24.

Introductory Electronics
Thermionic emission

In metal, the atom has a few loosely-bound outer electrons which move randomly through the material as
a whole. We sometime call these ‘free electrons’ because they can move freely through the metal. An
electron traveling outwards on the surface can not escape because it is held back by the attractive forces of
the atomic nuclei.

Fig: The find filament for producing electrons

When a metal is heated, however, some of the electrons may gain energy to escape from the surface of
the metal. This effect is known as thermionic emission.

Deflection of electron beam by electric field

An electric field can be set up by applying a potential difference across two parallel metal plates placed
horizontally some distance apart.

When an electron beam passes between the two plates, it can be observed that the electrons are deflected
towards the positive plate, the reason being that electrons are attracted by the positive charges, on the
positive plate and repelled by the negative charges on the negative plate.

Fig: Deflection of electron beam in an electric filed.

It is also found that the greater the electric filed strength, the greater would be the degree of deflection of
the electron beam.

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Deflection of electron beam by magnetic field

A magnetic field is applied at right angles to the beam of electron by having two poles of magnet placed.
It can be observed that the electron beam is deflected by the magnetic field. Since electrons are negative,
the beam of electrons would be equivalent to a positive or conventional current in opposite direction.

Fig: Deflection of electron beam in a magnetic filed

And if we apply Fleming’s left hand rule by considering the direction of conventional current, we will
find that in this case the deflection must be downwards.

C.R.O (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)

 A C.R.O uses a cathode-ray tube: an electron gun sends electron through the vacuum to a
fluorescent screen and light spot appears on the screen.

 A C.R.O consists of three main parts. They are electron gun, deflecting system and fluorescent
screen.

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  The table shown summaries the function of different parts of C.R.O.

Component Name Function

F filament heating up cathode

C cathode emitting electrons by thermionic emission

G grid brightness control by controlling amount of electrons passing

A1, A2 anode (i) focusing of electron beam

(ii) accelerating electron beam

Y1, Y2 Y-plate deflection of electron beam in the vertical direction

X1, X2 X-plate with time base, they make light spot sweep across the screen

S Fluorescent screen display of wave form

 Y-gain setting indicates the voltage applied in order to deflect the beam by 1 cm on the screen in
the vertical direction.

 Time base setting indicates time needed for the light spot to sweep through 1 cm on the screen in
the horizontal direction.

For continuous flow of electron requires

High positive potential :

a) High positive potential is needed otherwise there will be less amount electrons will be emitted

b) Electron emission will be discrete not continuous.

Low gas pressure: If the gas pressure is high, electron will go back.

Measuring the voltages

1. Since the vertical deflection of the light spot(trace) is proportional to the voltage applied across the
Y-plates , the C.R.O can be used as voltmeter.

2. It can measure both a.c and d.c voltages. It measures the peak voltage of a.c input signal.

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Example-1

A C.R.O shows a trace of d.c voltage as in the following diagram. The time base setting is 20cm/s and the
Y-gain setting is 5V/cm. Find the input voltage.

Solution: Amplitude of the waveform is 3 cm. So the voltage gain = (3)(5)=15 V

The waveform corresponds to + 15 V d.c input voltage.

Example-2:

When an a.c voltage is connected to the Y-gain of the C.R.O, a waveform as shown below displayed on
the screen. The time-base setting is 5cm/s and Y-gain is setting is 3V/cm. Find the input voltage.

Solution:

Amplitude of the waveform is 2 cm.

So the input voltage is (3)(2)=6V

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Colour and code number of resistor

 The first two bands indicate the resistance of the first two numbers.

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  The third number gives the multipliers.

 The fourth number gives the tolerance of the resistor.

 The tolerance of gold is 5% , silver 10% , No band 20%

 To remember the colour codes, colours and identification number, the following sentence may
be used.

B B R O Y G OOD BOY VERY GOOD WORKER

Example Let 1st, 2nd and third bands of a resistor are brown, red and orange. The 4th band is not graduated
on the resistor. Find the resistance.

Resistance = 12 ×103 ± 20%Ώ

Power rating

One of the important considerations for the usage of resistor is power rating. The power rating of a
resistor is the maximum rate of dissipation of electrical energy as heat before it is damaged. A
power rating of .025 W to 1W is normally suitable for the use in most circuits.

Thermistor

 High resistance in cold and low resistance in when hot.

