ROUTING

• Routing is the process of selecting path through which a packet moves

• Routers store the routes to all known paths in the routing table .

• Routing table is used to select the best possible route to which the data is transferred.

• A default gateway is a router that hosts use to communicate with other hosts on remote
networks.

• A default gateway is used when a host doesn’t have a route entry for the specific remote
network and doesn’t know how to reach that network.
 ROUTING
• Each router stores the routing table in its RAM.

• Each routing table consists of the following entries:

network destination and subnet mask – specifies a range of IP addresses.

remote router – IP address of the router used to reach that network.
outgoing interface – outgoing interface the packet should go out to reach the destination
network.

• There are three different methods for populating a routing table:

directly connected subnets
using static routing
using dynamic routing
 ROUTING

• To view a routers routing table the cli command is show ip route

 ROUTING

• The codes section denotes all the protocols available using which the router can learn a
route.

• L (local) code denote routes to ip address configured on the interface

• C (connected) code denotes the route to the network the interface is connected to.

• When an ip address is configured on an interface and a no shutdown command is

executed then 2 routes (a connected route and a local route) per interface will
automatically be added to the routing table.

• L and C are not static or dynamic in nature.

 ROUTING

Connected Routes

• Cisco routers automatically add a route to their routing tables for the subnet connected
to each interface, assuming that the following two conditions are satisfied:

• The interface is in a working state, meaning, the interface status in the ‘show
interfaces’ command lists a line status of up and protocol status of up.

• The interface has an IP address assigned through the ‘ip address’ interface
subcommand.
 ROUTING

Local Routes

• Local routes are produced automatically in the routing table by a router starting IOS 15 to define a route
for that one specific IP address configured on the router interface.

• Each local route has a /32 prefix length wherein the host route is defined specifically for that one IP
address.

• Routers use these local routes that specify their own local IP addresses to efficiently forward packets sent
to the router itself.
 ROUTING

• L = network address ( it is a /32 address hence all 32 bits are fixed and cant be changed)

• C = default gateway.(it is a /24 address , hence only the host address can be changed.

• A route matches a packets destination if the packets destination IP address is a part of the network specified in the route

• To make the routing decision, the router must first build a table which contains all the best routes. When the packets
arrive, the router just needs to check this table to choose the best match.

• The router chooses the best path in the routing table based on this single rule: Longest Prefix Matching Rule

• Consider a router to be connected to multiple route with IP ranging from [Link]/27 , [Link]/26 ,
[Link]/25

• The router first will check for availability of the requested IP in [Link]/27 as this network has longest prefix

• If the network is not available in the above then it will go to the next value [Link]/26 etc.
 ROUTING (AD and MV)

• If the router encounters two protocols delivering the same destination to the router then it uses the
concepts known as the Administrative Distance (AD) and Metric Value (MV).

• Administrative distance is the first criterion that a router uses to determine which routing protocol
to use if two protocols provide route information for the same destination.

• The smaller the administrative distance value, the more reliable the protocol.

• For example, if a router receives a route to a certain network from both Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) (default administrative distance - 110) and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(EIGRP) (default administrative distance - 90), the router chooses EIGRP because EIGRP is more
reliable. This means the router adds the EIGRP version of the route to the routing table.
 ROUTING (AD and MV)

• The default AD for the various protocols are as shown below

ROUTING PROTOCOL ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCE

Directly Connected 0
Static Route 1
Internal EIGRP 90
OSPF 110
RIP 120
External EIGRP 170
Unknown 255
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS

• There are instances in which a routing protocol discovers many routes to the same destination.

• For the routing protocol to select the optimal path, it must be able to analyze and differentiate amongst
the available paths. This is achieved with the use of routing metrics.

• A metric is a quantitative value assigned to different routes by the routing protocol based on the
usefulness of that route.

• In instances where numerous paths exist to the same remote network, routing metrics are used to
calculate the "cost" of a path from source to destination.

• Routing protocols find the optimal path based on the least expensive route.

• Various routing protocols employ distinct metrics. One routing protocol's metric cannot be compared to
the metric of another routing protocol. Two distinct routing protocols may select distinct routes to the
same destination
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS (METRICS)
• Reliability:

Reliability is a metric factor that may be given a constant value. Its value is dynamically measured and is
dependent on the network links. Some networks experience outages more frequently than others. Some
network links are easier to repair than others after a network breakdown. Any dependability element may be
considered when assigning reliability ratings, which are typically issued by the system administrator as
numeric values.

• Delay:

The amount of time a router needs to process, queue, and transmit a datagram to an interface. This measure is
used by the protocols to determine the delay values for all links along the end-to-end path. The route with the
lowest delay value will be considered the optimal route.

