A current of 0.

5 A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 10

minutes. Find the amount of electric charge that flows through the
circuit.
Solution
We are given, I = 0.5 A; t = 10 min = 600 s.
From Eq. (11.1), we have
Q = It
= 0.5 A × 600 s
= 300 C
How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 C across two
points
having a potential difference 12 V?
Solution
The amount of charge Q, that flows between two points at potential
difference V (= 12 V) is 2 C. Thus, the amount of work W, done in
moving the charge is

W = VQ
= 12 V  2 C
= 24 J.
(a) How much current will an electric bulb draw from a 220 V source,
if the resistance of the bulb filament is 1200 W? (b) How much
current will an electric heater coil draw from a 220 V source, if
the resistance of the heater coil is 100 W?
Solution
(a) We are given V = 220 V; R = 1200 W.
we have the current I = 220 V/1200 W = 0.18 A.
(b) We are given, V = 220 V, R = 100 W.
we have the current I = 220 V/100 W = 2.2 A.
Note the difference of current drawn by an electric bulb and electric
heater from the same 220 V source!
The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater
is 60 V when it draws a current of 4 A from the source. What current
will the heater draw if the potential difference is increased to 120 V?
Solution
We are given, potential difference V = 60 V, current I = 4 A.
According to Ohm’s law,

When the potential difference is increased to 120 V the current is

given by

The current through the heater becomes 8 A.

 INTRODUCTION TO OHM'S LAW

What is Ohm's Law ?

In 1826 Georg Simon Ohm discovered that for metallic conductors there
is substantially constant ratio of the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
Ohm's Law states that the current flowing in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the material.

Ohm's Law equation

I- current
V-voltage
R- resistance

Ohm's law is explained by the following statement.

1. Current varies directly with applied voltage
A change in the voltage applied to a circuit will cause the current flowing in the circuit to
change. If the resistance is constant, the current change will follow the pattern of the
voltage change. Doubling the potential difference doubles the current.

2. Current varies inversely with resistance

Changing the resistance in a circuit will also cause a change in current flow. if the voltage
applied to a circuit is held constant, and the resistance in the circuit is increased. With more
opposition to current flow in the circuit, the circuit current will decrease. On the other hand,
if the resistance is decreased the amount of current flow in the circuit will be increased.

3. Voltage vs. current

The relationship between voltage

and current can be graphically
represented with this illustration.

thus:
1. the higher the voltage, the larger the current
[Link] higher the resistance the lower the current
 Basics of Electrical Power

• Charge: property of matter that causes it to experience force

when near other charge
– Measured in coulombs (C), charge equal to that of 6.25 × 1018
protons

• Voltage: electric potential energy, measured in volts (V), and

denoted with symbol v or V
1 joule
1 volt =
1 coulomb

– Voltage really a measure of difference in electric potential, we

talk of “voltage drop” between two points in a circuit

5
• Current: Flow of charge through a material, measured in
amperes (A), and denoted with symbol i or I

1 coulomb
1 ampere =
1 second

– Unlike voltage, current measured at a single point in a circuit

• Electrical power, still measured in watts (W), denoted p or P

1 joule
1 watt = = 1 volt · 1 ampere ⇐⇒ P = IV
1 second

6
 Direct Current (DC) Circuits

• Voltage Source: Maintains fixed voltage drop across two ends

• Current Source: Maintains fixed current through this point in

the circuit

7
• Ground: Specifies reference voltage (= 0) at this point

• Resistor: “Resists” flow of electricity

– Resistance measured in ohms (Ω), denoted with symbol R

1 volt
1 ohm =
1 ampere

– Relates current and voltage via Ohm’s law

V = IR

– Symbol in circuit diagrams

8
• A simple DC circuit

• Goal of linear circuit analysis: given knowledge of voltages

(currents) in circuit, compute currents (voltages) in circuit
– Called linear circuit analysis because solution is given by a set of
linear equations

V = ZI, V, I ∈ Rn , Z ∈ Rn×n (impedance matrix)

9
• Some simple rules for combining circuit elements
– Resitors in series

R = R1 + R2

– Resistors in parallel

1
R= 1 1
R1 + R2

10
 Alternating Current (AC) Circuits
• Voltage/current varies sinusoidally with time
1
v(t)
0.5

Volts 0

−0.5

−1
0 1 2 3
t/ω

v(t) = Vmax sin(ωt + φ)

Vmax : peak voltage, ω: frequency (e.g., 60 · 2π), φ: phase angle

• Two conventions for reporting

q R magnitude, peak Vmax and root
1 2π 2
mean squared Vrms = 2π 2 √1
0 Vmax sin tdt = 2 Vmax 15
• AC voltage source - maintains sinusoidally alternating voltage

• Example AC circuit

16
Introduction:
1 Frequency of a periodic signal is defined as: the number of occurrences of a repeating
event per unit time = Number of signal’s cycles per one second.

