Sequential Circuit Design

• Steps in the design process for sequential circuits

• State Diagrams and State Tables Examples

• Steps in Design of a Sequential Circuit

o 1. Specification – A description of the sequential circuit. Should include a detailing of
the inputs, the outputs, and the operation. Possibly assumes that you have knowledge of
digital system basics.
o 2. Formulation: Generate a state diagram and/or a state table from the statement of the
problem.
o 3. State Assignment: From a state table assign binary codes to thestates.
o 4. Flip-flop Input Equation Generation: Select the type of flip-flop for the circuit and generate
the needed input for the required state transitions
o 5. Output Equation Generation: Derive output logic equations for generation of the
output from the inputs and current state.
o 6. Optimization: Optimize the input and output equations. Today, CAD systems are
typically used for this in real systems.
o 7. Technology Mapping: Generate a logic diagram of the circuit using ANDs, ORs,
Inverters, and F/Fs.
o 8. Verification: Use a HDL to verify the design

Registers and Counters

• An n-bit register is a cascade of n flip-flops and can store an n-bit binary data

• A counter can count occurrences of events and can generate timing intervals for control purposes
A Simple Shift Register
Parallel-Access Shift Register

Counters
• Counters are a specific type of sequential circuit.

• Like registers, the state, or the flip-flop values themselves, serves as the “output.”

• The output value increases by one on each clock cycle.

• After the largest value, the output “wraps around” back to 0.

• Using two bits, we’d get something like this:

 Present State Next State

A B A B

0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

Benefits of counters

• Counters can act as simple clocks to keep track of “time.” •

You may need to record how many times something has

happened.

– How many bits have been sent or received?

– How many steps have been performed in some computation?

• All processors contain a program counter, or PC.

– Programs consist of a list of instructions that are to be executed one after another (for the
most part).

– The PC keeps track of the instruction currently being executed.

– The PC increments once on each clock cycle, and the next program instruction is then
executed.
 A Three-Bit Up-Counter

Q1 is connected to clk, Q2 and Q3 are clocked by Q’ of the preceding stage (hence called
asynchronous or ripple counter

A Three-Bit Down-Counter
Shift registers:
In digital circuits, a shift register is a cascade of flip-flops sharing the same clock, in
which the output of each flip-flop is connected to the "data" input of the next flip-flop in the
chain, resulting in a circuit that shifts by one position the "bit array" stored in it, shifting in the
data present at its input and shifting out the last bit in the array, at each transition of the clock
input. More generally, a shift register may be multidimensional, such that its "data in" and stage
outputs are themselves bit arrays: this is implemented simply by running several shift registers of
the same bit-length in parallel.
Shift registers can have both parallel and serial inputs and outputs. These are often configured
as serial-in, parallel-out (SIPO) or as parallel-in, serial-out (PISO). There are also types that
have both serial and parallel input and types with serial and parallel output. There are also bi-
directional shift registers which allow shifting in both directions: L→R or R→L. The serial
input and last output of a shift register can also be connected to create a circular shift register
Shift registers are a type of logic circuits closely related to counters. They are basically for the
storage and transfer of digital data.
Buffer register:
The buffer register is the simple set of registers. It is simply stores the binary word. The buffer
may be controlled buffer. Most of the buffer registers used D Flip-flops.

Figure: logic diagram of 4-bit buffer register

The figure shows a 4-bit buffer register. The binary word to be stored is applied to the data
terminals. On the application of clock pulse, the output word becomes the same as the word
applied at the terminals. i.e., the input word is loaded into the register by the application of clock
pulse.
When the positive clock edge arrives, the stored word becomes:
Q4Q3Q2Q1=X4X3X2X1
Q=X
Controlled buffer register:
If goes LOW, all the FFs are RESET and the output becomes, Q=0000.
When is HIGH, the register is ready for action. LOAD is the control input. When
LOAD is HIGH, the data bits X can reach the D inputs of FF‘s.
Q4Q3Q2Q1=X4X3X2X1
Q=X
When load is low, the X bits cannot reach the FF‘s.
Data transmission in shift registers:

A number of ff‘s connected together such that data may be shifted into and shifted out of them is
called shift register. data may be shifted into or out of the register in serial form or in parallel
form. There are four basic types of shift registers.
1. Serial in, serial out, shift right, shift registers
2. Serial in, serial out, shift left, shift registers
3. Parallel in, serial out shift registers
4. Parallel in, parallel out shift registers
Serial IN, serial OUT, shift right, shift left register:

The logic diagram of 4-bit serial in serial out, right shift register with four stages. The register
can store four bits of data. Serial data is applied at the input D of the first FF. the Q output of the
first FF is connected to the D input of another FF. the data is outputted from the Q terminal of
the last FF.

