Module 4 Programmable Logic Controller

PLC (Introduction)

PLC stands for “Programmable Logic Controller”. A PLC is a computer

specially designed to operate reliably under harsh industrial environments
– such as extreme temperatures, wet, dry, and/or dusty conditions. PLCs
are used to automate industrial processes such as a manufacturing plant’s
assembly line, an ore processing plant, or a wastewater treatment plant.

PLCs share many features of the personal computer you have at home.
They both have a power supply, a CPU (Central Processing Unit), inputs
and outputs (I/O), memory, and operating software (although it’s a
different operating software).

The biggest differences are that a PLC can perform discrete and
continuous functions that a PC cannot do, and a PLC is much better suited
to rough industrial environments. A PLC can be thought of as a
‘ruggedized’ digital computer that manages the electromechanical
processes of an industrial environment.

PLCs play a crucial role in the field of automation, using forming part of a
larger SCADA system. A PLC can be programmed according to the
operational requirement of the process. In the manufacturing industry,
there will be a need for reprogramming due to the change in the nature of
production. To overcome this difficulty, PLC-based control systems were
introduced.

PLC Basics
PLCs were invented by Dick Morley in 1964. Since then PLC has
revolutionized the industrial and manufacturing sectors. There is a wide
range of PLC functions like timing, counting, calculating, comparing, and
processing various analog signals.

The main advantage of PLC over a “hard-wired” control system is that you
can go back and change a PLC after you’ve programmed it, at little cost
(just the cost of the programmer’s time). In a hard-wired control system,
you’re essentially having to rip out wires and start from scratch (which is
more expensive and takes longer). Let’s look at an example to better
understand this advantage.
Imagine you have a light connected to a switch. In general, the light
operates under two conditions – ON and OFF. Now you are given a task
that when you turn ON the switch, the light should glow only after 30
seconds. With this hard-wired setup – we’re stuck. The only way to
achieve this is to completely rewire our circuit to add a timing relay. That’s
a lot of hassle for a minor change.

This is where a programmable logic controller comes into the picture,

which doesn’t require any additional wiring and hardware to make sure of
a change. Rather it requires a simple change in code, programming the
PLC to only turn on the light 30 seconds after the switch is turned ON. So,
by using a PLC, it is easy to incorporate multiple inputs and outputs.
This is just a simple example – a PLC has the ability to control much larger
and more complex processes. A PLC can be customized depending on
the application and needs of the user.
How Does a PLC work?
The working of a programmable logic controller can be easily understood
as a cyclic scanning method known as the scan cycle.

Working Principle of PLC

A PLC Scan Process includes the following steps

 The operating system starts cycling and monitoring of time.

 The CPU starts reading the data from the input module and
checks the status of all the inputs.
 The CPU starts executing the user or application program
written in relay-ladder logic or any other PLC-programming
language.
 Next, the CPU performs all the internal diagnosis and
communication tasks.
 According to the program results, it writes the data into the
output module so that all outputs are updated.
 This process continues as long as the PLC is in run mode.

Physical Structure of PLC

The structure of a PLC is almost similar to a computer’s architecture.
Programmable Logic Controllers continuously monitors the input values
from various input sensing devices (e.g. accelerometer, weight scale,
hardwired signals, etc.) and produces corresponding output depending on
the nature of production and industry. A typical block diagram of PLC
consists of five parts namely:

 Rack or chassis
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Input Module
 Output Module
 Memory for program and data storage
 Communication Interface Module
 Programming device
 Power Supply Module

Rack or Chassis

In all PLC systems, the PLC rack or chassis forms the most important
module and acts as a backbone to the system. PLCs are available in
different shapes and sizes. When more complex control systems are
involved, it requires larger PLC racks.

Small-sized PLC is equipped with a fixed I/O pin configuration. So, they
have gone for modular type rack PLC, which accepts different types of I/O
modules with sliding and fit in concept. All I/O modules will be residing
inside this rack/chassis.