Principle of Frequency Meters:

To measure the frequency of a certain periodic
signal, the waveform of that signal is used to
toggle a counter for a certain fixed time.
The number of counted cycles per unit time
indicates the signal frequency.

Dr. Haitham El-Hussieny Electrical and Electronic Measurements 4 / 19

Basic Digital Frequency Meters (DFM):
The operation of basic DFM:
1 The input signal is amplified or attenuated as necessary.
2 The input signal is converted to a square wave and is fed to one terminal of the AND gate.
3 The time base signal with 1 Hz. freq. is fed to a flip-flop.
4 The flip-flop changes its state at each falling-edge of the time base. It divides the
frequency by 2 giving a high on the Q terminal for 1 s and a low for another 1 s. The
terminal Q̄ is an inverted version of Q.
5 One terminal of the AND gate is fed from the flip-flop Q output and the other terminal is
fed from the shaped input signal. So, the counter circuit will count the input pulses for
the duration of 1 s. (Frequency).

Dr. Haitham El-Hussieny Electrical and Electronic Measurements 6 / 19

 Phasor voltage-current relations

IR IL IC
+ + + 1
V
VR R VL j L C
j C
-
- -

1
V R  R I R V L  jL  I L VC  IC
jC
Imaginary Imaginary Imaginary
V  RI I
V  j L  I
Real
I I
1
V  I
Real Real j C
 Impedance
• Define the impedance, Z , of a circuit as:
V
Z V  IZ
I
• Notes:
• Impedance defines the relationship between the voltage
and current phasors
• The above equations are identical in form to Ohm’s Law
• Units of impedance are ohms ()
 Impedance – continued
• Impedance is a complex number
Z  R  jX

• Where
• R is called the resistance
• X is called the reactance
• Impedance is not a phasor
• There is no sinusoidal waveform it is describing
 Circuit element impedances
• Our phasor circuit element voltage-current relations
can all be written in terms of impedances

1
ZR  R Z L  jL ZC 
j C
Basics
 Defibrillation is definitive treatment for life-threatening cardiac
arrhythmias such as ventricular fibrillation
 Defibrillation consists of delivering therapeutic dose of electrical
energy to affected heart with device called defibrillator, which can
be external, trans-venous, or implanted
 Automated External Defibrillators (AEDs): automatic diagnosis of
treatable rhythms and application of treatment energy
 Lay responders or bystanders are able to use AEDs successfully with little or
no training at all except safety precautions
 Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator (ICD) is small, battery-
powered implanted electrical impulse generator programmed to
detect cardiac arrhythmia and correct it by delivering jolt of
electricity
 Implanted in patients at risk of sudden cardiac death due to ventricular
fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia
Defibrillator Theory of Operation
 Defibrillators are electrotherapeutic high-voltage devices which are used
within course of resuscitation and to terminate tachycardic ventricular and
supraventricular arrhythmias
 Defibrillation is defined as applying brief, phasic pulse of energy intended
to cause simultaneous depolarization of all myocardial fibers
 After approximately 5 s of administering electrical pulse, no ventricular
fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia are detected any longer in ECG
 Objective: to terminate tachycardic ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias
so that following refractory period which generally lasts 200-500 ms, SA-node
once more resume primary pacemaker function
DC Defibrillator Components
 Portable defibrillator is DC voltage system, usually not dependent on mains
electricity, essentially composed of:
 Energy supply via mains connection or rechargeable batteries
 Capacitor as energy store (E = ½ C V2)
 Charging circuit for capacitor
 Discharge circuit to deliver current pulse at different, preselectable energy levels
 Pulse range: 3-8 ms at current of 10–27A (internal) and 22–60A (external)
Waveform of Energy Shock
 Shape of wave dictates how much energy is supplied to
patient and over what period this energy is administered
 Optimum amount of energy for defibrillator pulse is amount of
energy which causes least myocardial damage
 Distinction is made between mono-, bi-, and triphasic pulses
Waveform of Energy Shock
 Biphasic waveforms are preferably used
 More effective on first shock and gentler on heart with less dysfunction
 Differ with varied adaptation to thoracic impedance of patient (e.g., peak-
to-peak voltage and pulse duration)
 Defibrillation success achieved with lower energy and voltage
 Device-dependent amount of energy is 150–200 J for first defibrillation and
200–360 J for all others, whereas it is always 360 J with monophasic wave
 Biphasic pulse forms allow devices to be further miniaturized
 Whereas optimum energy flow in monophasic defibrillation is in range 30-
40 A, with biphasic shock it is in range 15-20 A
 Operating modes: synchronous and asynchronous operation
 Synchronous: heart’s own pulses are taken into account (QRS triggering)
 Asynchronous: reserved for strictly emergency defibrillations
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Waves and their Characteristics
2.1. Amplitude
2.2. Wavelength
2.3. Frequency
2.4. Period
2.5. Velocity
3. Electromagnetic spectrum
4. Radiation Types
5. Equations of Waves
6. Interference
7. Wave-Particle Duality
8. Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation
9. Electromagnetic Radiation and Temperature
10. Problems
10.1. Answers:
11. Outside Links
12. References
13. Contributors

