UNIT II

Climate Change &

Environmental Challenges
Global Warming • Ozone Depletion • Acid Rain • Nuclear Hazards

# Topic Key Concepts

01 Global Warming & Greenhouse Effect Causes, Consequences, Mitigation Strategies

02 Ozone Layer Depletion Causes, Impacts, Montreal Protocol, Measures

03 Acid Rain Formation, Effects on Ecosystems & Infrastructure, Control

04 Nuclear Hazards Sources, Environmental & Health Risks, Safety Regulations

 TOPIC 01: GLOBAL WARMING & THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Causes, Consequences, and Mitigation Strategies

1.1 Introduction

Global warming refers to the long-term rise in the average temperature of Earth's climate system. It is a
major aspect of climate change, driven primarily by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases
(GHGs) in the atmosphere resulting from human activities since the mid-20th century.
The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. When the Sun's energy
reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and
re-radiated by greenhouse gases. The enhanced greenhouse effect, caused by human-emitted GHGs, is
the primary driver of global warming.

1.2 Diagram: The Greenhouse Effect Mechanism

SPACE
Solar■Radiation Reflected■(30%)
SUN

Re-emitted■(Space)
CH■
CO■ N■O
GHG Gases)
ATMOSPHERE (Greenhouse H■O

Re-emitted■(Back)
IR■Emission

GLOBAL
EARTH'S SURFACE WARMING
↑ Temperature

Fig 1.1 — The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: Solar radiation, atmospheric absorption, and re-emission warming
Earth's surface

1.3 Major Greenhouse Gases

Gas Source GWP (100yr) Atmospheric Life

Carbon Dioxide (CO■) Fossil fuels, deforestation, industry 1 100–300 years

Methane (CH■) Livestock, landfills, natural gas 28–36 12 years

Nitrous Oxide (N■O) Agriculture, fertilizers, combustion 265–298 114 years

Water Vapour (H■O) Evaporation, transpiration (natural) Varies Days to weeks

CFCs / HFCs Refrigerants, aerosols, industry Up to 14,800 Decades to centuries

 Gas Source GWP (100yr) Atmospheric Life

Ozone (O■) Photochemical reactions, industrial ~25 Hours to months

Table 1.1 — GWP = Global Warming Potential relative to CO■

1.4 Causes of Global Warming

Category Human Activities Natural Factors

Energy Burning coal, oil, natural gas for electricity & heatSolar variability, volcanic eruptions

Transport Petrol/diesel vehicles, aviation, shipping Earth's orbital cycles (Milankovitch)

Agriculture Rice paddies (CH■), livestock (enteric fermentation)

Ocean circulation changes (ENSO)

Land Use Deforestation reduces CO■ absorption Permafrost thaw releasing CH■

Industry Cement production, chemical processes, mining Biogenic emissions from plants

Waste Landfills (CH■), wastewater treatment Natural wetlands methane

1.5 Consequences of Global Warming

Category Observed Effects Projected Future Impact

Temperature Global avg +1.1°C since 1850; heat waves

+1.5–4.5°C by 2100 (IPCC)

Sea Level Risen ~20 cm; coastal erosion Rise 0.3–1 m by 2100; island nations at risk

Ice & Snow Arctic sea ice declining 13%/decade Ice-free Arctic summers possible by 2050

Precipitation Extreme rainfall events, flash floods Droughts in subtropics, flooding in tropics

Ecosystems Coral bleaching, species migration Mass extinctions, biome shifts

Human Health Heat stress, vector-borne diseases expand

Malaria/dengue spread to new regions

Agriculture Crop yield changes, shifting growing zones

Global food security threatened

Oceans Warming & acidification (pH↓) Collapse of marine food chains

1.6 Mitigation Strategies

A. Energy Transition
• Shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy: solar, wind, hydro, geothermal
• Increase energy efficiency in buildings, transport, and industry (ISO 50001)
• Development of green hydrogen as clean fuel for industry and transport
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) — trapping CO■ at point of emission

B. Policy & International Agreements

• Paris Agreement (2015): limit warming to 1.5–2°C above pre-industrial levels
• Kyoto Protocol (1997): binding GHG reduction targets for developed nations
• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): country-level climate action plans
• Carbon pricing mechanisms: cap-and-trade systems, carbon taxes

