According to the concept of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics light exhibits both

particle and wave nature, depending upon the circumstances.

Phenomena like diffraction, polarisation and interference could be explained by considering

light as a wave.

The phenomenon of the photoelectric effect is explained by assuming that light consists of
particles called photons.

Speed of light is given as c=λμ, where λ is its wavelength and μ is its frequency.

‘● Speed of light is a constant which is 2.998×108m/s or approximately 3.0×108m/s.

Laws of Reflection

Laws of Reflection
Propagation of light
Rectilinear propagation of light: Light travels in a straight line between any two points.
Refraction Through a Glass Slab and Refractive Index
Laws of Refraction
● The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media
at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

● The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant, for the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known
as Snell’s law of refraction.

Absolute and Relative Refractive Index

Refractive index of one medium with respect to another medium is called the relative
refractive index. When taken with respect to vacuum, it’s known as an absolute refractive
index.

Refraction through a rectangular glass slab

When the light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, it emerges out parallel to the incident
ray and is laterally displaced. It moves from rarer to denser medium and then again to the
rarer medium.
 HUMAN EYE

The human eye has a reflecting system containing lens which forms an image
of an object in front of the eye on a light sensitive layer at the back of the eye.
The essential parts of the eye and their various functions are:
1. THE CORNEA:
The cornea is the thick transparent bulge in the front part of the eye. It serves
as a protective covering in front of the lens and allows light into the eye. It
also partly focuses the light entering the eye.
2. THE AQUEOUS HUMOUR:
The aqueous humour is the transparent liquid between the cornea and the
lens and the vitreous homour is a jelly liked liquid between the lens and the
eyeball. These liquid serve mainly to keep the eye in the spherical shape
3. THE IRIS:
The iris is behind the cornea. The iris is the part which gives the colour of the
eye. It acts as a stop or diaphragm of variable size. It has a tiny opening at it
center called the pupil which regulates the quantity of light entering the eye.
The pupil looks black because the inners layer of the choroid is black
4. THE CRYSTALLINE LENS:
The crystalline lens which focuses the light from the object on to the light
sensitive retina
5. THE CILIARY MUSCLES:
The ciliary muscles which support the lens and attach it to the wall of the eye.
These muscles by their contraction and expansion, alter the focal length of the
lens changing its shape
6. THE RETINA:
 The retina is the light sensitive of the cells at the back of the eye. The image is
formed on the retina which consist of light sensitive nerve endings which are
connected to the optic nerve the optic nerve conveys the sensation of sight to
the brain
7. THE YELLOW SPOT:
The yellow spot is the sensitive spot the retina. It is here that light entering
the eye are usually brought to a focus and here the clearest image is formed
8. THE BLIND SPOT:
The blind spot is the point of exit of the optic nerve from the retina. It is
insensitive to light
9. THE SCLEROTIC LAYER:
The sclerotic layer is the outer of the eye

OPTICAL FEATURES OF THE EYES

The optical system of the eye consists of the lens and the aqueous and
vitreous humour.
They operate to form a real and inverted image of an external object on the
retina. The retina transmits the impression created on it’s by this image to
the brain through the optic nerve. The brain then interprets the impression
ACCOMODATION: is the ability of the eye to alter or adjust the focal length of
its lens as to form clear images of objects at different distances on its retina.
This adjustment is brought about through the action of the ciliary muscles.
BINOCULAR VISION
Binocular vision provides two images of the same objects which are different
in perspective. The brain combines the two images and gives an impression
of solidity which is missing if only one eye is used.
Binocular vision is possible only if the field of the two eyes overlap. This
clearly depends on the position of the eye in the head.
For instance, small bird, such as black bird, has their eyes at the sides of the
head. In the case, each eye views space independently of the other, i.e. the
insual fields are entirely separate. Birds of prey , such as the hawk or owl,
have their eyes in front of their head, so that the birds has stereoscopic
vision.
PERSISTENCE OF VISION
 Persistence of vision it reduces the amount of light entering the pupil, and
thus protecting the eye from exercise brightness and possible damage to the
retina.
When a bright light is viewed and then switch off. The sensation of vision
continues for a short period after the light is removed.
In a dim light, the iris or diaphragm round the pupil of the eye opens,
increasing the size of the pupil and allowing more light to enter the eye.
In a bright light, the iris automatically in size.
EYE DEFECT AND CORRECTION
Eye defect is a disease of the eye which is experienced when light reflect
coming from the object the lens is not properly focused on the retina. It may
be before or beyond the retina, wrong image, untrue colour image or blurred
image.
Some of the eye defect
I. Myopia
II. Hypermetrophin
III. Presbyopia
IV. Astigmatism
V. Colour blindness