As you read the print off this computer screen now, you are reading pages of fluctuating energy and magnetic
fields. Light, electricity, and magnetism are all different forms of electromagnetic radiation.

Introduction
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a form of energy that is produced by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance,
or by the movement of electrically charged particles traveling through a vacuum or matter. The electric and magnetic
fields come at right angles to each other and combined wave moves perpendicular to both magnetic and electric
oscillating fields thus the disturbance. Electron radiation is released as photons, which are bundles of light energy
that travel at the speed of light as quantized harmonic waves. This energy is then grouped into categories based on
its wavelength into the electromagnetic spectrum. These electric and magnetic waves travel perpendicular to each
other and have certain characteristics, including amplitude, wavelength, and frequency.

General Properties of all electromagnetic radiation:

1. Electromagnetic radiation can travel through empty space. Most other types of waves must travel through some sort
of substance. For example, sound waves need either a gas, solid, or liquid to pass through in order to be heard.
2. The speed of light is always a constant. (Speed of light : 2.99792458 x 108 m s-1)
3. Wavelengths are measured between the distances of either crests or troughs. It is usually characterized by the Greek
symbol λ.

Waves and their Characteristics

Fig. 1 & 2: Electromagnetic Waves

 Fig. 3: An EM Wave

Amplitude

Amplitude is the distance from the maximum vertical displacement of the wave to the middle of the wave. This
measures the magnitude of oscillation of a particular wave. In short, the amplitude is basically the height of the wave.
Larger amplitude means higher energy and lower amplitude means lower energy. Amplitude is important because it
tells you the intensity or brightness of a wave in comparison with other waves.

Wavelength
 Wavelength (λ) is the distance of one full cycle of the oscillation. Longer wavelength waves such as radio waves
carry low energy; this is why we can listen to the radio without any harmful consequences. Shorter wavelength waves
such as x-rays carry higher energy that can be hazardous to our health. Consequently lead aprons are worn to
protect our bodies from harmful radiation when we undergo x-rays. This wavelength frequently relationship is
characterized by:

c=λν
where
 c is the speed of light,
 λ is wavelength, and
 ν is frequency.
Shorter wavelength means greater frequency, and greater frequency means higher energy. Wavelengths are
important in that they tell one what type of wave one is dealing with.

Fig. 4: Different Wavelengths and Frequencies

Remember, Wavelength tells you the type of light and Amplitude tells you about the intensity of the light

Frequency
 Frequency is defined as the number of cycles per second, and is expressed as sec -1 or Hertz (Hz). Frequency is
directly proportional to energy and can be express as:

E=hν

where

 E is energy,
 h is Planck's constant, (h= 6.62607 x 10-34 J), and
 ν is frequency.

Period
Period (T) is the amount of time a wave takes to travel one wavelength. It is measured in seconds (s).

Velocity
The velocity of wave in general is expressed as:

velocity=λν

For Electromagnetic wave, the velocity is 2.99x108m/s or 186,000 miles per second.