• Hop count:

Hop count is a measure that specifies the number of internetworking devices, such as a router, through which
a packet must pass in order to go from source to destination. If the hop is considered a major metric value by
the routing protocol, then the path with the fewest hops will be deemed the optimal way from source to
destination.
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS (METRICS)
• Load:

Load is the degree to which a network resource, such as a router or network link, is utilized. A load can be
determined in numerous ways, including CPU use and packets processed per second. If the volume of traffic
increases, so will the load value. The load value adapts to the fluctuating volume of traffic.

• Bandwidth:

The capacity of the link is referred to as its bandwidth. The bandwidth is quantified in bits per second. The
connection with a higher transfer rate, such as gigabit, is chosen over the connection with a smaller capacity,
such as 56 kb. The protocol will assess the bandwidth capacity of each link along the route, and the route
with the highest bandwidth will be deemed the optimal one.
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS (COMPARISONS)

• Implementation and maintenance:

Implementation and maintenance describe the level of knowledge necessary for a network
administrator to install and maintain the network by the routing protocol adopted.

• Speed of convergence:

The speed of convergence is the rate at which the routers in a network architecture share routing
information and attain a state of consistent knowledge. The more rapidly a protocol converges, the
more desirable it is. When inconsistent routing tables are not updated due to poor convergence in a
dynamic network, routing loops can arise.

• Classful vs Classless:
Classful routing protocols do not include the subnet mask and cannot support variable-length
subnet mask (VLSM). Updates for classless routing protocols include the subnet mask. Classless
routing techniques support VLSM and provide for improved route summarization.
 ROUTING PROTOCOLS (COMPARISONS)

• Scalability:

Scalability defines the maximum size of a network based on the deployed routing system. The
routing protocol must be more scalable as the network size increases.

• Resource usage:

Resource usage consists of the requirements of a routing protocol, including memory space
(RAM), CPU utilization, and link bandwidth usage. In addition to packet forwarding activities, the
operation of the routing protocol necessitates more robust hardware due to its increased resource
demands.
 ROUTING (AD and MV)

• If a router learns two different paths for the same network from the same routing protocol, it has to decide
which route is better and will be placed in the routing table.

• Metric is the measure used to decide which route is better (a lower number is better).

• Each routing protocol uses its own metric. For example, RIP uses hop counts as a metric, while OSPF uses
cost.

ROUTING PROTOCOL METRIC

RIP Hop Count
EIGRP Bandwidth , Delay
OSPF Cost
 ROUTING
• Static Routing is also known as non-adaptive routing which doesn’t change the routing table
unless the network administrator changes or modifies them manually.

• Static routing does not use complex routing algorithms and It provides higher or more security than
dynamic routing.

• Command for creating static route :

R1(config)#ip route (ip address) (subnet mask) (next hop)

Advantages of Static Routing

• No routing overhead for the router CPU which means a cheaper router can be used to do routing.

• It adds security because only an only administrator can allow routing to particular networks only.
 ROUTING
Disadvantage of Static Routing
• For a large network, it is a hectic task for administrators to manually add each route for
the network in therouting table on each router.

• The administrator should have good knowledge of the topology. If a new administrator
comes, then he has to manually add each route so he should have very good knowledge
of the routes of the topology.
 ROUTING

• Dynamic routing is also known as adaptive routing which changes the routing table
according to the change in topology.

• Dynamic routing uses complex routing algorithms and it does not provide high security
like static routing.

• When the network change(topology) occurs, it sends the message to the router to ensure
that changes then the routes are recalculated for sending updated routing information.

• The most common types of dynamic protocols are :

1. RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
2. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
3. EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Routing Gateway Protocols)
 ROUTING

Advantages of Dynamic Routing

• Easy to configure.

• More effective at selecting the best route to a destination remote network and also for
discovering remote networks.

Disadvantage of Dynamic Routing

• Consumes more bandwidth for communicating with other neighbors.

• Less secure than static routing.

 VLAN (Multi layer switches)

• A multi layer switch is capable of both switching and routing

• It is capable of accessing layer 3 (i.e: IP address accessible)

• IP addresses can be assigned to its interfaces like a router

• Vlan can be assigned virtual interfaces and ip addresses can be also assigned for them.

• Routes can be configured on it.

• It can be used for inter vlan routing using switch virtual interfaces (SVI)
 VLAN (Multi layer switches)

• A multi layer switch is capable of both switching and routing

• It is capable of accessing layer 3 (i.e: IP address accessible)

• IP addresses can be assigned to its interfaces like a router

• Vlan can be assigned virtual interfaces and ip addresses can be also assigned for them.

• Routes can be configured on it.

