FOREIGN LAGUAGES DEPARTMENT

Chapter 2

Organization of language text

 Objectives

- Main types of text structures

- Sentence organization

- Literary and rhetorical devices

\

I. Language Text structures

1. Definition
Text structure - the way in which a writer
organizes language & information within text to
serve a specific purpose. Depending on the goal of
the writer, text can be structured in various ways to
best communicate information to a reader clearly
& effectively. The structure of a text’s beginning,
middle, & end is directly influenced by the
intention & purpose of the writer.
2. Types of language text structures
- Description
- Sequence
- Cause and effect
- Compare and contrast
- Problem and solution
 Description structure

Description structure - a text structure that is

designed to create a vivid, detailed description of
something.

This is achieved by using descriptive language

to describe traits, features, & characteristics of
the subject.
 Ex. “Two distinct desert ecosystems, the
Mojave and the Colorado, come together in Joshua
Tree National Park. A fascinating variety of plants
and animals make their homes in a land sculpted by
strong winds and occasional torrents of rain. Dark
night skies, a rich cultural history, and surreal
geologic features add to the wonder of this vast
wilderness in southern California”
 Sequence text structure
* There are two ways that sequence text structure
can be used: to communicate a chronological sequence
of events or steps in a procedure.
* Sequence text structure for the purpose of
chronological events - a common structure used in
historical literature or non-fictional literature.
* Sequence structure for procedural information is
common in educational literature from cooking
instructions to scientific methods.
Ex. 1: “World War I, also known as the Great War, began in
1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of
Austria. His murder catapulted into a war across Europe that
lasted until 1918.” - World War I

Ex. 2: “Pulse flour, sugar, and salt in a food processor

to combine. Add butter and process until the largest
pieces of butter are pea-size. Transfer to a large bowl.”
 Cause and effect
Cause & effect text structure - primarily used to
communicate the causal relationship between an event,
action, or idea & what follows.
The text is designed to make the causality &
correlation between the two clear to the reader.

Ex. “After inflating, the universe slowed down its

expansion rate but continued to grow, as it does still. It also
cooled significantly, allowing for the formation of matter — first
neutrinos, electrons, quarks, and photons, followed by protons
and neutrons.” - How Did the Big Bang Happen?
 Compare and contrast
Oftentimes, writers need to analyze the similarities &
differences between two subjects. A compare & contrast text
structure allows them to do just that. These comparisons are
typically between people, places, events, ideas, or concepts.

Ex. “Beethoven has a much more fiery personality.

Whereas Mozart’s music is clean & precise, Beethoven employs
many surprises in his music. Many times he will build up the
music as if it’s leading to something only to suddenly get soft –
his trademark use of subito piano.”
— Mozart vs. Beethoven
 Problem and solution
The problem & solution text structure is designed to
present a problem & transition into a proposed solution
for said problem. The structure is designed to both
create reasonable cases for why the problem exists
and/or is important and why the proposed solution can
be effective.
This text design is common in political literature &
speech as well as business & technology.
Ex. “Transportation is the second leading source of
greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. (burning a
single gallon of gasoline produces 20 pounds of
CO2). But it doesn't have to be that way. One way to
dramatically curtail transportation fuel needs is to
move closer to work, use mass transit, or switch to
walking, cycling or some other mode of transport that
does not require anything other than human energy.
There is also the option of working from home &
telecommuting several days a week.”
 Sentence & Paragraph in the text

Understanding the characteristics & types of

sentences and paragraphs in a text & their roles,
we can apply knowledge about sentences &
paragraphs to analyze the texts.
Characteristics of sentences in text

- Sentences in texts are diverse in structure

& closely related to each other in terms of
grammar & semantics.

- Sentences in text are stylistic

- Sentences in the text are closely

coordinated.
 Sentence organization/structure

What is Sentence Structure?