I. MYOPIA
Myopia (short sightedness) is an eye defect in which one see short distance
objects very clearly but not see long distance object. This arises when the eye
ball is too long.
Correction: myopia (short sightedness) is corrected by using concave
spectacle lens or diverging spectacles lens which diverges the ray of light
entering the eye, so that the ray brought into focus
 Eyes own far point nearer than infinity

Short –sight correction

NB: Diverging lens causes rays to diverge as through coming from F

[Link]:
Hypermetrophin is a long sight defect in which one can only see distance
object very clearly and not short distance. This is caused by the eye-ball being
too short.

Correction: Hypermetrophin (long sightedness) can be corrected by using

convex spectacle Len or converging spectacles lens converge the rays of light
entering the eye so that the rays are brought into focus.
 Long sight and its correction
Eyes own near point farther than 25cm.

Long sight correction

III. ASTIGMATISM:
This defect is mostly caused by the cornea. When the rays of the objects reach
0the cornea, they are reflected at different rates because of the roughness,
muteness and thickness of the cornea and the lens. It is inability to see things
more clearly in one direction than the order directions. To correct this eye
defect, cylindrical lens is used
IV. PRESBYOPIA:
 This is an eye defect in which the eye is unable to accommodate. It is caused
by the inelasticity of eye lens due to old age. Bifocal lens is used to correct
prebypia
SIMPLE CAMERA
The camera is a device used for producing an image of an object with the aid
of a light sensitive film. The camera is sometimes referred to as “man made
resemblance of the eye” because all its features are more or less of some
functions as those of the eye, but for the absence of cells.
The camera is made up of a light sensitive film, convex lens and focusing
arrangement. There is an adjustment aperture know as diaphragm, which
help to regulate the in-coming stream of rays. The lens in the camera is an
achromatic doublet and the use of two lenses diminishes the spherical
alteration of the camera. It is made up of a light proof but the shutter works on
the process of stimulation. It opens and closes rapidly when the photograph is
taken.
A real inverted image of an object focused to the film by adjusting the lens.
The amount of light entering the lens is controlled by the diaphragm and
speed of the shutter.
The major factors controlling the brightness of a camera are:
1. The exposure time(t)
2. The focal length of the lens
3. The diameter of the aperture

FILM PROJECTOR
Film projector is a projector lantern used in camera or theatre for showing
slides on the a screen.
The apparatus used is a condense which consist of two place convex lens. there
is powerful source and inverter image of the film on the slide. To prevent the
image from being inverted, the film or the slide can be turned upside down so
that the image produce on the screen is erect. The procedures are as follows:
I. The power source of light incidented its condenses which helps in the
production of parallel rays from the concave reflection.
II. The reflection is placed behind the source of light and the condenser now
focuses the rays or the projecting lens which helps to produce a diverge
on the screen with greater magnification.

Similarities between the eye and the

camera

Camera Human eye

I. The diaphragm controls the The eye iris performs this

amount of light entering the function too
camera
II. It works on the process of It works also on the process of
refraction refraction

III. The aperture serves as the The pupil serves as the passage
passage for light into camera for light into the eye

IV. The photographic serves as the The yellow spot in the eye is
most sensitive part most sensitive part

V. The interior is black and light The interior is also black and
proof to prevent reflection of light roof to prevent reflection of
stray rays of light stray rays of light
 Differences between the eye and the
camera lens

Lens camera Human eye

I. It is mechanically and electrically it works naturally

operated

II. The shutter works on the The eye lids remain open
stimulation of light before continuously as the retina forms
photograph can be taken series of constantly changing
picture with continues motion