• It can be used for inter vlan routing using switch virtual interfaces (SVI)
 VLAN (Multi layer switches)

• Switch Virtual Interfaces (SVI) are virtual interfaces to which we can assign IP
addresses in a multi port switch.

• The pc can be configured to use SVI as default gateway rather than the router.
 VLAN (Multi layer switches)

• Consider the connection below

R1
• When a msg is sent from pc4 in vlan 20 to pc 1 in vlan 10
PC 1 it first goes to switch 2.
PC 5
• The sw2 is a multi layer switch capable of routing on its
sw2 own as it has its own routing table

Vlan 10 Vlan 10 • The sw2 sends the data to sw1 rather than to the router.
SW1
• Sw1 then sends the data to PC 1
PC 6
• If data is send outside the vlan to a router then the sw2 to
PC2 r1 connection is maintained like a router to router
PC 3 PC 4 connection .
Vlan 20
 WIRELESS LAN

• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), also known as a Wireless LAN, is a network comprising two or
more computing devices that communicate through radio waves without the need for physical connections

• A WLAN transmits information over radio waves. Information is sent in packets.

• The packets contain layers with labels and instructions that work along with unique MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses assigned to endpoints to enable routing to intended locations.

• Wireless is half-duplex since we are sending and receiving on the same frequency.

• This means we can get collisions if we use wireless networks, but it’s rather hard to detect whether there
have been two wireless signals that bumped into each other somewhere in the air.

• We have a protocol that deals with this called CSMA/CA, which stands for Carrier Sense Multi Access /
Collision Avoidance.
 WIRELESS LAN
A WLAN can be configured in one of two ways:

Infrastructure:

• A home or office Wi-Fi network is an example of a WLAN set up in infrastructure [Link] endpoints
are all connected, and they communicate with each other through a base station, which may also provide
internet access.A basic infrastructure WLAN can be set up with just a few parts: a wireless router, which
acts as the base station, and endpoints. Endpoints can be computers, mobile devices, printers, or other
devices. In most cases, the wireless router is also the internet connection.

Ad hoc:

• In this setup, a WLAN connects endpoints such as computer workstations and mobile devices without the
use of a base station. Wi-Fi Direct technology is commonly used for an ad hoc wireless network. An ad
hoc WLAN is easy to set up and can provide basic peer-to-peer (P2P) [Link] ad hoc WLAN
needs only two or more endpoints with built-in radio transmission, such as computers or mobile devices.
After adjusting network settings for ad hoc mode, one user initiates the network and becomes visible to
the others.
 WIRELESS LAN (MAJOR DRAWBACKS)
• Coverage:

You’ll need to think about the placement of access points and the frequencies you are going to use to get
optimal coverage. Different materials will affect your signal. Implementing a wireless network in a large
open room is easier than installing one on a yacht which is one huge metal cage.

• Interference:

There’s so much going on on the 2.4 and 5 GHz frequencies that you will get interference, weakening
your signal quality.

• Privacy:

Our data “flies around in the air” which means we have no way of securing our physical layer, we need
to make sure we have strong authentication and encryption.

• Regulations: Each country has regulations you have to deal with. Think about signal strength, allowed
frequencies and so on.
 WIRELESS LAN (IEEE 802.11)
• The 802.11 standards are defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) communication in various frequency bands.

• These standards include several versions, each providing improvements in speed, range, and efficiency.

Wireless Market Segments & Partners

Wireless Internetworking
Overview

Residential/ Fixed Mobile

Premise/ Campus
Broadband Multiservice
2G+ 3G
IEEE BLUE Cellular Cellular
802.11 TOOTH

MMDS Data Packet

LMDS
Services Data/Voice
Cisco/
Bosch GPRS UMTS
Mobile IP
 WIRELESS LAN (IEEE 802.11)

• Wireless networks are standardized by IEEE.

• Under 802 LAN MAN standards committee.

Application
Presentation
ISO
OSI Session IEEE 802
7-layer Transport standards
model Network Logical Link Control
Data Link Medium Access (MAC)

Physical Physical (PHY)

 WIRELESS LAN (Applications)

Four application areas for wireless LANs:

a. LAN extension
b. Cross-building interconnect
c. Nomadic access and
d. Ad hoc networks
 WIRELESS LAN (Applications – LAN Extension)

• Wireless LAN saves installation of LAN cabling, eases relocation and other
modifications to network structure
• But this motivation for wireless LANs was overtaken by events like greater
awareness of the need for LANs
• Also new buildings were designed to include extensive prewiring for data
applications.
• Second, with advances in data transmission technology, there was an increasing
reliance on twisted pair cabling for LANs and, in particular, Category 3 and Category
5 UTP.
 WIRELESS LAN (Applications – LAN Extension)

• Reasons for increasing reliance on twisted pair cabling for LANs are:
• Most older buildings already wired with Cat 3 cable
• Newer buildings are prewired with Cat 5

• Wireless LAN to replace wired LANs has not happened to any great extent.

