SOLAR CELLS

A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device
that converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is
basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed to
light.

Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels.
The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. These solar cells are tiny. When combined into a large solar panel,
considerable amounts of renewable energy can be generated.

Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity. With
increasing demand for a clean energy source and the sun’s potential as a free energy source, has
made solar energy conversion as part of a mixture of renewable energy sources increasingly
important. As a result, the demand for efficient solar cells, which convert sunlight directly into
electricity, is growing faster than ever before.

Construction of Solar Cell

A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different
from conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of n-type semiconductor is grown on a
relatively thicker p-type semiconductor. N type is highly doped and P type is lightly doped. Top
and bottom is of conducting electrode to collect the current. The bottom is fully covered with
current collecting electrode at the bottom of the p-type layer and top layer is finger electrodes to
allow most of the light incident on thin n-type layer. Since semiconductors are reflective in nature,
antireflective coating is used. The whole arrangement is kept inside a thin glass to avoid
mechanical shock.
Working Principle of Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through
very thin n-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the
junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal
equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly
come to the n-type side of the junction.

Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once,
the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction
because of barrier potential of the junction.

Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the junction
became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons becomes
higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in
another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery
cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the
junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves

The Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves shows the current and voltage (I-V) characteristics of
a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array. It gives a detailed description of its solar
energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more
importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s output performance
and solar efficiency.

Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are made almost entirely from semiconductor silicon that has been
processed into an extremely pure crystalline material which absorbs the photons from sunlight.

The photons hit the silicon atoms releasing electrons causing an electric current to flow when the
photoconductive cell is connected to an external load. For example, a battery. There are a variety
of different measurements we can make to determine the solar cell’s performance, such as its
power output and its conversion efficiency.

The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the relationship
between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V characteristics curve. The
intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell controls the current ( I ), while the
increases in the temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).

Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage equals power, so we
can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the voltage for a photovoltaic
device.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation of
a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the existing
conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information required to configure
a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak/maximum power point (MPP) as
possible.

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a single solar cell or panel is the
product of its output current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for
all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a
given radiation level.

With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its
minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open
circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the
positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero)
but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit
current, or Isc.

Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current (Isc )
at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage (Voc). In other words, the
maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at closed
circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there must
be a point somewhere in between were the solar cell generates maximum power.

However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power reaches
its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell generates
maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green rectangle. This is
the maximum power point or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or panel)
is defined to be at the maximum power point.

The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in the I-V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open
circuit voltage and the short circuit current:

Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90) Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–0.95)Isc.

Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual output
power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.

Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar cell or panel.
But a photovoltaic array is made up of smaller PV panels interconnected together. Then the I-V
curve of a PV array is just a scaled up version of the single solar cell I-V characteristic curve as
shown.

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel combinations,
or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array panels are
connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if connected together
in parallel then the current increases.

The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still be
the product of the voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ). However the solar panels are connected
together, the upper right hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of the
array.
The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array

The electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic array are summarised in the relationship between
the output current and voltage. The amount and intensity of solar insolation (solar irradiance)
controls the amount of output current ( I ), and the operating temperature of the solar cells affects
the output voltage ( V ) of the PV array. Solar cell I-V characteristic curves that summarise the
relationship between the current and voltage are generally provided by the panels manufacturer
and are given as:

Solar Array Parameters

• VOC = open-circuit voltage – This is the maximum voltage that the array provides when the
terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit condition). This value is much higher
than Vmp which relates to the operation of the PV array which is fixed by the load. This value
depends upon the number of PV panels connected together in series.
• ISC = short-circuit current – The maximum current provided by the PV array when the output
connectors are shorted together (a short circuit condition). This value is much higher than Imp
which relates to the normal operating circuit current.
• MPP = maximum power point – This relates to the point where the power supplied by the
array that is connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its maximum value, where MPP =
Imp x Vmp. The maximum power point of a photovoltaic array is measured in Watts (W) or
peak Watts (Wp).
• FF = fill factor – The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that the array
can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the product of the open-circuit
voltage multiplied by the short-circuit current, ( VOC x ISC ) This fill factor value gives an idea of
the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to 1 (unity), the more power the array can
provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.
• %eff = percent efficiency – The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio between the
maximum electrical power that the array can produce compared to the amount of solar irradiance
hitting the array. The efficiency of a typical solar array is normally low at around 10-12%,
depending on the photovoltaic type (monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin film) of
cell being used.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current for different
levels of insolation and temperature and can tell you a lot about a PV cell or panel’s ability to
convert sunlight into electricity. The most important values for calculating a particular panels
power rating are the voltage and current at maximum power.

Some solar panels are rated at slightly higher or lower voltages than others of the same wattage
value. This wattage difference affects the amount of current available and therefore the panels
maximum power point. Other parameters also important are the open circuit voltage VOC, and
short circuit current ISC ratings from a safety point of view, especially the voltage rating.
For example, a solar array of six 100 watt photovoltaic panels connected in series, would having
a nominal 72 volt (6 x 12V) rating. However, it could also produce an open-circuit voltage of
over 120 volts DC, which is more than enough to be dangerous.