III. The lens made of fixed focal length The focal length of the lens can be
varied with the help of the ciliary
muscles

IV. It is non- living because of the It is living because of the presence

absence of cells of cell

V. It has fixed focal length It has variable focal length effected

by the ciliary muscle
 Microscope Notes
• Microscope – an instrument that produces an enlarged image of an object.
• Biologists use microscopes to study cells, cell parts, and organisms that are too small to be seen with the
naked eye.
• Microscopes magnify and show details of the image.
• Two types of microscopes:
o Light Microscope – light passes through one or more lenses to produce an enlarged image of a
specimen
o Electron Microscope – forms image of a specimen using a beam of electrons rather than light
• Some early microscopes:

• Zacharias Janssen – Dutch spectacle maker who tested several lenses in a tube and discovered that
nearby objects appeared significantly enlarged.

• Robert Hooke – used a microscope to observe a thin slice of cork. The spaces he saw reminded him of
the small rooms where monks lived, so he called them “cells,” which he used to describe the smallest

units of life.
 o He used microscopes with two and three lenses, but they didn’t produce very detailed images.
o Drawings made by Robert Hooke:

• Anton van Leeuwenhoek - Dutch merchant who learned how to grind lenses to make simple
microscopes (have only one lens). These produced clearer and more enlarged images than Hooke’s.
o He is considered “The Father of Microscopy” and built over 500 different microscopes.
o He was the first to discover microorganisms under a microscope by observing a drop of pond
water filled with life. He called them “tiny animalcules.”
o He also saw and studied bacteria and the blood flow through capillaries in the tail of a fish.
o Drawings made by Anton van Leeuwenhoek:

Parts of a Compound Light Microscope:

1. Body tube: Keeps the two sets of lenses a set distance apart.
2. Rotating nosepiece: Allows one to
change between the objective lenses.
3-5. Objective lens: The second set of lenses in a
compound microscope (usually 4x, 10x, 40x).
6. Stage clips: Hold the slide in place.
7. Diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light
that hits the slide from the light source.
8. Light source: Where light comes from to see image.
9. Ocular lens: The first lens in a compound microscope
(usually 10x).
10. Arm
11. Stage: Where one puts the slide to view.
12. Coarse Adjustment Knob: Moves the stage up and
down very quickly.
13. Fine Adjustment Knob: Moves the stage up and
down very slowly.
14. Base
 • Compound Light Microscope
o Light passes through the specimen on the slide and uses two lenses to form its image.
o Capable of two things (below) that vary in different microscopes:
▪ Magnification: a measure of how much the image is enlarged
Total magnification = (ocular lens)(objective lens being used)
[The ocular lens usually has a 10x magnification, but that can vary.]

4x objective lens = (10x)(4x) = 40 times total magnification

10x objective lens = (10x)(10x) = 100 times total magnification
40x objective lens = (10x)(40x) = 400 times total magnification

▪ Resolution: a measure of the clarity of an image; how clear the details are

The Electron Microscope

• Resolution is the limiting factor to a light microscope since the greater the magnification is, the less it is
able to resolve the image. At magnifications beyond 2,000x, the image becomes blurry, but electron
microscopes can be used at greater magnifications.

• Characteristics of the Electron Microscope

o A beam of electrons is used to produce an enlarged image of the specimen (it does not use light).
o This electron beam and the specimen must be placed inside a vacuum chamber so that the
electrons in the beam do not bounce off gas molecules in the air.
▪ Since living things cannot survive in a vacuum, the electron microscope cannot be used to
view living cells.
 o Much more powerful than light microscopes.

pollen Dust mite mitochondrion

o There are two types of electron microscopes:

1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

▪ Uses a beam of electrons transmitted through a very thinly sliced specimen. Magnets guide
the beam of electrons toward the specimen, and the image is produced to view.
▪ Magnification to 200,000 times.
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

▪ Provides detailed 3-D images.

▪ The specimen is sprayed with a fine metal coating (it is not sliced to view as in the TEM).
▪ As the beam of electrons is passed over the specimen’s surface, the metal coating emits a
shower of electrons, and a 3-D image of the specimen’s surface is produced to view.