C. Forestry & Land Use

 • REDD+ program: reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
• Reforestation and afforestation to increase carbon sinks
• Sustainable agriculture: reduced tillage, cover crops, precision fertilization
• Restoration of wetlands and peatlands (major carbon stores)

D. Adaptation Strategies
• Sea walls and coastal defences in low-lying areas
• Drought-resistant and heat-tolerant crop varieties
• Early warning systems for extreme weather events
• Climate-resilient urban planning and infrastructure

Key Formula: Radiative Forcing (W/m²) = 5.35 × ln(C/C■) where C = current CO■
concentration, C■ = pre-industrial CO■ (280 ppm)
 TOPIC 02: OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Causes, Environmental & Health Impacts, and Protective Measures

2.1 What is the Ozone Layer?

The ozone layer is a region of Earth's stratosphere, approximately 15–35 km above the surface,
containing high concentrations of ozone (O■) molecules. It absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, particularly UVB (280–315 nm) and UVC (100–280 nm) rays.
Ozone is formed naturally when UV radiation splits oxygen molecules (O■) into individual oxygen atoms,
which then combine with O■ to form O■. This balance is disrupted by ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
released by human activities.

Natural Formation: O■ + UV → 2O• | O• + O■ → O■ Depletion Reaction: Cl• + O■ → ClO +

O■ | ClO + O• → Cl• + O■

2.2 Diagram: Ozone Layer & UV Radiation

SUN

UVC UVB UVA

■ Skin Cancer
■ Cataracts
■ Crop Damage
EARTH'S SURFACE

Thermosphere UVB reaches■surface!

CFC →
Mesosphere O■ → ClO + O■
Cl• +km)
(50–85
OZONE HOLE ✦ OZONE LAYER (O■) ✦ absorbs■UVB & UVC ✓
Ozone
(Depleted Region)
Stratosphere / Ozone Layer (12–50 km)

Troposphere (0–12 km)

Fig 2.1 — Ozone layer protecting Earth from UV radiation vs. ozone hole allowing harmful UVB to reach surface

2.3 Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)

ODS Full Name Major Sources ODP Phase-out Status

CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerants, aerosol sprays, foam0.6–1.0 Phased out (1996)

HCFCs Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Refrigeration (CFC replacement) 0.01–0.12 Being phased out

Halons Bromofluorocarbons Fire extinguishers 1–10 Phased out (1994)

CH■Br Methyl Bromide Agricultural fumigant 0.38 Critical use exemptions

CCl■ Carbon Tetrachloride Solvent, chemical industry 1.1 Phased out

 ODS Full Name Major Sources ODP Phase-out Status

CH■CCl■ Methyl Chloroform Industrial solvent cleaning 0.12 Phased out

ODP = Ozone Depletion Potential (relative to CFC-11)

2.4 Environmental & Health Impacts

Impact Area Specific Effects

Skin cancer (melanoma): 1% ozone decrease → 2% increase in UV → 3% more skin cancer

Human Health Eye damage: cataracts, photokeratitis (snow blindness)
Immune system suppression: reduced vaccine effectiveness

Phytoplankton reduction (base of ocean food chain)

Marine Ecosystems DNA damage in fish larvae, shrimp, crabs
Coral reef bleaching accelerated by UV stress

Reduced photosynthesis and crop yields (rice, soybeans, wheat)

Terrestrial Plants Altered growth patterns and leaf structure
Decreased nitrogen fixation in legumes

Increased UV drives smog formation (VOC + NOx + UV → O■ at ground level)

Atmosphere Changed atmospheric circulation patterns
Interaction with climate change (ozone-climate feedback)

Degradation of plastics, rubber, paints

Materials
Increased UV causes material fatigue and discolouration

2.5 The Antarctic Ozone Hole

Discovered in 1985 by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner, and Shanklin, the Antarctic
ozone hole forms each spring (September–November) due to:
• Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) form during the cold polar winter (−78°C)
• PSC surfaces facilitate heterogeneous chemical reactions that activate chlorine
• When sunlight returns in spring, activated chlorine rapidly destroys ozone
• The hole has reached a maximum size of ~29 million km² (2000) — larger than North America
• Signs of recovery observed since 2000 thanks to Montreal Protocol

2.6 Protective Measures & The Montreal Protocol

Montreal Protocol (1987) — The World's Most Successful Environmental Treaty

Signed by 197 countries (universal ratification), the Montreal Protocol set binding schedules to phase out
ODS production and consumption. It has eliminated over 99% of ozone-depleting substances and is
estimated to have prevented 2 million cases of skin cancer per year.