•Wireless LAN is an alternative to a wired LAN.

Examples include
Buildings with large open areas
Manufacturing plants, stock exchange trading floors, Warehouses
Historical buildings
Small offices where wired LANs are not economical
 WIRELESS LAN (Applications)

2) CROSS BUILDING INTERCONNECT

• Connect LANs in nearby buildings
• Point-to-point wireless link used b/w buildings
• Connect bridges or routers
• Not a LAN as such but usual to include this application under heading of wireless LAN

3) NOMADIC ACCESS
• Provides wireless link between LAN hub and mobile data terminal like
• Laptop or notepad computer &
• Enable employee returning from trip to transfer data from portable computer to server

• Also useful in extended environment such as campus or cluster of buildings

• Users move around with portable computers &
• May wish access to servers on wired LAN
 WIRELESS LAN (Applications)

• Ad Hoc Network is a peer-to-peer network

• Set up temporarily to meet some immediate need

WIRELESS LAN (Single Cell Config – SOHO or Basic Service Set)
 WIRELESS LAN (Single Cell Config - SOHO)

A single cell configuration contain 2 major components :

1. Backbone wired LAN

2. Control Module(CM) – interfaces to wireless LAN.

• bridge or router to link wireless to wired

• polling or token passing scheme

• some of the end systems are standalone devices, such as a workstation or a

server.

• Hubs or other user modules (UMs) that control a number of stations outside a
wired LAN
WIRELESS LAN (Multi Cell Config – Enterprise or Extended Service Set)

• Each CM supports a number of wireless

end systems within its range.

• Application is in Infrared LANs txns.

limited to single rooms.

• One CM in each room is required.

WIRELESS LAN (Nomadic Access)
 WIRELESS LAN (Requirements)

• Throughput: make efficient use of wireless medium for max. throughput

• Number of nodes: should support hundreds of nodes across multiple cells
• Connection to backbone LAN: Use control modules to connect to both types of LANs (wired and
wireless)
• Service area: 100 to 300 m
• Low power consumption: Need long battery life on mobile stations
• Transmission robustness and security:Interference prone and easily eavesdropped. So design properly.
• Collocated network operation:Two or more wireless LANs in same area
• License-free operation
• Handoff/roaming: Move from one cell to another
• Dynamic configuration: Addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems without disruption to users
 WIRELESS LAN (Technology)

• Infrared (IR) LANs: Individual cell of IR LAN limited to single room

• Spread spectrum LANs: Mostly operate in ISM (industrial, scientific, and medical)
frequency bands

• Narrowband microwave: Microwave frequencies but not use spread spectrum

 WIRELESS LAN (IR)
Infrared offers a number of significant advantages over microwave radio approaches.
1. Unlimited Spectrum for infrared, so extremely high data rates, but microwave radio spectrum
is limited.
2. Unregulated Spectrum (free, loose, free for all) for infrared worldwide, but microwave radio
spectrum is regulated.
3. IR detect only amplitude of optical signals but microwave Rxrs must detect frequency or
phase.
4. Infrared shares some properties of visible light
• Diffusely reflected by light-colored objects
• Does not penetrate walls or other opaque objects
• More easily secured against eavesdropping than microwave
• separate installation in every room without interference

5. Inexpensive and simpleUses intensity modulation, so receivers need to detect only amplitude
 WIRELESS LAN (IR – Transmission Techniques)
• Directed-beam IR
• Point-to-point links
• Range depends on power and focusing
• Can be kilometers
• Used for building interconnect within line of sight
• Indoor use to set up token ring LAN
• IR transceivers positioned so that data circulate in ring

• Omnidirectional
• Single base station within line of sight of all other stations
• Typically, mounted on ceiling
• Acts as a multiport repeater
• Other transceivers use directional beam aimed at ceiling unit

• Diffused configuration
• Transmitters are focused and aimed at diffusely(to spread or scatter widely or thinly)
reflecting ceiling
 WIRELESS LAN (Spread Spectrum)

• Spread Spectrum is a wireless communication technology that distributes the

transmitted signal across a larger bandwidth than the original signal.

• This approach improves communication security and dependability by increasing the

signal’s resistance to interference, eavesdropping, and jamming.

• This method uses air as a medium and extends bandwidth to create a protective
envelope for signals, reducing the risk of interception or jamming.

• The ‘spread code’ is a patterned series of numbers that enlarges the original signal’s
bandwidth.