Rules for Using the Compound Microscope

1. ALWAYS carry the microscope with one hand holding the arm and your other hand supporting
under the base.
2. Plug in the cord and turn on the light source of the microscope.
3. Place your slide on the stage and arrange the stage clips to hold the slide in place.
o Keep the stage dry and ALWAYS make sure that your slide is dry, especially the bottom,
before putting it on the microscope.
4. Always start with the 4x objective lens (should already be on this from when the microscope was
put away). Focus this objective lens using the coarse adjustment knob.
 5. Once the image is in focus, carefully swing the 10x objective lens in place and focus this objective
lens using the coarse adjustment knob.
6. Once the image is in focus, VERY carefully swing the 40x objective lens into place – BE SURE
TO NOT TOUCH THE SLIDE. Focus this objective lens using ONLY the fine adjustment knob.
o NEVER use the coarse adjustment knob while using the high power objective lens (40x).
7. Make observations and take notes as needed before preparing to put the microscope away (#8-11).
8. Lower the stage using the coarse adjustment knob.
9. Swing the objective lens back to low power (4x).
10. Turn off light source, unplug and neatly wrap cord around microscope (NOT around lenses or
light source).
11. Place protective cover over microscope before you put the microscope away.

Preparation of a Wet Mount Slide

• Wet mount slides are used to view living organisms, such as ones that need to be kept moist, and any
liquid substances.

1. Using the appropriate tool, put your specimen in the center of a clean and dry slide.
2. Add one large solid drop of water over your specimen (water should not move on slide).
3. Hold a clean and dry coverslip at a 45° angle over your specimen/water drop. Let one edge of
the coverslip touch an edge of the water drop.
4. Gently drop the rest of the coverslip into place – want to avoid getting air bubbles (the whole
slip should touch water). *Remember to keep the rest of the slide [and microscope stage] dry!*

How to Measure Under the Microscope

• The micrometer (m) is the unit of measurement used to measure things under the microscope.
o One micrometer = 0.000001 meter (10-6).
• To estimate the size of each cell, use the diameter of each objective lens shown below.

The 10x objective lens has a field of view The 40x objective lens has a field of view
with a diameter of 1,500 m. with a diameter of 375 m.

Cell Cell

The size of the cell would be about 500 m. The size of the cell would be about 100 m.
Ophthalmoscopy is an examination of the back part of the eye
(fundus), which includes the optic disc, retina, retinal blood vessels, and macula.
The ophthalmoscope is particularly useful as a screening tool for various ocular
diseases, such as diabetic retinopathy.
Ophthalmoscopy may also be called funduscopy
There are two main types of ophthalmoscopes: direct and indirect
1- Direct Ophthalmoscope
It is a hand-held instrument used to examine the fundus or the back of the eye and
contains several lenses that can magnify the parts of the fundus up to 15 times.
Formed image is virtual, erect and magnified
Work Principle
- The light from lamp is collected by a condenser lens and passes through an aperture wheel
(can selected different aperture shapes).
- With an objective lens, the light is then focused onto a tilted mirror (45o) and projected
onto the patient’s eye. There, it illuminates the eye fundus.
- With a suitable compensation lens (can selected from a lens wheel)
- Light reflects from the retina and returns back through a small hole in the ophthalmoscope.
- The examiner sees non-stereoscopic magnified image (2D because the examiner uses one
eye).
Component of device
- Handle with a rechargeable battery and a repeatedly detachable head.
- Aperture wheel: the aperture wheel between condenser and objective lens allows selection
of different shapes or colors of illumination which including:-
Large aperture is used for a dilated pupil after mydriatic drops.
Medium aperture is the standard for a non-dilated pupil in a dark room.
Small aperture is for a constricted pupil in a well-lit room.
Slit light used to look at contour abnormalities of the cornea, lens or retina.
Green (red free) filter used to look closely at the vasculature.
Blue filter used to look for corneal abrasions or ulcers with fluorescein dye.
- Lens wheel: it contains lenses of different power, which rotating changes the lens and the
required lens can be placed to correct any refractive error from the patient. Lens are
measured in diopters and typically available in + and –
Condensing lens: there are two condensing lens, one on either side of the aperture dial which
focus the light onto the mirror/prism.
 Introduction to Lasers in Medicine

Uses of Lasers in Medicine. Lasers have revolutionized medical science

with their precision, versatility, and ability to uniquely interact with biological
tissue. During this lecture, we will understand the basic principles of the laser, its
unique properties, and its applications in various medical fields.