When serial data is transferred into a register, each new bit is clocked into the first FF at the
positive going edge of each clock pulse. The bit that was previously stored by the first FF is
transferred to the second FF. the bit that was stored by the Second FF is transferred to the third
FF.

Serial-in, parallel-out, shift register:

In this type of register, the data bits are entered into the register serially, but the data stored in
the register is shifted out in parallel form.

Once the data bits are stored, each bit appears on its respective output line and all bits are
available simultaneously, rather than on a bit-by-bit basis with the serial output. The serial-in,
parallel out, shift register can be used as serial-in, serial out, shift register if the output is taken
from the Q terminal of the last FF.
Parallel-in, serial-out, shift register:

For a parallel-in, serial out, shift register, the data bits are entered simultaneously into their
respective stages on parallel lines, rather than on a bit-by-bit basis on one line as with serial data
bits are transferred out of the register serially. On a bit-by-bit basis over a single line.
There are four data lines A,B,C,D through which the data is entered into the register in
parallel form. The signal shift/ load allows the data to be entered in parallel form into the register
and the data is shifted out serially from terminalQ4

Parallel-in, parallel-out, shift register

In a parallel-in, parallel-out shift register, the data is entered into the register in parallel form,
and also the data is taken out of the register in parallel form. Data is applied to the D input
terminals of the FF‘s. When a clock pulse is applied, at the positive going edge of the pulse, the
D inputs are shifted into the Q outputs of the FFs. The register now stores the data. The stored
data is available instantaneously for shifting out in parallel form.
Bidirectional shift register:

A bidirectional shift register is one which the data bits can be shifted from left to right
or from right to left. A fig shows the logic diagram of a 4-bit serial-in, serial out, bidirectional
shift register. Right/left is the mode signal, when right /left is a 1, the logic circuit works as a
[Link] bidirectional operation is achieved by using the mode signal and two NAND
gates and one OR gate for each stage.

A HIGH on the right/left control input enables the AND gates G1, G2, G3 and G4 and
disables the AND gates G5,G6,G7 and G8, and the state of Q output of each FF is passed
through the gate to the D input of the following FF. when a clock pulse occurs, the data bits are
then effectively shifted one place to the right. A LOW on the right/left control inputs enables the
AND gates G5, G6, G7 and G8 and disables the And gates G1, G2, G3 and G4 and the Q output
of each FF is passed to the D input of the preceding FF. when a clock pulse occurs, the data bits
are then effectively shifted one place to the left. Hence, the circuit works as a bidirectional shift
register

Figure: logic diagram of a 4-bit bidirectional shift register

Universal shift register:

A register is capable of shifting in one direction only is a unidirectional shift register. One that
can shift both directions is a bidirectional shift register. If the register has both shifts and parallel
load capabilities, it is referred to as a universal shift registers. Universal shift register is a
bidirectional register, whose input can be either in serial form or in parallel form and whose
output also can be in serial form or I parallel form.
The most general shift register has the following capabilities.

1. A clear control to clear the register to 0

2. A clock input to synchronize the operations
3. A shift-right control to enable the shift-right operation and serial input and output lines
associated with the shift-right
 4. A shift-left control to enable the shift-left operation and serial input and output lines
associated with the shift-left
5. A parallel loads control to enable a parallel transfer and the n input lines associated with
the parallel transfer
6. N parallel output lines
7. A control state that leaves the information in the register unchanged in the presence of
the clock.

A universal shift register can be realized using multiplexers. The below fig shows the logic
diagram of a 4-bit universal shift register that has all capabilities. It consists of 4 D flip-flops and
four multiplexers. The four multiplexers have two common selection inputs s1 and s0. Input 0 in
each multiplexer is selected when S1S0=00, input 1 is selected when S1S0=01 and input 2 is
selected when S1S0=10 and input 4 is selected when S1S0=11. The selection inputs control the
mode of operation of the register according to the functions entries. When S1S0=0, the present
value of the register is applied to the D inputs of flip-flops. The condition forms a path from the
output of each flip-flop into the input of the same flip-flop. The next clock edge transfers into
each flip-flop the binary value it held previously, and no change of state occurs. When S1S0=01,
terminal 1 of the multiplexer inputs have a path to the D inputs of the flip-flop. This causes a
shift-right operation, with serial input transferred into flip-flopA4. When S1S0=10, a shift left
operation results with the other serial input going into flip-flop A1. Finally when S1S0=11, the
binary information on the parallel input lines is transferred into the register simultaneously
during the next clock cycle

Figure: logic diagram 4-bit universal shift register

Function table for theregister

mode control
S0 S1 register operation

0 0 No change
0 1 Shift Right
1 0 Shift left
1 1 Parallel load

Counters:

Counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times
particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal. A Digital counter
is a set of flip flops whose state change in response to pulses applied at the input to the counter.
Counters may be asynchronous counters or synchronous counters. Asynchronous counters are
also called ripple counters
In electronics counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type circuits such as
the flip-flops and a wide variety of classifications exist:

• Asynchronous (ripple) counter – changing state bits are used as clocks to subsequent state
flip-flops
• Synchronous counter – all state bits change under control of a singleclock
• Decade counter – counts through ten states per stage
• Up/down counter – counts both up and down, under command of a control input
• Ring counter – formed by a shift register with feedback connection in a ring
• Johnson counter – a twisted ring counter
Cascaded counter
Modulus counter.

Each is useful for different applications. Usually, counter circuits are digital in nature, and count
in natural binary Many types of counter circuits are available as digital building blocks, for
example a number of chips in the 4000 series implement different counters.
Occasionally there are advantages to using a counting sequence other than the natural binary
sequence such as the binary coded decimal counter, a linear feed-back shift register counter, or
a gray-code counter.
Counters are useful for digital clocks and timers, and in oven timers, VCR clocks, etc.
Asynchronous counters:

An asynchronous (ripple) counter is a single JK-type flip-flop, with its J (data) input fed
from its own inverted output. This circuit can store one bit, and hence can count from zero to one
before it overflows (starts over from 0). This counter will increment once for every clock cycle
and takes two clock cycles to overflow, so every cycle it will alternate between a transition from
0 to 1 and a transition from 1 to 0. Notice that this creates a new clock with a 50% duty cycle at
exactly half the frequency of the input clock. If this output is then used as the clock signal for a
similarly arranged D flip-flop (remembering to invert the output to the input), one will get
another 1 bit counter that counts half as fast. Putting them together yields a two-bit counter:

Two-bit ripple up-counter using negative edge triggered flip flop:

Two bit ripple counter used two flip-flops. There are four possible states from 2 – bit up-
counting I.e. 00, 01, 10 and 11.

· The counter is initially assumed to be at a state 00 where the outputs of the tow flip-flops
are noted as Q1Q0. Where Q1 forms the MSB and Q0 forms the LSB.

· For the negative edge of the first clock pulse, output of the first flip-flop FF1 toggles its
state. Thus Q1 remains at 0 and Q0 toggles to 1 and the counter state are now read as 01.

· During the next negative edge of the input clock pulse FF1 toggles and Q0 = 0. The output
Q0 being a clock signal for the second flip-flop FF2 and the present transition acts as a negative
edge for FF2 thus toggles its state Q1 = 1. The counter state is now read as 10.

· For the next negative edge of the input clock to FF1 output Q0 toggles to 1. But this
transition from 0 to 1 being a positive edge for FF2 output Q1 remains at 1. The counter state is
now read as 11.

· For the next negative edge of the input clock, Q0 toggles to 0. This transition from 1 to 0
acts as a negative edge clock for FF2 and its output Q1 toggles to 0. Thus the starting state 00 is
attained. Figure shown below
Two-bit ripple down-counter using negative edge triggered flip flop:

A 2-bit down-counter counts in the order 0,3,2,1,0,1…….,i.e, 00,11,10,01,00,11 …..,etc. the

above fig. shows ripple down counter, using negative edge triggered J-K FFs and its timing
diagram.
• For down counting, Q1‘ of FF1 is connected to the clock of Ff2. Let initially all the FF1
toggles, so, Q1 goes from a 0 to a 1 and Q1‘ goes from a 1 to a 0.
 • The negative-going signal at Q1‘ is applied to the clock input of FF2, toggles Ff2 and,
therefore, Q2 goes from a 0 to a [Link], after one clock pulse Q2=1 and Q1=1, I.e., the state
of the counter is 11.
• At the negative-going edge of the second clock pulse, Q1 changes from a 1 to a 0 and
Q1‘ from a 0 to a 1.
• This positive-going signal at Q1‘ does not affect FF2 and, therefore, Q2 remains at a 1.
Hence , the state of the counter after second clock pulse is 10
• At the negative going edge of the third clock pulse, FF1 toggles. So Q1, goes from a 0 to
a 1 and Q1‘ from 1 to 0. This negative going signal at Q1‘ toggles FF2 and, so, Q2
changes from 1 to 0, hence, the state of the counter after the third clock pulse is 01.
• At the negative going edge of the fourth clock pulse, FF1 toggles. So Q1, goes from a 1
to a 0 and Q1‘ from 0 to 1. . This positive going signal at Q1‘ does not affect FF2 and, so,
Q2 remains at 0, hence, the state of the counter after the fourth clock pulse is 00.