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 ● In electronic circuits which detect temperature change-for example, in fire alarms.
The Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)

• It is a semi-conductor.
• High resistance in dark and low resistance in light .
• In the dark room its resistance is maximum (10 M Q).
• In sunlight its resistance is only 10 Q

Uses
 It can be used as a photographer's light-meter.
 The same circuit can be used to alter the aperture in automatic cameras.
 In electronic circuit which switch on lights automatically.

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Potential divider (Voltage divider)

A battery provides a fixed e.m.f or voltage. For example, a 6 V battery provides 6 voltage but
sometime we need variable voltage. To do this we use potential divider.
The fixed voltage of the battery is applied across the full length of the wire AB.

Fig: potential divider

V1 =

When a rheostat is used like this, it is called potentiometer. Potentiometer is used to control
volume and tone in radio, TV etc

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The Capacitor

The capacitor is designed to store electric charge (and hence electrical energy) temporarily.

The energy is stored as an electric field between two plates.

The space between two plates is filled with an insulator, so current can’t flow through a
capacitor.

It is only stored for a fraction of second, but warned that a large capacitor can hold on for
many days to quantities of electricity that can kill.

Capacitor as charge store

When a parallel plate capacitor is connected to a battery, there is a momentary flow of current. Electrons
are being drawn from A by positive terminal and deposited on B by the action of negative terminals of the
battery. After a very short time, the potentials of A and B become equal to those of the positive and
negative terminals of the battery.

The potential difference across the capacitor is now equal to that across the battery and oppositely
directed to it, so there is no further flow of current. The capacitor is said to be fully charged.

Discharging a capacitor

Now if the charged capacitor is connected is connected to a 12 V lamp. Then when the switch is closed,
the lamp will have 12 V p.d across it and it will be lit with maximum brightness as the current flows out
of the capacitor.

Fig. Discharging of a capacitor

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But the voltage of the capacitor will steadily drop and the lamp will get dimmer and dimmer until the
current drop completely.

Time delay circuit

The capacitor can be used in a time-delay circuit.

In this circuit, when the switch is closed, the p.d across the capacitor C will increase from zero. If the
output is connected to an output transducer, such as relay, that operates when output voltage is say 3 V,
then there will be a time delay between the switch closing and relay operating. This delay could be a
fraction of seconds or many minutes, depending on the resistance R 1 and capacitor C. For a long delay R 1
should have high value and a large capacitor (to make it charge up more slowly).

A resistor R2 may be added so that p.d across the output is returned to zero when the switch is opened. R 2
must have resistance or the capacitor will never be able to charge up(because the current would just flow
through R2 instead).

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The reed relay

A reed switch is basically a pair of soft iron (or nickel-iron alloys) strips known as reeds, housed
in a glass tube.

There is a small gap between the reeds, movement of reeds will make or break contact for
electrical switching.

The glass tube, which contains inert gas atmospheric pressure, protects the reeds from
contamination or oxidization.

The reed switch is kept inside a coil and a small current in the coil can switch on large current in
the reed switch.

25. Electronic system

Bipolar Transistor This is a device for amplifying small electric currents. It is made of three layers of N,
P, and N semiconductor material. The three layers are called collector, base and emitter.

The following figure shows a NPN transistor. The arrowhead indicates the conventional current flow. It
points from base to emitter means base is positive with respect to emitter.

Fig. NPN Bipolar transistor

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Emitter: It forms the left hand section of region of the transistor. It is more heavily doped than any other
regions because its main function is to supply majority charge carriers to the base.

Base: It forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very thin as compared to the emitter or collector
and is very lightly doped.

Collector: It forms the right hand side section of the transistor and its main function is to collect majority
charge carriers through base. It is physically larger than others because it has to dissipate much larger
power.

Current amplifier

A transistor acts as an amplifier. In the following circuit a current of about 1 mA in the base circuit has
switched on a current about 60 mA in the collector circuit, so bulb L2 lights up.

A fire alarm

A thermistor and a variable resistor are connected to transistor switch as shown in the figure. As the
thermistor gets hotter its resistance decreases and its share of 6 V decreases so the voltage across the
variable resistor increases. This increase Vbe and switch on the transistor.

If Vbe is less than 0.6V, the transistor is switched off.

If Vbe is rises above 0.6 V, the transistor starts to conduct.

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 If Vbe is above 1.5 V, the transistor is fully on.

Light sensor: Similarly a LDR can be added with transistor.

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The following table summarizes the symbol, truth table, and the action of all 5 logic gates listed above .

Combination of logic gates

1. Logic gates can be combined together and the whole system is equivalent to another logic gate.

2. The following are two examples of logic gates.

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