1. What is a Laser?

Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation. It is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification
based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.

Key Properties of Laser Light:

• Monochromatic: The light emitted is of a single wavelength.

• Coherent: The light waves are in phase, both temporally and spatially.
• Directivity: The light is emitted as a narrow, focused beam.
• High Intensity: The light can be concentrated to a small area, delivering
significant energy.

2. Basic Principles of Laser Operation:

To understand how lasers work, let’s discuss the underlying physical principles:

• Stimulated Emission: An atom or molecule in an excited state emits a

photon when triggered by another photon of the same energy.
• Population Inversion: A condition where more atoms are in an excited state
than in the ground state, achieved by external energy sources (pumping).
• Optical Resonance: The emitted photons are amplified as they reflect
back and forth in a cavity containing a gain medium.

2
3. Interaction of Laser Light with Biological Tissues

When laser light interacts with tissues, several phenomena can occur depending
on the wavelength, intensity, and tissue type:

• Absorption: The tissue absorbs laser energy, often leading to heating or

other effects.
• Scattering: The light is redirected in different directions.
• Reflection: Part of the laser light is reflected off the tissue surface.
• Transmission: Some of the laser light passes through the tissue without
interaction.

The specific effects depend on the chromophores (light-absorbing molecules)

present, such as water, hemoglobin, and melanin.

4. Applications of Lasers in Medicine

Lasers are used in a wide range of medical procedures due to their precision and
ability to target specific tissues. Some major applications include:

a) Surgical Applications

• Soft Tissue Surgery: Carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers are commonly used for
precise cutting and coagulation.
• Ophthalmology: Excimer lasers are used in LASIK surgery to reshape the
cornea and correct vision.

b) Dermatology

• Laser Skin Resurfacing: Fractional lasers improve skin texture and treat
scars or wrinkles.

3
 • Hair Removal: Diode and Nd:YAG lasers target hair follicles to prevent
regrowth.

c) Oncology

• Photodynamic Therapy (PDT): Combines a photosensitizing agent with

laser light to destroy cancerous cells.

d) Dentistry

• Cavity Treatment: Lasers can remove decayed tissue and sterilize the area
without drilling.
• Teeth Whitening: Certain lasers activate bleaching agents for faster results.

e) Diagnostic Applications

• Laser Doppler Flowmetry: Measures blood flow in tissues.

• Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT): High-resolution imaging of
tissues, particularly in ophthalmology.

f) Therapeutic Applications

• Low-Level Laser Therapy (LLLT): Promotes healing, reduces pain, and

stimulates cellular repair.

5. Advantages of Using Lasers in Medicine

a) Precision: Lasers can target specific tissues without damaging surrounding

areas.
b) Minimally Invasive: Many laser procedures require small incisions or
none at all.
c) Reduced Recovery Time: Less trauma to tissues leads to quicker healing.
d) Versatility: Applicable across diverse medical specialties.
4
6. Safety Considerations

While lasers offer many benefits, safety is paramount. Protective measures include:

• Wearing appropriate laser safety goggles.

• Avoiding direct or reflected laser exposure.
• Proper training for operators.

7. The Future of Lasers in Medicine:

Advancements in laser technology continue to expand their medical applications.

Areas of active research include:

• Nanomedicine: Combining lasers with nanoparticles for targeted drug

delivery.
• Robotic Surgery: Integration of laser systems with robotic platforms.
• Regenerative Medicine: Using lasers to stimulate stem cell growth and
tissue repair.

Conclusion In summary, Lasers have revolutionized the medical field by

providing precise, effective, and minimally invasive solutions. Their unique
properties, such as monochromaticity and coherence, make them indispensable
in various diagnostic and therapeutic applications. As medical physicists,
understanding the principles and applications of lasers will enable you to
contribute to innovations in this promising field.