Two-bit ripple up-down counter using negative edge triggered flip flop:

Figure: asynchronous 2-bit ripple up-down counter using negative edge triggered flip flop:

• As the name indicates an up-down counter is a counter which can count both in upward
and downward directions. An up-down counter is also called a forward/backward counter
or a bidirectional counter. So, a control signal or a mode signal M is required to choose
the direction of count. When M=1 for up counting, Q1 is transmitted to clock of FF2 and
when M=0 for down counting, Q1‘ is transmitted to clock of FF2. This is achieved by
using two AND gates and one OR gates. The external clock signal is applied to FF1.
• Clock signal to FF2= ([Link])+(Q1‘. Down)= Q1m+Q1‘M‘

Design of Asynchronous counters:

To design a asynchronous counter, first we write the sequence , then tabulate the values of
reset signal R for various states of the counter and obtain the minimal expression for R and R‘
using K-Map or any other method. Provide a feedback such that R and R‘ resets all the FF‘s after
the desired count
 Design of a Mod-6 asynchronous counter using T FFs:
A mod-6 counter has six stable states 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, and 101. When the sixth
clock pulse is applied, the counter temporarily goes to 110 state, but immediately resets to 000
because of the feedback provided. it is ―divide by-6-counter‖, in the sense that it divides the
input clock frequency by [Link] requires three FFs, because the smallest value of n satisfying the
conditionN≤2n is n=3; three FFs can have 8 possible states, out of which only six are utilized and
the remaining two states 110and 111, are invalid. If initially the counter is in 000 state, then after
the sixth clock pulse, it goes to 001, after the second clock pulse, it goes to 010, and so on.

After sixth clock pulse it goes to 000. For the design, write the truth table with present state
outputs Q3, Q2 and Q1 as the variables, and reset R as the output and obtain an expression for R
in terms of Q3, Q2, and Q1that decides the feedback into be provided. From the truth table,
R=Q3Q2. For active-low Reset, R‘ is used. The reset pulse is of very short duration, of the order
of nanoseconds and it is equal to the propagation delay time of the NAND gate used. The
expression for R can also be determined as follows.

R=0 for 000 to 101, R=1 for 110, and R=X=for111

Therefore,
R=Q3Q2Q1‘+Q3Q2Q1=Q3Q2

The logic diagram and timing diagram of Mod-6 counter is shown in the above fig.

The truth table is as shown in below.

 After States
pulses Q3 Q2 Q1 R

0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 0
5 1 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 1

0 0 0 0
7 0 0 0 0

Design of a mod-10 asynchronous counter using T-flip-flops:

A mod-10 counter is a decade counter. It also called a BCD counter or a divide-by-10
counter. It requires four flip-flops (condition 10 ≤2n is n=4). So, there are 16 possible states, out
of which ten are valid and remaining six are invalid. The counter has ten stable state, 0000
through 1001, i.e., it counts from 0 to 9. The initial state is 0000 and after nine clock pulses it
goes to 1001. When the tenth clock pulse is applied, the counter goes to state 1010 temporarily,
but because of the feedback provided, it resets to initial state 0000. So, there will be a glitch in
the waveform of Q2. The state 1010 is a temporary state for which the reset signal R=1, R=0 for
0000 to 1001, and R=C for 1011 to 1111.

The count table and the K-Map for reset are shown in fig. from the K-Map R=Q4Q2. So,
feedback is provided from second and fourth FFs. For active –HIGH reset, Q4Q2 is applied to
the clear terminal. For active-LOW reset 4 2 is connected isof all Flip=flops.
 After Count
pulses Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 0 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 0 1 0 1
10 0 0 0 0

Synchronous counters:

Asynchronous counters are serial counters. They are slow because each FF can change state
only if all the preceding FFs have changed their state. if the clock frequency is very high, the
asynchronous counter may skip some of the states. This problem is overcome in synchronous
counters or parallel counters. Synchronous counters are counters in which all the flip flops are
triggered simultaneously by the clock pulses Synchronous counters have a common clock pulse
applied simultaneously to all flip- -Bit Synchronous Binary Counter

Design of synchronous counters:

For a systematic design of synchronous counters. The following procedure is used.

Step 1:State Diagram: draw the state diagram showing all the possible states state diagram which
also be called nth transition diagrams, is a graphical means of depicting the sequence of states
through which the counter progresses.

Step2: number of flip-flops: based on the description of the problem, determine the required
number n of the flip-flops- the smallest value of n is such that the number of states N≤2n--- and
the desired counting sequence.

Step3: choice of flip-flops excitation table: select the type of flip-flop to be used and write the
excitation table. An excitation table is a table that lists the present state (ps) , the next state(ns)
and required excitations.