Photovoltaic I-V characteristics curves provide the information needed for us to configure a solar
power array so that it can operate as close as possible to its maximum peak power point. The
peak power point is measured as the PV module produces its maximum amount of power when
exposed to solar radiation equivalent to 1000 watts per square metre, 1000 W/m2 or 1kW/m2.

Cell Mismatch in a Module

In a module, a number of cells are interconnected, it is very important that these cells
should match as closely as possible. That means Voc, Isc, Vm and Im (or fil factor) for all cells
must be exactly same. Any mismatch in the characteristics of these cells leads to additional
mismatch loss. Therefore, peak power of the combination is always less than the sum of
individual peak power of the cells. Only under ideal case when all cells are exactly identical
that the resultant peak power would be equal to arithmetic sum of that of its constituents.
This is elaborated as follows. When two cells with mismatched characteristics are connected
in series and load is applied, both cells are bound to carry same current. Th composite
characteristics of the combination can be obtained by adding the individual output voltage
of the cell corresponding to a common current, for all operating points, as shown in Fig. 6.30.
At a particular operating point, while one cell may be operating at peak power, the other may
not. This peak power of the combination is always less than the sum of individual peak power
of each cell. This is also clear from the shape of composite characteristics, which has lower
fil factor. Also if such a combination is short circuited, equal and opposite voltages V1’ and V2’
are produced by individual cells and therefore, one cell will be generating power while the
other will be dissipating it. Had the two cells been perfectly matched no power would be
generated or dissipated.
 Similar conclusion may be drawn by considering a parallel combination of two
mismatched cells. Here the voltages of the cells are bound to be equal, but the currents will
be different and hence the maximum power points. Th conclusion may be generalized for
more than two cells connected in series or in parallel. It can also be shown that larger the
number of cells in a module more would be the possibility and quantum of mismatch loss. To
reduce mismatch losses, modules are fabricated from cells belonging to same batch. Also cell
sorting is carried out to categorize cells having matched parameters with specified tolerance.
Telecommunication and Signaling:

Solar PV power is ideally suited for telecommunication applications such as, local telephone
exchange, radio and TV broadcasting, microwave and other forms of electronic communication
links. This is because, in most telecommunication applications, storage batteries are already in
use and the electrical systems are basically dc. An SPV for satellite earth station is shown in Fig.
6.57.

In hilly and mountainous terrain, radio and TV signals may not reach as they get blocked or
reflected back due to undulating terrain. At these locations, either low power transmitters (LPT)
or very low power transmitters (VLPT) are installed to receive and retransmit the signal for local
population. As these locations are generally remote and normal grid supply is not available, these
are powered by solar photovoltaic electricity. Each VLPT is designed to operate completely
unattended. It consists of a 10 W transmitter with daily mean energy consumption of less than 4
kWh. Usually a 1.7 kWp SPV system with battery storage, enough to last for 6 days in cloudy
season is provided. On highways, SPV power is being used for lighted road signs, highway
telephone booths etc. even in many industrialized nations. Indian Railways are now using
standalone SPV system for applications such as: semaphore signaling, automatic radio controlled
level crossing audio-visual alarms, etc. These applications are highly cost effective in
comparison to kerosene light used earlier.
Advantages of solar PV as follows:
1. PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity generation with PV panels there is no
harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is environmentally friendly.
2. Solar energy is energy supplied by nature – it is thus free and abundant!
3. Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight
4. Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks with distributed power
generation – DPG is indeed the next generation power network structure!
5. Solar panels cost is currently on a fast-reducing track and is expected to continue reducing for
the next years – consequently solar PV panels has indeed a highly promising future both for
economic viability and environmental sustainability.
6. Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to be low, almost negligible,
compared to costs of other renewable energy systems
7. PV panels have no mechanically moving parts, except in cases of sun-tracking mechanical
bases; consequently they have far less breakages or require less maintenance than other renewable
energy systems (e.g. wind turbines)
8. PV panels are totally silent, producing no noise at all; consequently, they are a perfect solution
for urban areas and for residential applications (see solar panels for home)
9. Because solar energy coincides with energy needs for cooling, PV panels can provide an
effective solution to energy demand peaks – especially in hot summer months where energy
demand is high.
10. Though solar energy panels’ prices have seen a drastic reduction in the past years, and are still
falling, nonetheless, solar photovoltaic panels are one of major renewable energy systems that are
promoted through government subsidy funding (FITs, tax credits etc.); thus financial incentive for
PV panels make solar energy panels an attractive investment alternative.
11. Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the ground without any
interference to residential lifestyle.

Disadvantages of Solar PV system as follows:

1. As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not shining at night
but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy weather.
2. Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes solar energy panels less
reliable a solution.
3. Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct electricity (DC) to
alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power network.
4. For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections, Photovoltaic
panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus increasing the investment cost for
PV panels considerably
5. In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require relatively large areas for
deployment; usually the land space is committed for this purpose for a period of 15-20 years – or
even longer.
6. Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared to the efficiency
levels of other renewable energy systems.
7. Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they are fragile and can
be damaged relatively easily; additional insurance costs are therefore of ultimate importance to
safeguard a PV investment.