• This method is typically used in situations where secure transmission is crucial.

 WIRELESS LAN (Spread Spectrum)

Principles of Spread Spectrum Process

• To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to each station

should be much larger than needed.

• The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.

Conditions of Spread Spectrum are

• The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated signal BW is much

larger than the baseband signal BW i.e. spread spectrum is a wide band scheme.

• A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and the same code is to
be used to despread the signal at the receiver.
 WIRELESS LAN (Spread Spectrum)
Characteristics of Spread Spectrum
• Higher channel capacity.
• Ability to resist multipath propagation.
• They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.
• They are resistant to jamming.
• The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath propagation.
• The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.

Techniques used for Spread Spectrum

• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 WIRELESS LAN (Important Terminologies )
• Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the wireless LAN. It
can be of two types:

• Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are wireless routers that
bridge connections for base stations.

• Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.

• Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its functionalities and acts as a
connection between wireless medium and distributed systems.

• Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to create an ESS.

• Frame: It is a MAC protocol data unit.

• SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-access points and
devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to communicate.
 WIRELESS LAN (Important Terminologies )
• SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be fragmented or
aggregated to form a PDU.

• PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the corresponding

layer at the other end. They contain a header specific to the layer.

• Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is a

hardware component that connects devices to the network.

• Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks

 WIRELESS LAN (Important Terminologies )
• SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be fragmented or
aggregated to form a PDU.

• PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the corresponding

layer at the other end. They contain a header specific to the layer.

• Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is a

hardware component that connects devices to the network.

• Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks

WIRELESS LAN (Frame Format )
 WIRELESS LAN (Frame Format )

1. Frame Control
It is 2 bytes long and defines type of frame and control information. The types of fields present in FC are:

• Version: Indicates the current protocol version.

• Type: Determines the function of frame i.e. management(00), control(01) or data(10).

• Subtype: Indicates subtype of frame like 0000 for association request, 1000 for beacon.

• To DS: When set indicates that the destination frame is for DS(distribution system).

• From DS: When set indicates frame coming from DS.

• More frag (More fragments): When set to 1 means frame is followed by other fragments.

• Retry: If the current frame is a re-transmission of an earlier frame, this bit is set to 1.
 WIRELESS LAN (Frame Format )

• Power Mgmt (Power Management): It indicates the mode of a station after successful transmission
of a frame. Set to '1' field indicates that the station goes into power-save mode. If the field is set to 0,
the station stays active.

• More data: It is used to indicate to the receiver that a sender has more data to send than the current
frame.

• WEP: It indicates that the standard security mechanism of 802.11 is applied.

• Order: If this bit is set to 1 the received frames must be processed in strict order.

2. Duration / ID (2 bytes)

• It contains the value indicating the period of time in which the medium is occupied (in µs).

2. Address 1 to 4 (6 bytes each)

• These fields contain standard IEEE 802 MAC addresses (48 bit each). The meaning of each address is
defined by DS bits in the frame control field.
 WIRELESS LAN (Frame Format )
4. SC (Sequence Control) (2 bytes)

• It consists of 2 sub-fields i.e. sequence number (12 bits) and fragment number (4 bits). Sequence number is used
to filter duplicate frames.

5. Data (0 to 2312 bytes)

• It is a variable length field which contains information specific to individual frames which is transferred
transparently from a sender to the receiver.

6. CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) (4 bytes)

• It contains 32 bit CRC error detection sequence to ensure error free frame.
 WIRELESS LAN (Advantages of 802.11)

• Fault Tolerance: The centralized architecture minimizes the bottlenecks and introduces
resilience in the WLAN equipment.

• Flexible Architecture: Supports both temporary smaller networks and larger, more
permanent ones.

• Prolonged Battery Life: Efficient power-saving protocols extend mobile device battery
life without compromising network connections.
 WIRELESS LAN (Disdvantages of 802.11)

• Noisy Channels: Due to reliance on radio waves, signals may experience interference
from nearby devices.

• Greater Bandwidth and Complexity: Due to necessary data encryption and

susceptibility to errors, WLANs need more bandwidth than their wired counterparts.

• Speed: Generally, WLANs offer slower speeds compared to wired LANs.

 WIRELESS LAN (AUTHENTICATION TECHNIQUES)

• Open authentication is one of the two authentication methods from the first 802.11 standard.

• As the name implies, open authentication offers open authentication to a wireless network.

• The wireless client sends an authentication request to the AP, which the AP accepts without question.
You don’t need a pre-shared key or credentials.

• After authentication, the wireless client associates with the AP..

 WIRELESS LAN (AUTHENTICATION TECHNIQUES)

• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is a security algorithm and the second authentication option
that the first 802.11 standard supports.

