Light & Rays
Reflection: It is the phenomenon whereby the light falling on boundary separating two media is sent back into the
first media.
The incoming ray is the incident ray, the outgoing ray is the reflected ray, and the line at right-angles to the
mirror’s surface is called a normal.
The laws of reflection:
The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
To illustrate the laws of reflection
Apparatus: Ray box, strip of plane mirror, protractor, piece of paper.
Fig: Laws of reflection
Procedure: 1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
2. Vary the angle of incidence i and measure the angle of reflection r.
3. Compare the values of i and r.
Observation: For each value of incidence angle i the corresponding value of angle r is the same.
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To find the position and characteristics of an image formed by a plane mirror.
Apparatus: Plane mirror, three pins, graph paper, wooden holder.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
2. Observe the image formed.
3. Count the number of squares between the pins and the mirror as well as between the images and the
mirror to find the distance d1 and d2 respectively. Compare these two distances.
Properties of Image on a Plane Mirror
(a) It is of the same size of the object.
(b) It is laterally inverted (left-to-right inversion).
(c) It is upright.
(d) It is virtual.(A virtual image can’t be projected onto a screen because light rays don’t meet actually at the
image position )
(e) It is at position as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.(d 1=d2)
Ray diagrams for plane mirrors:
Step-1: Locate the image behind the mirror.
Equidistant and perpendicular to the mirror.
Image size must be the same as object size.
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Step-2: Join the image to the eye by two light rays.
Virtual rays behind the mirror (dotted lines).
Real rays in front of the mirror (solid lines).
Step-3: Draw the incident rays by means of the refracted rays.
Don’t forget to draw the arrowheads on the solid lines to indicate the direction of light rays.
Refraction: Refraction is the bending of light when it enters a medium.
Laws of refraction
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1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.
Constant (Snell’s law)
To demonstrate Refraction (bending) of light through a piece of glass block/semicircular glass block):
Apparatus: Rectangular glass block with one face frosted, tow ray boxes, piece of paper.
Procedure
Place the glass block on a piece of paper with frosted side down.
Send two narrow rays of light through the glass block as shown in the figure.
Observe the paths of two rays of light.
Vary the angle of incidence i and measure the angle of refraction r.
Observations
1. The ray of light from ray box 1 passes straight through the glass block and out into the air.
2. The ray of light from ray box 2 bends towards the normal as it passes in through the glass block, i.e angle
of incidence i is larger than angle of refraction r.
3. The light ray bends away from the normal as it passes out through the glass block into the air again
Based on the observations, the following conclusions can be made.
(a) From less dense to denser medium.
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Light is refracted towards the normal.
(b)From denser to less dense medium.
Light is refracted away from the medium.
(c) Along the normal.
No deviation of ray even there is a change of medium.
(Refraction is due to the different speed of light as it travels from one medium to another medium)
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.
Constant
Relation between angle of incidence i and angle of refraction
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Refractive Index: In Snell’s law, the constant is called the Refractive Index, , of the medium if the light ray
travels from vacuum (or simply air) to the medium.
; is Refractive Index.
Alternatively the refractive index of a medium can also be defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
the speed of light in that medium.
; Where Refractive Index
c=speed of light in the vacuum (or air)
v=speed of light in the medium
Also, ; where u=actual depth, v= apparent depth.
Swimming pool appears shallower than real it is.
Critical Angle: The angle of incidence in the optically dense medium for which the angle of refraction in the less
dense medium is 900.
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Total Internal Reflection: When light travels from an optically more dense medium to an optically less dense
medium and the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, light is reflected back into the optically
denser medium. This is known as total internal reflection.
Total reflection take place only when
The ray of light passes from a denser medium to a less dense medium.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle.
Reflectors
Light entering prisms in the Figure (a) undergoes total internal reflection twice. It emerges from the prism
travelling back in the direction from which it originally came. This arrangement used in bicycle reflectors and
binoculars.
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Optical fiber
One of the most important applications for total internal reflection is the optical fiber. This is very thin strand
composed of two different types of glass.
The central core of optically dense glass (high refractive index).
A “cladding” or “coat” of optically less dense glass or plastic around the core.
As the fibre is very narrow, light entering the inner core always strikes the boundary of two glasses at an angle
that is greater than the critical angle. No light escapes across this boundary. The fibre therefore acts as “light pipe”
providing a path that the light follows even the fiber is curved.
Large numbers of these fibres fixed together form a bundle. Bundles can carry sufficient light for images of
objects to be seen through them. If the fibers are trapped it is also possible to produce a magnified image.
Advantages
Optical fibers can carry much more information than copper wires.
They are also lighter and cheaper than copper wire.
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Lens
Converging (Convex) Lens: A lens which is thicker at the centre than at the edges is called converging (Convex)
lens.
Diverging (Concave) Lens: A lens which is thinner at the centre than at the edges is called diverging (Concave)
lens.
Principal focus:When rays of light incident on the lens parallel to the principal axis of a lens, the rays are found
to converge at a point (converging/convex lens) or appear to diverge from a point (diverging/concave) on the
principal axis. This converging or diverging point on the principal axis is called the principal focus.
It is commonly referred as focal point.
The optical centre: This is the point on the principal axis through which light will pass without any deviation.
For a symmetrical biconcave lens this is the point midway between the lens surfaces on principal axis. In the
above figures C is the optical centre.
The principal axis: This is the line passing symmetrically through the optical centre of the lens.
The focal length: This is the distance between optical centre and principal focus.
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The focal plane: This is the plane which passes through principal focus. The focal plane is perpendicular to the
principal axis.
CONSTRUCTION OF RAY DIAGRAMS
Construction rules:
(1) Rays parallel to the principal axis are refracted through F.
(2) Rays passing through F are refracted parallel to the principal axis.
(3) Rays passing through C are undeviated.
rule (1) rule (2) rule (3)
Note: (i) Any two of the rules are enough for locating the image.
(ii) The intersection of the refracted rays gives the position of the image.
Diverging (Concave) lens
For diverging lens image always inverted, virtual and diminished.
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Linear Magnification: Linear magnification is defined as
where image height & object height or where, u= object distance & v=image distance
The Lens Camera
The slide projector
A projector essentially uses a convex lens to form on screen a real, magnified and inverted image of the slide. The
, being the object is positioned between f and 2f from the lens.
Photographic enlarger: The working principle is same as that of slide projector.
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Short-sighted person: A short-sighted person can see nearby objects clearly. They cannot see distant object
clearly. This is because her eyeball is too long or her eye-lens is too strong. This means rays of light from a
distant object focused in front of her retina.
This can be corrected with a concave (diverging) lens. Such a lens has a negative power.
Long Sight: A long-sighted person can see distant objects clearly. The cannot see nearby objects clearly.
This can be corrected with a convex (converging) lens. Such a lens has a positive power.
This is because her eyeball is too short or her eye-lens is too weak. This means rays of light from a close object
focused in behind of her retina.
The person should wear a convex lens
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
Some common properties of Electromagnetic spectrum
They can travel through vacuum at a speed of
They are transverse wave.
They transfer energy. Source losses energy when it radiates electromagnetic waves.
They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
The wave equation is applicable to all those waves.
Their frequencies don’t change when they enter from one medium to another medium.
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