Sentence structure is how the basic grammatical
elements (a subject, predicate, & sometimes direct or
indirect objects) of a sentence are put together.
These include the necessity for a subject, predicate, &
object (in that order) in every sentence. Beyond that, we can add
additional elements like prepositions & dependent clauses.
Advanced sentences can weave these elements together to
create more & more complex structures.
 4 types of sentence structure
Simple Sentences
The most basic type of English sentence is the simple
structure. / a sentence is composed of just one independent
clause – a clause which contains a subject (the noun performing
the action of the sentence) & predicate (the action being taken) &
expresses a complete thought.
Like all sentences, it can also contain a direct object (the
noun receiving the action of a sentence) or indirect object (the
object for whom the action is being done).
 Compound Sentences

> Combining two or more independent clauses with a

coordinating conjunction (or, and, but, yet, for, nor, so)
or a semicolon.

Ex. - She was sick, so she didn’t go to school.

- I was exhausted, but I worked all night.
- Mom was still at work, and Dad was out to dinner.
 Complex Sentences

> Consist of an independent clause & a

dependent clause.
A dependent clause is an incomplete thought (e.g., “Although I
was sick, ...” “Because he was gone, ...”) & thus needs to be
attached to an independent clause. It’s also known as a
subordinate clause.

Ex. - If he was so funny, the whole crowd would have been

laughing.
- I went to dinner because I was hungry.
 Compound-Complex Sentences
* Compound-complex sentences combine the ideas behind
both compound & complex sentences: they contain at least
two independent clauses & a dependent clause.
* Using the coordinating conjunction/semicolon, & the
dependent clauses.
Ex. - Because he was injured, the team played with a
short bench and their rivals beat them soundly.
- I wondered what became of him; if he liked Chicago so
much, it made no sense for him to up and leave.
 Basis for dividing paragraphs

- Based on the function of the paragraphs

Opening paragraph, developing paragraph,
closing paragraph, transition paragraph.
- Based on meaning
+ Segments by incident, by time, by space
in a major event.
+ Segments according to differences in
tasks.
+ Paragraphs into small issues within the
big problem.
 Paragraph structure

* The paragraph has a topic sentence

+ Interpretation paragraph: there is an explanatory
interpretation & a demonstrative interpretation.
+ Inductive paragraph: has inductive explanation-
synthesis, inductive deduction.
+ Synthesis-composition-composition section.
* The paragraph does not have a topic sentence
+ Parallel paragraph: there are parallel lists that
follow, parallel parallels that contrast.
+ Chain paragraph: sentences are tightly linked
together. The previous sentence is the premise for the next
sentence.
 Literary devices
What are literary devices?

Literary devices are methods used by authors to

enhance their writing & convey a message or emotion
in a more captivating way.
Literary devices can be found throughout texts
of all genres, from novels to television scripts to song
lyrics.
* Types of literary devices include metaphors,
similes, allegories, alliterations, puns, &
foreshadowing.
 Simile
A simile - a popular literary device used to compare two
ideas or concepts that are dissimilar.

It typically uses the words “like” or “as” to form an

interesting comparison between otherwise unrelated
concepts.

This helps authors create a vivid image & make their writing
more engaging & lively. Similes can also be employed to
invoke emotion, as a way of making readers relate
experiences to the plot of a story or poem.

Ex. “My bounty is as boundless as the sea, my love as deep;

the more I give to thee, the more I have, for both are
infinite”.
 Metaphor

A metaphor - a figure of speech in which one thing is

metaphorically expressed as though it were something else,
making whatever it is describing seem more vivid,
meaningful, & interesting.

* Metaphors are powerful literary devices to make your

writing more engaging & relatable. They can be used to draw
a comparison between two unrelated objects or ideas to create
an understanding or insight for the reader.
 Imagery

Imagery - an essential literary device that

authors use to help their readers create imagery in
their minds of what is taking place in the story.
- A key component in painting a vivid picture for the
reader and helps them to understand a particular
setting or mood within the text.
> Imagery serves mainly to add depth & insight
into a passage through the use of vivid language that
evokes imagery & emotion.
 Allusion

An allusion: - a literary device commonly used by

authors to provide deeper meaning to their stories.
- A reference to an event, person, place, or
thing that may not be directly related to the story’s
plot but alludes to a larger context.
 Symbolism - a literary device is a powerful tool for authors
and playwrights alike. When symbolism is used, an object or
character can take on a meaning greater than what appears on the
surface.