• The idea behind WEP is to make a wireless network as secure as a wired link.

• WEP uses the RC4 cipher algorithm to encrypt every frame so that eavesdroppers can’t read
the contents.
• The algorithm uses a WEP key to create other encryption keys, one for each wireless frame.
When the sender and receiver use the same WEP key, they can decrypt each other’s frames.

• WEP supports two authentication methods:

• Open authentication
• Shared key authentication
 WIRELESS LAN (Security)

• Authorization and authentication are major factors that need to be ensured to maintain
privacy.

• Wireless networks have Wireless security encryption to secure the authentication.

• This security is ensured by establishing a secure connection for authenticated and

authorized users by providing the connection with a strong password or security key.

• Wireless security encryption finds its importance in protecting any malicious activity
carried on on information that may result in breaching the privacy of individuals or
organizations.
 WIRELESS LAN (Security)

• The encryption types are supported based on the specification of networking devices such
as routers.

• The default encryption key may be provided by the router manufacturer and displayed at
the bottom of the router.

• Wireless devices are prevented from unauthorized access by wireless security encryption.

• Wireless security encryption plays the role of providing safety, ensuring privacy, and
allowing only authorized and authenticated access to networks.
 WIRELESS LAN (Security)

• The different types of security encryption types of them hold their individual importance
depending on their time of creation.

• Types of Wireless Security:

• Wireless security encryption is mainly divided into four main types:
• Wired Equivalent Privacy Protocol (WEP)
• Wi-Fi Protected Access Protocol (WPA)
• Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 Protocol (WPA2)
• Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 Protocol (WPA3
 WIRELESS LAN (WEP)

• Wired Equivalent Privacy Protocol abbreviated as WEP, was initially originated in the
1999
• It is considered the standard for wireless security encryption.

• It is less found in today’s modern world because of the risk of security it is associated
with directly/ indirectly.

• WEP is not considered stable and Wi-Fi discontinued its use in 2004 because it is easy to
exploit this level of security.

• Example: Security added in the LAN connections to protect from unauthenticated users
trying to breach privacy.
 WIRELESS LAN (WPA)

• WEP was succeeded by Wi-Fi Protected Access Protocol abbreviated as WAP which offers
more security and safety.

• WPA has a 128-bit dynamic key called Temporary Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) that’s hard to
break and makes it unique.

• The WPA protocol implements almost all of the IEEE 802.11i standard.

• WEP used a 64-bit or 128-bit encryption key that must be manually entered on wireless access
points and devices which once entered can never be changed.

• TKIP employs a per-packet key, which means that it dynamically generates a new 128-bit key
for each packet and thus prevents the types of attacks that compromise WEP.

• One noticeable disadvantage of WPA was that since it was made for WEP-enabled devices, so
the core components were majorly the same for WPA and WEP.
 WIRELESS LAN (WPA)

• WPA includes a Message Integrity Check, which is designed to prevent an attacker from
altering or resending data packets. This replaced the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that was
used by the WEP standard.

• CRC’s had a main flaw in that it did not provide a sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee
for the packets it handled.

• Well-tested message authentication codes existed to solve these problems, but they required
too much computation to be used on old network cards.

• WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called TKIP to verify the integrity of the
packets. TKIP is much stronger than a CRC, but the algorithm used in WPA2 is stronger.

• Researchers discovered a flaw in WPA similar to older weaknesses in WEP and the limitations
of the message integrity code hash function, named Michael, that is used to retrieve the
keystream from short packets to use for re-injection and spoofing.
 WIRELESS LAN (WPA2)

• Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 Protocol abbreviated as WPA2 came next and was better than the
previous encryption type

• WPA2 employs the Block Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol (CCMP), a
Counter Mode Cypher.

• The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm, which verifies the authenticity and
integrity of messages, forms the foundation of the CCMP protocol.

• Compared to the original Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) used by WPA, CCMP is
more robust and dependable.

• In 2006, WPA2 was declared to be used in all wi-fi devices for wireless security encryption.

• The major disadvantage of WPA2 is that if the security key reached the hands of the hacker
then the entire network is vulnerable to attack.
 WIRELESS LAN (WPA3)

• WPA3 or Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA3) Protocol is the newest security encryption that’s
gaining popularity.

• WPA3 offers high protection and prevents unauthorized access.

• Unauthenticated and unauthorized individuals can’t breach this level of security.

• WPA3 is the most desired for public networks as it performs automatic encryption.
 WIRELESS LAN (Security issues with WPA)

• Key shared ahead of time : If users rely on a weak password or passphrase, WPA and WPA2
are still susceptible to password cracking attempts.