Amendment Year Key Action

Original Protocol 1987 Set baseline controls on CFCs and Halons

London Amendment 1990 Added CCl■ and methyl chloroform; accelerated CFC phaseout

Copenhagen Amendment 1992 Advanced phaseout dates; added HCFCs, HBFCs, CH■Br

Vienna Amendment 1995 Strengthened reporting and compliance mechanisms

 Amendment Year Key Action

Beijing Amendment 1999 Added controls on bromochloromethane

Kigali Amendment 2016 Added HFCs (potent greenhouse gases) to phaseout schedule

Individual Protective Measures

• Use broad-spectrum sunscreen (SPF 30+) blocking both UVA and UVB
• Wear UV-protective clothing, wide-brim hats, and UV-blocking sunglasses
• Avoid outdoor activities between 10 AM – 4 PM (peak UV hours)
• Check UV Index forecasts daily (scale: 1–2 Low, 3–5 Moderate, 6–7 High, 8+ Very High)
• Use alternatives to CFC-based products; support HFC-free refrigeration
 TOPIC 03: ACID RAIN
Formation, Effects on Ecosystems & Infrastructure, and Control Measures

3.1 What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain (more precisely, acid deposition) refers to any form of precipitation (rain, snow, fog, hail, or dust)
with a pH lower than 5.6 — the natural slight acidity caused by dissolved CO■. It was first described
scientifically by Robert Angus Smith in 1872 near Manchester, UK, during the Industrial Revolution.
Acid deposition occurs in two forms: wet deposition (rain, snow, fog) and dry deposition (gases and
particles that settle on surfaces without water, which later react with moisture). Normal rain has pH ≈ 5.6;
acid rain typically has pH 4–5, with extreme cases reaching pH 2–3 (similar to vinegar).

3.2 Diagram: Acid Rain Formation & Effects

SO■ + H■O → H■SO■ (Sulfuric Acid)

NO■ + H■O → HNO■ (Nitric Acid)

pH < 5.6 = ACID RAIN

pH SCALE

0-4 5-6 7 8-14

Strong Acid
Acid RainNeutral Alkaline

Forest■Decline

Lake Acidification
Fish Die-off ■

Fig 3.1 — Acid rain formation: emissions from industry and vehicles react with atmospheric water to form H■SO■ and
HNO■

3.3 Chemical Formation of Acid Rain

Sulfur Dioxide Pathway (Primary Acid Rain Source):

S + O■ → SO■ (combustion of sulfur-containing coal/oil) 2SO■ + O■ → 2SO■ (oxidation
in atmosphere) SO■ + H■O → H■SO■ (sulfuric acid formation)

Nitrogen Oxides Pathway:

N■ + O■ → 2NO (high-temperature combustion in engines) 2NO + O■ → 2NO■
(atmospheric oxidation) 3NO■ + H■O → 2HNO■ + NO (nitric acid formation)
 3.4 Sources of Acid Rain Precursors

Source Category SO■ Contribution NO■ Contribution Examples

Power Plants (coal/oil) ~70% ~25% Thermal power stations

Transportation ~5% ~55% Cars, trucks, aircraft, ships

Industrial Processes ~15% ~10% Smelters, refineries, cement

Residential Heating ~5% ~5% Coal/wood burning stoves

Natural Sources ~5% ~5% Volcanoes, lightning, soil bacteria

3.5 Effects of Acid Rain

A. Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems

• pH < 6.0: Mayfly and stonefly larvae begin to disappear
• pH < 5.5: Most fish species (trout, bass) disappear; frogs and salamanders affected
• pH < 5.0: Algal blooms of acid-tolerant species; ecosystem collapse
• pH < 4.5: Complete lake 'death' — only acid-tolerant bacteria survive
• Aluminum ions leached from soil at low pH are highly toxic to aquatic life
• Thousands of lakes in Scandinavia, Canada, and northeastern USA acidified

B. Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems (Forests & Soil)

• Leaches essential nutrients (Ca²■, Mg²■, K■) from soil, causing nutrient deficiency
• Releases toxic metals (Al, Mn) from soil minerals into plant root zone
• Damages leaf cuticles and waxy coatings, increasing water loss and disease susceptibility
• Dieback of conifers ('Waldsterben' — forest death documented in Germany since 1980s)
• Soil acidification disrupts nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi

C. Effects on Infrastructure & Cultural Heritage

Material Acid Rain Reaction Notable Damage Examples

Limestone/Marble CaCO■ + H■SO■ → CaSO■ + H■O + CO■ (gypsum

Taj Mahal,
crustParthenon,
forms) Colosseum

Sandstone Calcium silicates dissolve, surface crumbles and Gothic

flakes cathedrals, historic buildings

Steel/Iron Acid accelerates corrosion and rust formation Bridges, pipelines, railway tracks

Concrete Calcium silicate hydrates dissolve; reinforcement Bridges,

bars corrode
dams, buildings

Paint Acid attacks titanium dioxide and pigments; discolouration

Buildings, vehicles, artworks

D. Effects on Human Health

• Acid particles and gases cause respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis, emphysema)
• SO■ and NO■ are primary irritants; fine particulate matter (PM2.5) penetrates deep lung tissue
• Acidified drinking water leaches heavy metals (lead, mercury) from pipes — toxic effects
• Estimated 500,000 premature deaths per year globally from SO■ and NO■ pollution

3.6 Control Measures

Control Strategy Method Effectiveness

Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Limestone scrubbers remove SO■ from power
Upplant
to 95%
exhaust;
SO■ SO■ + CaCO■ + ½O■ → CaSO■ + CO
removal

Catalytic Converters Convert NO■ and CO in vehicle exhaust to N■,

80–90%
CO■,NO■
and H■O
reduction

Clean Coal Technology Low-sulfur coal use; coal washing; IGCC (Integrated
50–70%Gasification)
emission reduction

Fuel Switching Shift to natural gas (low sulfur), renewables, nuclear

Near-zero SO■ emissions

Selective Catalytic Reduction Ammonia injected into exhaust to reduce NO■

80–95%
to N■ NO■ removal

Limestone Treatment Add lime/limestone to acidified lakes (liming) to

Short-term
raise pH lake restoration

International Policy CLRTAP (1979), US Clean Air Act Amendments

Significant
(1990), national
EU Large SO■
Combustion
reductions
Plant Directive
 TOPIC 04: NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Sources, Environmental & Health Risks, and Safety Regulations

4.1 Introduction to Nuclear Hazards

Nuclear hazards refer to the dangers associated with radioactive materials and nuclear technology.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy from unstable atomic nuclei in the form of ionizing
radiation — particles or electromagnetic waves with sufficient energy to remove electrons from atoms,
potentially damaging DNA and biological tissue.
The three primary types of ionizing radiation are: Alpha (α) particles (helium nuclei, stopped by
skin/paper), Beta (β) particles (electrons, stopped by aluminum), and Gamma (γ) rays (high-energy
photons, requiring lead or concrete shielding). Neutron radiation also occurs in nuclear reactors and
weapons.

4.2 Diagram: Nuclear Radiation Types & Hazards

β Beta
SOURCES HEALTH EFFECTS
Moderate penetration
• Nuclear Power Plants (Al sheet stops it) • Cancer & Leukemia
• Nuclear Weapons Tests • Genetic Mutations
• Medical/X-ray Devices • Radiation Sickness
• Mining (Uranium/Radon) • Birth Defects

γ Gamma α Alpha
High penetration Low penetration
(Lead/concrete stops) (paper stops it)

NUCLEAR
HAZARD

n Neutron
Nuclear reactors
& bombs

Fig 4.1 — Nuclear radiation types (α, β, γ, neutron), their penetrating power, sources, and health effects

4.3 Types of Radiation: Comparison

Type Symbol Nature Penetrating Power Ionizing Ability Shielding

Alpha α 2 protons + 2 neutrons (He nucleus)