TC input – Thermocouple inputs

Breakdown of PLC Rack

Power Supply Module

This module is used to provide the required power to the whole PLC
system. It converts the available AC power to DC power which is required
by the CPU and I/O module. PLC generally works on a 24V DC supply.
Few PLC uses an isolated power supply.
CPU Module
CPU module has a central processor, ROM & RAM memory. ROM
memory includes an operating system, drivers, and application programs.
RAM memory is used to store programs and data. CPU is the brain of PLC
with an octal or hexagonal microprocessor.
Being a microprocessor-based CPU, it replaces timers, relays, and
counters. Two types of processors as a single bit or word processor can
be incorporated with a PLC. One bit processor is used to perform logic
functions. Whereas word processors are used for processing text,
numerical data, controlling, and recording data.

CPU reads the input data from sensors, processes it, and finally sends
the command to controlling devices. DC power source, as mentioned in
the previous discussion is required voltage signals. CPU also contains
other electrical parts to connect cables used by other units.

Input and Output Module

PLC has an exclusive module for interfacing inputs and output, which is
called an input & output module. Input devices can be either start and stop
pushbuttons, switches, etc and output devices can be an electric heater,
valves, relays, etc. I/O module helps to interface input and output devices
with a microprocessor.
The AC discrete input module of PLC is explained in the below figure.

PLC Input Module

120

Circuit Diagram of PLC AC discrete Input Module

The input module of PLC does four main functions.

1. Input module interface receives the signal from process

devices at 120 V AC
2. Converts the input signal to 5 V DC that can be used by PLC
3. Isolator block is used to isolate/prevent PLC from undergoing
fluctuation
4. After which the signal is sent to the output end i.e the PLC
There are two main sections in the input module namely the power section
and the logical section. Both sections are electrically isolated from each
other. Initially push button is closed. So, 120 V AC supply is given to the
bridge circuit through the resistors R1 and R2.
A bridge rectifier (such as a diode bridge rectifier) is used to convert the
AC signal into DC and Zener diode is used to provide a low voltage supply
to LED. When the light from LED falls on the phototransistor, it works in
the conduction region. Finally, a 5V DC supply is given to the processor.
The output module of PLC works similarly to the input module but in the
reverse process. It interfaces the output load and processor. So here the
first section would be logic session and the power section comes next.

The working of the output module is shown in the below figure

120AC

So, here when the program logic high signal is generated from the
processor, the LED will turn ON and allow the light to fall on a
phototransistor. When the transistor goes to the conduction region, it
generates a pulse to the gate of the Triac. The isolator block is used to
isolate the logic section and control section.
Communication Interface Module
To transfer information between CPU and communication networks,
intelligent I/O modules are used. These communication modules help to
connect with other PLCs and computers which are placed at a remote
location.

Memory Organization in PLC

• 1. System/Program memory
• 2. Application/Data memory

System/Program memory

This memory is programmed by the manufacturer

Application/Data memory

• Program files – 256 files

File 0 – System file

File 1 – Reserved

File 2 – User program

File 3-255 – Subroutines

Program files are the areas of processor memory where ladder logic
programming is stored. They may include

System functions (file 0): This file is always included and contains
various system-related information and user-programmed information
such as processor type, I/O configuration, processor file name, and
password.
Reserved (file 1): This file is reserved by the processor and is not
accessible to the user.

Main ladder program (file 2): This file is always included and contains
user-programmed instructions that define how the controller is to operate.

Subroutine ladder program (files 3–255): These files are user-created

and are activated according to subroutine instructions residing in the main
ladder program file.

 Data files

The data file portion of the processor’s memory stores input and
output status, processor status, the status of various bits, and
numerical data. All this information is accessed via the ladder logic
program. These files are organized by the type of data they contain
and may include:

Output (file 0)/ Output Image file: This file stores the state of the
output terminals for the controller. It is made of single bit grouped
into words. Each word is made of 16 bits. Each bit in a word
represents ON/OFF state of one output point. That is there is one
bit in the output status file for each output point on the output module
for each PLC system. A 16-bit output file word is reserved for each
slot in SLC 500 Modular PLC. Only one output status file is allowed.
Foe SLC 500, output status file consists of 256 words

Input (file 1): This file stores the status of the input terminals for the
controller. It is made of single bit grouped into words. Each word is
made of 16 bits. There are 256 words in the input status file for SLC
500. Each bit in the word represents ON/OFF state of one input
point. A 16-bit input file word is reserved for each slot for SLC 500.
If there is a logic 1 in the input status file, the processor will see a
valid input signal from the input module. There can be only 1 input
status file per processor file.