Foreshadowing is a literary device that creates anticipation

and mystery because it foretells or forewarns about events that have
yet to come. This technique can be used not just to bring the
reader’s attention to what will happen, but also to surprise them.

Motifs are recurring patterns of images, ideas, and symbols

that are used to convey motifs in literature. It’s a powerful literary
device that serves multiple purposes.
Motifs can add depth and clarity to the plot, reveal the
underlying message of a story, or even develop motifs throughout
the narrative arc.
 Alliteration - a literary device that involves the
repetition of certain sounds at the beginning of multiple
words within a sentence or phrase. It can bring rhythm and
familiarity to text by creating an alluring effect on readers, as
alliteration reinforces ideas, making them easier to
remember.

Juxtaposition - a powerful literary device that allows

readers to juxtapose two seemingly disparate elements &
observe how they interact with one another in a creative
juxtaposition.
> presenting different ideas, values, or contexts side-
by-side to allow readers to understand their similarities &
differences.
 Rhetorical devices

A rhetorical device - a linguistic tool that employs

a particular type of sentence structure, sound, or pattern
of meaning in order to evoke a particular reaction from
an audience.

Each rhetorical device is a distinct tool that can be

used to construct an argument or make an existing
argument more compelling.
 Types of Rhetorical Devices
4 types of rhetorical devices:

- Logos (ngôn từ). Devices in this category seek to

convince & persuade via logic and reason. They will usually
make use of statistics, cited facts, and statements by
authorities to make their point and persuade the listener.
- Pathos (cảm xúc). These rhetorical devices base their
appeal in emotion. This could mean invoking sympathy or
pity in the listener, or making the audience angry in the
service of inspiring action or changing their mind about
something.
 - Ethos (đặc trưng). Ethical appeals try to
convince the audience that the speaker is a credible
source, that their words have weight & must be taken
seriously because they are serious & have the
experience & judgment necessary to decide what’s
right.
- Kairos (thời gian). This is one of the most
difficult concepts in rhetoric; devices in this category
are dependent on the idea that the time has come for a
particular idea or action. The very timeliness of the
idea is part of the argument.
 - Alliteration (Láy âm), a sonic device, is the repetition
of the initial sound of each word
- Onomatopoeia (từ tượng thanh)- a sonic
device, refers to a word that emulates the real-life sound
it signifies (ex. using the word "bang" to signify an
explosion).
- Humor ( hài hước) creates connection &
identification with audience members, thus increasing
the likelihood that they will agree with the
speaker. Humor can also be used to deflate counter-
arguments & make opposing points of view appear
ridiculous.
 - Hyperbole (cường điệu) - an exaggerated statement
that conveys emotion & raises the bar for other speakers.
Ex. - Once you make a hyperbolic statement like “My
idea is going to change the world," other speakers will have
to respond in kind or their more measured words may seem
dull & uninspiring in comparison.
- “Ladies and gentlemen, I've been to Vietnam,
Iraq, and Afghanistan, and I can say without
hyperbole that this is a million times worse than all of
them put together.” –The Simpsons.
> Here, hyperbole is used to humorous effect in
order to undermine the superficial point of the
sentence.
- Anadiplosis (lặp lại từ cuối của câu) is the use of
the same word at the end of one sentence & at the
beginning of the subsequent sentence, forming a chain of
thought that carries your audience to the point you’ve
chosen.

Ex. “Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to

suffering.” –Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back.
> Anadiplosis. The pairs of words at the beginning &
ending of each sentence give the impression that the logic
invoked is unassailable & perfectly assembled.
 Revision

1. What are types of text structures?

2. Organization of sentence
3. What are Literary & Rhetorical
devices