Very low (cm in air) Very high Paper, skin (5 cm air)

Beta β High-speed electron or positron Medium (metres in air)Medium Aluminium sheet (3–5 mm)

Gamma γ High-energy electromagnetic radiation

Very high (km in air) Low Lead (several cm) / concrete

Neutron n Uncharged nuclear particle Very high High (indirect) Hydrogen-rich materials, water, boron

X-ray X than γ)
Electromagnetic radiation (lower EHigh Low–Medium Lead apron / concrete
 4.4 Sources of Nuclear Hazards

A. Natural Sources
• Cosmic radiation: High-energy particles from space; increases with altitude (2× at 3000m vs sea level)
• Terrestrial radiation: Radioactive isotopes in Earth's crust (U-238, Th-232, K-40)
• Radon gas (Rn-222): Naturally occurring radioactive gas from uranium decay in soil; seeps into
buildings
• Internal body radiation: K-40 and C-14 naturally present in human body tissues

B. Artificial / Man-made Sources

Source Description Radiation Type Risk Level

Nuclear Power Plants γ, β, n cooling water

Fission reactors; fuel rods contain U-235/Pu-239; Highcan
(if become
accident)contaminated

Nuclear Weapons Tests α, β, γglobal fallout of

156 atmospheric tests (1945–1963); produced Extreme
Sr-90, Cs-137, I-131

Medical Diagnostic X-rays, CT scans, nuclear medicine (Tc-99m for γthyroid/boneLow

X-ray, scans)
(controlled)

Medical Therapy Radiation therapy for cancer: Co-60, linearγ, accelerators

X-ray Medium (targeted)

Industrial Uses Radiography (weld testing), gauges, food α, β, γ

irradiation, smoke detectors
Low (if controlled)
(Am-241)

Research Reactors n, γ activation analysis

University/research nuclear reactors; neutron Low–Medium

Uranium Mining α, γ workers at riskMedium

Dust from mining contains U-238 and Ra-226; from inhalation

Nuclear Waste α, β,remains

High-level waste (HLW) from spent fuel rods γ hazardous
Extreme
for 10,000+
(long-term)
years

4.5 Major Nuclear Accidents in History

Event Year Location INES Level Key Consequences

Chernobyl Disaster 1986 Ukraine (USSR) 7 (Maximum) 31 immediate deaths; 350,000+ evacuated; cancer increases acr

Fukushima Daiichi 2011 Japan 7 (Maximum) Triggered by tsunami; 154,000 evacuated; no direct radiation dea

Three Mile Island 1979 USA (Pennsylvania)

5 Partial meltdown; no direct deaths; psychological impact and loss

Windscale Fire 1957 UK 5 Reactor fire released radioactive iodine; contaminated milk in NW

Kyshtym Disaster 1957 USSR 6 Chemical explosion in nuclear waste tank; 70–80 tonnes radioac

SL-1 Accident 1961 USA (Idaho) 5 Steam explosion in experimental reactor; 3 workers killed; first US
INES = International Nuclear Event Scale (1–7)

4.6 Environmental & Health Risks

A. Health Effects of Radiation Exposure

Dose (mSv) Effect Source

0.1 Background radiation (annual average worldwide) Natural sources

1 Annual limit for general public (ICRP) Regulatory limit

20 Annual occupational limit for nuclear workers Regulatory limit

100 Threshold for early radiation symptoms Epidemiological data

 Dose (mSv) Effect Source

500 Blood changes detectable; nausea begins Acute exposure

1,000 Radiation sickness: vomiting, hair loss, fatigue Acute exposure

4,000–5,000 LD50 — 50% lethal dose without treatment Acute exposure

>6,000 Usually fatal without intensive medical care Acute exposure

B. Long-term Health Effects

• Cancer: Leukemia (appears 2–5 years post-exposure); solid tumors appear after 10–40 years
• Genetic effects: Mutations in DNA passed to offspring; increased stillbirths and birth defects
• Thyroid cancer: Particularly from I-131 exposure (iodine concentrates in thyroid gland)
• Cardiovascular disease: Evidence for elevated risk at doses >0.5 Sv
• Cataracts: Lens opacification threshold ~500 mGy (lowered by ICRP 2011)