Processor Status (file 2): This file stores controller operation

information and is useful for troubleshooting controller and program
operation. There can be only one status file per processor file.

Bit (file 3): This file is used for internal relay logic storage. Bit file is
used to store single bit in 16 bit word format. There can be many bit
files per processor file and data file greater than file number 8 can
be assigned additional bit file.
Timer (file 4): This file stores the timer accumulated and preset
values and status bits. Each timer is comprised of three words
collectively called as timer elements. There can be 256 timer
elements for a single timer file. There can be more than one timer
file per processor file.

Counter (file 5): This file stores the counter accumulated and preset
values and status bits. Each counter is comprised of three words
collectively called as counter elements. There can be 256 counter
elements for a single counter file. There can be more than one
counter file per processor file.

Control (file 6): It is used to store status information for sequencer

instruction and stack information. Each control file element is made
up of three words.

Word 0 contains status file

Word 1 contains length of file

Word 3 contains current position of file

Integer (file 7): It is used to store integer. Each integer file has 256
one word elements. Each word can store a binary equivalent of one
 16 bit word. Each element can hold an integer in a range of -32768
to +32767. There can be many integer files per processor file.

Floating point file (file 8): when fractional numerical data or

numerical data greater than +32767 is required, floating point file
can be used. Floating point data is stored in two words. One word
is used to store integer and the second word is used to store the
exponent part.

File 9 – file 255: User defined file:

There is total 256 available data files in SLC 500 processor. Files
beyond automatically created default files are available as user
defined files. User defined file can be designated by the user for a
specific application. User defined file can be assigned the file
number between 9 to 255

Types of PLCs
The two main types of PLC are fixed / compact PLC and modular PLC.

Fixed PLC
Within a single case, there would be many modules. It has a fixed number
of I/O modules and external I/O cards. So, it does not have the capability
to expand the modules. Every input and output would be decided by the
manufacturer.

Advantages of Fixed PLCs

Fixed PLCs have some great advantages over other types of PLCs. They
have been specifically design to cater for smaller, low end automation
projects. The advantages of a fixed PLC are:

Small in size so they do not take up very much space in an enclosure.

Quick and easy to mount.

Low in cost so they are an economical solution for basic applications.

Disadvantages of Fixed PLCs

.The disadvantages of a fixed PLC are:

CPU processing power is low and memory is small so complex tasks can
be difficult to realize.

Inflexible because the number of input, output and communication

interfaces are fixed.

Only suitable for basic applications with small number of inputs and
outputs

Modular PLC
This type of PLC permits multiple expansion through “modules”, hence
referred to as Modular PLC. I/O components can be increased. It is easier
to use because each component is independent of each other.

PLC are divided into three types based on output namely Relay output,
Transistor output, and Triac Output PLC. The relay output type is best
suited for both AC and DC output devices. Transistor output type PLC
uses switching operations and used inside microprocessors.

According to the physical size, a PLC is divided into Very large,

large, Medium, Small/Mini, Micro, and Nano PLC.

Some of the manufacturers of PLCs include:

1. Allen Bradley

2. Siemens
 3. Mitsubishi

4. Hitachi

5. General Electric PLC

6. Honeywell

PLC Applications
PLCs have a variety of applications and uses, including:

Process Automation Plants (e.g. mining, oil &gas)

Glass Industry

Paper Industry

Cement Manufacturing

In boilers – Thermal Power Plants

PLC Programming
When using a PLC, it’s important to design and implement concepts
depending on your particular use case. To do this we first need to know
more about the specifics of PLC programming.

