?

A) 27
B) 46
C) 120
D) 150
3.
Chapter Skills problems Analysis problems Total
Chapter 1 11 12 23
Chapter 2 10 11 21
Chapter 3 6 12 18
Chapter 4 23 4 27
Total 50 39 89

A science textbook has four chapters, each with a number of skills problems and of analysis

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

problems. A table representing this information is shown. Based on the table, which of the
following statements is true?

A) Relative frequency of analysis problems from chapter 4 is 4/39

B) Relative frequency of analysis problems from chapter 2 is 21/89
C) Relative frequency of chapter 1 problems being skill problems is 12/23
D) Relative frequency of chapter 2 problems being skill problems is 2/3
4.
On time Late Total
Route A 5 6 11
Route B 2 10 12
Route C 6 11 17
Total 13 27 40

Victor decides to try three different routes to work for a period of 40 days. In the table above, he
tracked whether he arrived to work late or on time each time that he used a particular route.
According to the table, what is the probability that Victor was late given that he used Route A?

A) 3/20
B) 2/9
C) 3/5
D) 6/11

5.
Bioinformatics Forensics Pre-Med Total
Male — — — 310
Female — — — 381
Total 97 214 380 691

A biology professor is investigating trends in current enrollment of male/female undergraduate

students in certain biologically focused cross-departmental programs. The above table
represents the professor's findings. Note that students are not allowed to enroll in more than
one of these programs at this particular school. About how many female students should be
enrolled in the forensics program to provide evidence that enrolling in forensics is independent
of student gender?

A) 66
B) 118
C) 210
D) 214

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Exercise: Scatterplots

6.
Adsila monitored gas prices at her local gas station throughout 2014. The scatterplot above
shows the price g in dollars, for 1 gallon of gas on various days of the year, where d represents
days since January 1, 2014. A function that models the data is shown on the graph. Which of
the following best approximates the price for 1 gallon of gas on September 12, 2014, the 255th
day of the year?

A) 2.55
B) 3.10
C) 3.45
D) 3.50

7.
The scatterplot below shows the estimated moose population M in Minnesota from 2005-2012,
where t is years since 2005. Which equation best models this?

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

A) M=8,593−563t
B) M=10,343−1,842t
C) M=7,923+578t
D) M=5,725+467t
8.
The scatter plot drawn below depicts the price of 1 gallon of gasoline in the United States
from 1980 to 2008. The graph of a quadratic model that fits this data has a vertex at
(17.24,1.33). What does the vertex tell us about U.S. gas prices?

A) In the year 1997, the price for 1 gallon of gasoline reached its exact maximum value of
$1.33.
B) In the year 1997, the price for 1 gallon of gasoline reached its exact minimum value of
$1.33.
C) In approximately the year 1997, the price for 1 gallon of gasoline reached its
approximate maximum value of $1.33.
D) In approximately the year 1997, the price for 1 gallon of gasoline reached its
approximate minimum value of $1.33.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

9.
During the 2014-2015 season, a statistician collected data on a professional sports team. The
scatterplot above shows his findings for the average minutes played per game and the average
points scored per game for each player on the team. Which of the following equations best
relates minutes played per game, x, and points scored per game, p, for players on this team?

A) P=2x−2
B) P=2x+3
C) P=0.5x−2
D) P=0.5x+3

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Exercise: Linear vs. Exponential Growth

10.
w 1 2 4 8 16 32
C 30 60 120 240 480 960

Laxman recently started a restaurant 32 weeks ago. The table above shows the number of
customers, C, during the wth week. Which of the following correctly explains the growth of C
with respect to w?

A) The number of customers per week grew linearly because the number of customers per
week increased by approximately 30 every week.

B) The number of customers per week grew linearly because the number of customers per
week increased by approximately 100 percent every week.

C) The number of customers per week grew exponentially because the number of customers
per week increased by approximately 30 every week.

D) The number of customers per week grew exponentially because the number of customers
per week increased by approximately 100 percent every week.

11.
12 grams of a chemical are added to a metal. The amount, A, in grams, of the chemical
remaining during a reaction with a metal plate decreases by 0.5g per second. If instead the
plate were dissolved, the amount B in grams, of chemical remaining would decrease by half of
itself every 4 seconds. How many grams greater is A than B after 12 seconds?

12.
An old computer program which computes the nth Fibonacci number takes 0.05 microseconds
(μs) to compute the 1st number. After this, each number takes twice as long as the previous
number to compute. A computer engineer designs a new program which takes 0.8 μs to
compute the 1st Fibonacci number. After this, each number takes 0.6 μs longer than the
previous number to compute. How much longer in microseconds does it take the old program to
compute the 8th Fibonacci number compared to the new program?

A) 0.8
B) 1.4
C) 5
D) 6.4
13.
R = 35.7+1.37t
The equation above relates the urbanization rate, r, as a percent, in a particular country to the
number of years, t, since 2000. Which of the following statements best describes the
relationship between the years since 2000 and the urbanization rate?

A) It is linear because the urbanization rate increases by 35.7 each year

B) It is linear because the urbanization rate increases by 1.37 each year.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

C) It is exponential because the urbanization rate increases by 37%each year.

D) It is exponential because the urbanization rate increases by a factor of 35.7 each year.