C. Environmental Impacts
• Soil contamination: Cs-137 and Sr-90 persist in soil for 30+ years; enter food chains
• Water contamination: Tritium (H-3) and other isotopes leach into groundwater and rivers
• Bioaccumulation: Radioactive materials concentrate up food chains (biomagnification)
• Wildlife effects: Chernobyl exclusion zone shows reproductive failure, tumors, cataracts in animals
• Ocean contamination: Fukushima released estimated 80,000 terabecquerels into Pacific Ocean
• Nuclear waste: High-level waste remains hazardous for hundreds of thousands of years

4.7 Safety Regulations & Protective Measures

A. International Regulatory Framework

Organization/Treaty Year Role & Key Provisions

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

1957 UN body setting nuclear safety standards; INES scale; safeguards on nuclear materials; tec

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

1968 Prevent spread of nuclear weapons; 191 signatories; disarmament obligations

ICRP Recommendations 1928/2007 Dose limits: 1 mSv/yr (public), 20 mSv/yr (workers); ALARA principle

Convention on Nuclear Safety 1994 Binding obligations for safe design, operation of nuclear power plants

Joint Convention (Radioactive Waste)1997 Safe management of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

1996 Bans all nuclear weapon test explosions; monitoring network of 337 stations

EURATOM (European Atomic Energy1957

Community)
European framework for nuclear energy regulation and radiation protection

B. The ALARA Principle

ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) is the fundamental radiation protection principle. It requires
that radiation exposures be kept as far below dose limits as practicable, considering economic, social, and
technological factors. It is implemented through three methods:
• Time: Minimize time spent near radiation sources
• Distance: Maximize distance (dose ∝ 1/distance²) — doubling distance reduces dose by 75%
• Shielding: Use appropriate materials (paper for α, aluminium for β, lead/concrete for γ)

C. Nuclear Waste Management

Waste Category Examples Half-life Disposal Method

Low-Level Waste (LLW) Protective clothing, tools, air filters

Years–decades Near-surface disposal, concrete vaults

Intermediate-Level Waste (ILW)

Reactor components, sludges,Decades–centuries
resins Engineered repositories, 10–100m depth

High-Level Waste (HLW) Spent nuclear fuel, reprocessing

Thousands
waste of years Deep geological disposal (300–1000m)

Transuranic Waste Plutonium-contaminated material

Millennia Deep geological repositories (e.g., WIPP, USA)
 UNIT II — COMPREHENSIVE SUMMARY
Quick Reference Comparison of All Environmental Hazards

Aspect Global Warming Ozone Depletion Acid Rain Nuclear Hazards

Primary Cause CO■, CH■, N■O from fossil

CFCs,
fuelsHCFCs, Halons SO■ + NO■ from combustion
Radioactive materials, nuclear acciden

Key Chemistry Enhanced greenhouse effect

Cl• (IR
catalytic O■ destructionSO■/NO■ + H■O → H■SO■/HNO■
trapping) α, β, γ radiation; nuclear fission/decay

Main Effects Rising temperatures, sea level

UV penetration,
rise, extreme
skin
weather
cancer,
Lake
ecosystem
acidification,
damage
forest damage,
Cancer,building
genetic corrosion
mutation, environmen

Scale Global (atmospheric warming)

Global (mainly polar regions)
Regional (downwind transport
Local100s
to global
km) (fallout)

Key Indicator CO■ ppm (now >420 ppm)Ozone column (Dobson Units)
pH of rain (<5.6) Radiation dose (mSv/Sv)

International Treaty Paris Agreement (2015) Montreal Protocol (1987) CLRTAP (1979) NPT (1968), IAEA conventions

Mitigation Strategy Renewable energy, energyBan

efficiency,
ODS, useCCS
HFO alternatives
FGD scrubbers, catalytic converters
ALARA, deep geological waste dispos

Recovery Time Centuries (CO■ persistence)

Decades (ozone recovery by
Years–decades
2066) (if sourcesThousands
controlled) of years (HLW decay)

Current Status Worsening; 1.1°C above baseline

Improving; ozone layer recovering
Improved in developed countries
Ongoing risk from plants and waste

Unit II — Climate Change and Environmental Challenges | Comprehensive Study Notes with Diagrams