A PLC program consists of a set of instructions either in textual or

graphical form, which represents the logic that governs the process the
PLC is controlling. There are two main classifications of PLC programming
languages, which are further divided into many sub-classified types.

1. Textual Language
 Instruction list
 Structured text
2. Graphical Form
 Ladder Diagrams (LD) (i.e. Ladder Logic)
 Function Block Diagram (FBD)
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
 Although all of these PLC programming languages can be used to
program a PLC, graphical languages (like ladder logic) are typically
preferred to textual languages (like structured text programming).

Ladder Logic

Ladder logic is the simplest form of PLC programming. It is also

known as “relay logic”. The relay contacts used in relay-controlled
systems are represented using ladder logic.
The below figure shows a simple example of a ladder diagram.

In the above-mentioned example, two pushbuttons are used to control the

same lamp load. When any one of the switches is closed, the lamp will
glow.

The two horizontal lines are called rungs and the two vertical lines are
called rails. Every rung forms the electrical connectivity between Positive
rail (P) and Negative rail (N). This allows the current to flow between input
and output devices.

Redundancy in PLC

In engineering terms, we can say that redundancy means an extra

system, mechanism or component added to decrease the chances of total
system failure by providing an alternative control system in the fault
condition. This will provide reliability to the process control system as well
as reduce downtime during a failure.
The definition of redundancy is different for every industry. Generally,
redundancy is required for the process control system due to the following
reasons,

 To keep the equipment as well as people working around safe

 To reduce downtime during a failure condition
 To keep running the critical process without intervention
 To prevent damage to critical machine or equipment

Types of PLC redundancy

The amount of redundancy depends on many factors and can be

classified into Cold, Warm, and Hot Redundancy.
Cold Redundancy
Cold redundancy is best suited where the process is not critical, as well
as downtime and human operator intervention is acceptable.

As an example, such as in a steel plant pipe finishing line, if a pipe coating

machine fails then it will set off an alarm to the operator about the problem.
The operator acknowledges the alarm and requests the repair of the failed
unit as well as starts the other unit and resumes the operation.

In this example, the PLC failure is not a big deal, because the plant has
several units in parallel. This cold redundancy consists of an identical
spare PLC or parts so that they can be easily programmed or replaced
in fault conditions.

For that processes which are more critical, a warm and hot redundancy
will be a better option.

Warm Redundancy
Warm redundancy design mode is best suited where time and response
to the failure is important but still, a momentary outage is acceptable.

As an example, if a RAL in a bag filter system fails to operate, the

particular chamber can be disabled and maintenance work will be carried
out. Depending on the process there must be an acceptable time in which
the product starts to deteriorate or damage. The maintenance work should
be finished and the process must be restored within this time.

In the same way, warm redundancy systems usually operate in shadow

mode. Two identical PLCs run in the same software and share the same
IOs. One of the two PLC works as a primary and the other one works as
a secondary. When the heartbeat signal from the primary processor is not
received by the secondary, it will take off the control of the automation
system and provide uninterrupted operation.
These require an arbitration circuit while handling the sensor and
actuators to avoid conflict. There may be a chance of glitch and bump
because changeover may take a few program scans to complete.

Hot Redundancy

The architecture of the warm and hot redundancy systems are similar, but
unlike a warm redundancy system, a hot redundancy system provides an
instant correction when a failure is detected. This makes it the best
solution for the critical process.

Hot redundancy is used when the process must not go down for even a
moment under any circumstances. It provides smooth transfer of I/O
during a change over from primary to stand by. To accomplish this,
communication, messaging and updating the secondary processor and
program execution all have to be properly managed to ensure that hot
redundancy system operates correctly. The data needs to be transferred
from primary to secondary processor with every scan cycle.
Hot redundancy system is applicable in critical processes such as high
speed running equipment like turbines, power plants, the critical power
systems in hospitals, blast furnaces, etc. In such applications, if a primary
processor fails, secondary will take off control immediately, so that there
may be no damage to the critical equipment.