Electromagnetic spectrum

Fig. 5: Electromagnetic Spectrum (LABELS and UNITS in this Figure are Reversed:
wavelength scale is labeled as Frequency in units of Hz and Frequency scale is labeled as
wavelength in units of m)

In general, as a wave’s wavelength increases, the frequency decreases, and as wave’s wavelength decreases, the
frequency increases. When electromagnetic energy is released as the energy level increases, the wavelength
decreases and frequency decreases. Thus, electromagnetic radiation is then grouped into categories based on its
wavelength or frequency into the electromagnetic spectrum. The different types of electromagnetic radiation shown in
the electromagnetic spectrum consists of radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet radiation,
X-rays, and gamma rays. The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we are able to see is the visible light
spectrum.

Fig. 6: Electromagnetic Spectrum with Radiation Types

Radiation Types
Radio Waves are approximately 103 m in wavelength. As the name implies, radio waves are transmitted by radio
broadcasts, TV broadcasts, and even cell phones. Radio waves have the lowest energy levels. Radio waves are
used in remote sensing, where hydrogen gas in space releases radio energy with a low frequency and is collected as
radio waves. They are also used in radar systems, where they release radio energy and collect the bounced energy
back. Especially useful in weather, radar systems are used to can illustrate maps of the surface of the Earth and
predict weather patterns since radio energy easily breaks through the atmosphere. ;
 Introduction
n What is MRI?
n Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a spectroscopic
imaging technique used in medical settings to
produce images of the inside of the human body.

n MRI is based on the principles of nuclear magnetic

resonance (NMR), which is a spectroscopic technique
used to obtain microscopic chemical and physical data
about molecules

n In 1977 the first MRI exam was performed on a

human being. It took 5 hours to produce one image.
 Introduction
n How Does it Work?
n The magnetic resonance imaging is accomplished
through the absorption and emission of energy of the
radio frequency (RF) range of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
n Why MRI ?
n Utilizes non ionizing
radiation. (unlike x-rays).

n Ability to image in any plane.

(unlike CT scans).

n Very low incidents of side

effects.
n Ability to diagnose, visualize,
and evaluate various
illnesses.

The only better way to see the

insides of your body is to cut
you open!
 The Technology
n How Does It All Work?
n Spin:
n The atoms that compose the human body have a
property known as spin (a fundamental property
of all atoms in nature like mass or charge).

n Spin can be thought of as a small magnetic field

and can be given a + or – sign and a
mathematical value of multiples of ½.

n Components of an atom such as protons,

electrons and neutrons all have spin.
 The Technology (cont.)
n Imaging:
n When the RF pulse is turned off the hydrogen protons slowly
return to their natural alignment within the magnetic field
and release their excess stored energy. This is known as
relaxation. -> two time-scales (see later)

n What happens to the released energy?

n Released as heat
OR
n Exchanged and absorbed by other protons
OR
n Released as Radio Waves.
 The Technology (cont.)
n Measuring the MR Signal:
n the moving proton vector induces a signal
in the RF antenna

n The signal is picked up by a coil and sent to

the computer system.
the received signal is sinusoidal in nature

n The computer receives mathematical data,

which is converted through the use of a
Fourier transform into an image.
 original long.
alignment

transverse
precession
The Image
 Physics of MRI

It is an interplay of

n Magnetism

n Resonance
n Fig: 1. A) The top spinning in the earth's gravity. The
gravity tries to pull it down but it stays upright due to
its fast rotation. B) A charge spinning in the magnetic
field Bo.
n A) The protons spinning in the nature, without an
external strong field. The directions of spins are
random and cancel out each other. The net
magnetization is nearly 0.
n B) In the presence of a large external magnetic field
Bo the spins align themselves either against (high
energy state) or along (low energy state). There is a
slight abundance of spins aligned in the low energy
state.
n A) The spin of a proton aligned to Bo in the Z-axis.
n B) An external perturbing magnetic field, B1, is
applied which knocks the vector out of its axis, which
now is aligned at a new angle with respect to Bo.
n C) As the perturbing field B1 is removed the vector
gradually starts returning back to its original state and
n D) begins to wobble
Resonance
The gradient coils.
nA) the body placed in the core of
the magnet with B0 aligned to its
long axis.
nB) the gradient coil oriented in
the Z-axis (along the long axis of
the body) which gradually and
linearly increases from left to
right.
nC) At the center of the gradient
field, the frequency is equal to
that of B0, but at a distance Δx
the field changes by a factor of
ΔB0.