• Insufficient upfront secrecy

• Due to the lack of forward secrecy offered by WPA and WPA2, an adversary may be able to
passively and covertly gather all packets encrypted with that PSK transmitted in the past and
even in the future once they ascertain the pre-shared key.

• Tactics known as denial of service, in which an attacker overloads the network with messages,
impairing the availability of network resources

• Eavesdropping is the practice of unauthorised third parties intercepting data being transferred
across secure networks.
• Spoofing and session hijacking are methods by which an attacker obtains access to network
resources and data by impersonating a legitimate user.
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO Wireless Architecture)

• Cisco Wireless Architecture and AP modes connect a wireless network to a wired

network to safely transfer data.

• Cisco Wireless Architecture and AP modes are classified into three categories:

•Autonomous AP architecture
•Cloud-based AP architecture
•Split MAC AP architecture.

• The Cisco Architecture usually follows 3 layer Architecture :

• The Access Layer
• The Distribution Layer
• The Core Layer
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO - 3 layer architecture)

• The first layer is the local area network (LAN) that uses IEEE 802.3 Ethernet technology to
connect devices on the same physical segment (or subnet).

• This low level of networking provides easy sharing of media and files between individual
workstations and printers connected to the LAN, as well as providing security against
unauthorized access by outsiders.

• The next layer is the wide area network (WAN), which offers faster data transfer rates than
LANs but can be more expensive due to its reliance on leased lines or satellite links.

• WANs typically use TCP/IP protocols at this higher level, allowing them to communicate with
other networks across corporate boundaries or over long distances.
WIRELESS LAN (CISCO - 3 layer architecture)
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO - 3 layer architecture)
ACCESS LAYER

• The Access Layer is the part of the network which enables the users to connect to the wired Ethernet
Network.

• It enables the users to share data and resources on the local network.

• The devices used in this layer include Ethernet Switches and Hubs.

DISTRIBUTION LAYER

• When a network grows beyond a certain size, it must be divided into multiple local (Access Layer)
networks.
• the distribution layer connects these networks together.
• It ensures that local traffic remains confined to local networks and governs traffic control between these
networks.
• This layer uses Routers to connect multiple networks together
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO - 3 layer architecture)
CORE LAYER

• This layer is considered the backbone of a network, as it is used to connect multiple

Distribution Layer devices together.

• This layer uses the most powerful devices to manage the traffic between the networks.

• The speed at which data flows in this layer is upwards of 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

• This layer has the maximum number of redundant connections

WIRELESS LAN (CISCO – Autonomous AP model)

• Basic service sets also referred to as BSSs,

are offered by the autonomous AP
architecture of Cisco Wireless Architecture.

• In the access layer of Cisco’s three-layer

hierarchical architecture, autonomous APs
link wireless service set identifiers (SSIDs)
with wired virtual LANs

• A device linked to an AP wireless network

can send data to another wirelessly
connected device without using the wired
network.
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO – Split MAC Architecture)
• Autonomous APs work alone; we configure them one by one.

• All the network’s autonomous access points (APs) are protected by split MAC
structures. Each AP operates under its own security policy.

• In order to manage security-related concerns, such as intrusion detection and prevention

systems, QoS, bandwidth management, etc., a centralized location is used

• Any autonomous AP’s actions can be classified into two categories:

• group management functions

• real-time functions.
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO – Split MAC Architecture)
• The Autonomous AP management functions include
• RF power output management,
• QoS
• security management
• client authentication

• The real-time functions are concerned with

• transfer of data frames

• data encryption and decryption
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO – Split MAC Architecture)

• The autonomous AP communicates with the clients via the physical layer known as the
MAC layer.

• The autonomous AP is governed by a centralized administrator for RF power output and

security management.

• The hardware of an autonomous AP is known as a lightweight access point because it

solely performs real-time operations.

• Security performance are provided user authentication and security policy management,
among other things.

• Layers 1 and 2 are utilized to move frames within the same RF domain.
 WIRELESS LAN (CISCO – Split MAC Architecture)
• CAPWAP is an abbreviation for Control and Provisioning of Wireless Access Point
tunneling protocol, which is used to encapsulate data within a wireless network.

• The CAPWAP connection is made up of two distinct tunnels, CAPWAP control

messages, and CAPWAP data.

• The carriers of CAPWAP control messages exchange the codes required to set up and
operate the AP.

• CAPWAP data is used to transport packets between wireless clients linked to a single AP.

• Data packets traveling over the data tunnel are not encrypted by default.

• When data encryption is enabled, datagram transport layer security is used to safeguard
packets (DTLS).
MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOL (CHANNEL SHARING)
MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOL
 ALOHA PROTOCOL

• Each station sends a frame whenever one is available. Because there is only one channel to share,
there is a chance that frames from different stations will collide.