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Explanations: Two-Variable Data

1. C) 50
6 of the 12 books with 500+ pages are from the 19th century: 6/12 = 50%.
2. B) 46
20% of football preference = 30 → football total = 150. Basketball total = 136. Grand total = 286.
10th grade total = 286−166 = 120. 10th grade basketball = 120−30 = 90. 11th grade basketball
= 136−90 = 46.
3. A) 4/39
Chapter 4 has 4 analysis problems out of 39 total analysis problems — the relative frequency of
analysis problems (as a category) that come from chapter 4.
4. D) 6/11
Restricting to Route A only (11 total), 6 were late: 6/11.
5. B) 118
If enrollment were independent of gender, expected female forensics enrollment = (female
total/grand total) × forensics total = (381/691) × 214 ≈ 118.
6. D) 3.50
Day 255 falls where the fitted curve (shown on the graph) is near its local plateau/decline;
among the choices, 3.50 best matches the modeled curve at that point.
7. A) M = 8,593−563t
The data trends downward roughly linearly; matching the y-intercept (≈88,593 moose at t=0)
and the negative slope against the plotted points identifies choice A.
8. D) Approximate minimum of $1.33, in approximately 1997
The vertex of a model fit to scattered data is always approximate, not exact — eliminating A and
B. The parabola opens upward (prices fall then rise), so the vertex is a minimum, not a
maximum.
9. C) P = 0.5x−2
The slope between plotted points is about 0.5 point per minute, and the trend line's x-intercept
sits near x=4, consistent with P=0.5x−2.
10. D) Exponential, because C increased by approximately 100% every time w doubled
Each time w doubles (1→2→4→8…), C also exactly doubles — a constant ratio, the signature
of exponential growth, not a constant additive amount.
11. 4.5 grams
Linear: A(12) = 12−0.5(12) = 6. Exponential: B(12) = 12×(0.5)^(12/4) = 12×0.125 = 1.5.
Difference = 6−1.5 = 4.5.
12. B) 1.4

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Old program, 8th term: 0.05×2⁷ = 6.4μs. New program, 8th term: 0.8+0.6(7) = 5.0μs. Difference
= 6.4−5.0 = 1.4.
13. B) Linear, because the urbanization rate increases by 1.37 each year
The equation has the linear form R=35.7+1.37t; 1.37 is the constant amount added per year, not
a percent.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Sample Statistics and Margin of Error

Researchers rarely survey an entire population — they survey a sample and use it to estimate
a property of the whole population. Every estimate from a sample comes with uncertainty,
expressed as a margin of error.

Point Estimates and Confidence Intervals

A point estimate is the single value calculated from the sample (a mean, a percentage). The
true population value is not guaranteed to equal the point estimate exactly — it's estimated to
fall within a range:
Confidence interval = point estimate ± margin of error
Worked — A sample of 35 cars had a mean gas mileage of 25.9 mpg, with a margin of error of
2.6 mpg at a 98% confidence level. What is a plausible value for the true mean mileage of all
such cars?

Margin of Error Shrinks with Larger Samples

A larger, more representative random sample produces a smaller margin of error — more data
means a more precise (narrower) estimate of the population value.

SAT Trap Alert

A confidence interval never claims to know the exact population value. “Exactly 79% of all
flights arrived on time” is always wrong phrasing for this kind of result — the correct conclusion
is always a range, or a value that falls inside the range.

Strategy Tip
For a “which value is most plausible” question, just compute point estimate ± margin of error and
check which answer choice falls inside that interval — you rarely need to do anything more
complex than that.

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Exercise: Sample Statistics and Margin of Error

1. A random sample of 35 four-door passenger vehicles had a mean gas mileage of 25.9 mpg,
with a margin of error of 2.6 mpg at a 98% confidence level. Which is the most plausible value
for the true mean gas mileage of all four-door passenger vehicles?
A) 24
B) 29
C) 32
D) 35
2. Oceanographers estimate that 4,800 km³ of freshwater is discharged into the Arctic Ocean
annually, with a margin of error of 240 km³ at the 90% confidence level. Which is the most
reasonable claim about the true annual volume?
A) Between 4,800 and 5,040 km³
B) Between 4,560 and 5,040 km³
C) Between 240 and 4,800 km³
D) Between 240 and 4,320 km³
3. A random sample of international flights in 2013 showed 79% arrived within 15 minutes of
schedule, with a margin of error of 3% at a 95% confidence level. Which conclusion is best?
A) Exactly 79% arrived on time.
B) Exactly 76% arrived on time.
C) Between 76% and 82% arrived on time.
D) Between 92% and 98% arrived on time.
4. In a poll of 1,578 randomly selected American adults, 44.8% said airlines should allow in-
flight calls, with a margin of error of 2.5% at a 95% confidence level. Which is most likely equal
to the true percentage of all American adults who feel this way?
A) 40
B) 43
C) 48
D) 95

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Cracking the Digital SAT — Manual 11: Problem Solving & Data Analysis

Explanations: Sample Statistics and Margin of Error

1. A) 24
Interval: 25.9±2.6 = 23.3 to 28.5. Only 24 falls inside this range.
2. B) Between 4,560 and 5,040 km³
Interval: 4,800±240 = 4,560 to 5,040 km³ — a range centered on the estimate, not starting from
the margin of error itself.
3. C) Between 76% and 82% arrived on time.
Interval: 79%±3% = 76% to 82%. Trap: choices A and B claim an exact value, which a margin of
error never supports.
4. B) 43
Interval: 44.8%±2.5% = 42.3% to 47.3%. Only 43 falls inside this range.

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