• The pure ALOHA protocol utilizes acknowledgments from the receiver to ensure successful
transmission.

• When a user sends a frame, it expects confirmation from the receiver. If no acknowledgment is
received within a designated time period, the sender assumes that the frame was not received and
retransmits the frame.

• When two frames attempt to occupy the channel simultaneously, a collision occurs and both
frames become garbled.

• If the first bit of a new frame overlaps with the last bit of a frame that is almost finished, both
frames will be completely destroyed and will need to be retransmitted.

• If all users retransmit their frames at the same time after a time-out, the frames will collide
 ALOHA PROTOCOL

• If all users retransmit their frames at the same time after a time-out, the frames will collide
again.

• To prevent this, the pure ALOHA protocol dictates that each user waits a random amount of time,
known as the back-off time, before retransmitting the frame.

• This randomness helps to avoid further collisions.

 ALOHA PROTOCOL

Key Features of Pure ALOHA

• Random Access: Devices can send data whenever they have something to transmit, without
needing to wait for a predetermined time slot.
• Uncoordinated Transmission: Devices do not coordinate with each other before
transmitting. They simply attempt to send data whenever they have data to send.
• Simple Implementation: Pure ALOHA is straightforward to implement, making it suitable
for early network experiments and scenarios with low traffic.
• Persistent Approach: Devices continue to attempt transmission even after a collision, using a
form of exponential backoff. This means they introduce random delays before retrying, which
helps reduce the chances of repeated collisions.
• Contention-Based: Since devices transmit without coordination, collisions may occur if two
or more devices transmit simultaneously. Collisions are detected through feedback from the
receiver or by the transmitting device itself.
ALOHA PROTOCOL
 SLOTTED ALOHA PROTOCOL

• Slotted ALOHA is an improved version of the pure ALOHA protocol that aims to make
communication networks more efficient.

• The channel is divided into small, fixed-length time slots and users are only allowed to transmit
data at the beginning of each time slot.

• This synchronization of transmissions reduces the chances of collisions between devices,

increasing the overall efficiency of the network.

• The channel time is separated into time slots in slotted ALOHA, and stations are only
authorized to transmit at particular times.

• These time slots correspond to the packet transmission time exactly.

• All users are then synchronized to these time slots so that whenever a user sends a packet, it
must precisely match the next available channel slot.
 SLOTTED ALOHA PROTOCOL

• When a user wants to transmit a frame, it waits until the next time slot and then sends the frame.

• If the frame is received successfully, the receiver sends an acknowledgment.

• If the acknowledgment is not received within a time-out period, the sender assumes that the
frame was not received and retransmits the frame in the next time slot.

Assumption of Slotted ALOHA

• All frames are of the same size.

• Time is divided into equal-sized slots, a slot equals the time to transmit one frame
• Nodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slots.
• Nodes are synchronized.
• If two or more nodes transmit in a slot, all nodes detect collision before the slot ends.
 SLOTTED ALOHA PROTOCOL

Advantages of Slotted ALOHA

• Simplicity: The Slotted Aloha protocol is relatively simple to implement and understand,
making it an easy option for low-complexity networks.
• Flexibility: Slotted Aloha can be used in a wide range of network environments, including those
with varying numbers of nodes and varying traffic loads
• Low Overhead: Slotted Aloha does not require complex management or control mechanisms,
which can help to reduce the overhead and complexity of the network.

Disadvantages of Slotted ALOHA

• Low Throughput: The maximum throughput of the Slotted Aloha protocol is relatively low at
around 18.4%, which can be limiting for high-bandwidth applications.
• High Collision Rate: The high collision rate in slotted ALOHA can result in a high packet loss
rate, which can negatively impact the overall performance of the network.
• Inefficiency: The protocol is inefficient at high loads, as the efficiency decreases as the number
of nodes attempting to transmit increases.
 CSMA

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a method used in computer networks to manage how
devices share a communication channel to transfer the data between two devices.

• In this protocol, each device first sense the channel before sending the data.

• If the channel is busy, the device waits until it is free.

• This helps reduce collisions, where two devices send data at the same time, ensuring smoother
communication across the network.

• CSMA is commonly used in technologies like Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

• Carrier Sense multiple access requires that each station first check the state of the
medium before sending.
 CSMA (ACCESS MODES)

• There are 4 types of access modes available in CSMA.

• 1-Persistent: It senses the shared channel first and delivers the data right away if the channel is
idle. If not, it must wait and continuously track for the channel to become idle and then
broadcast the frame without condition as soon as it does. It is an aggressive transmission
algorithm.

• Non-Persistent: It first assesses the channel before transmitting data; if the channel is idle, the
node transmits data right away. If not, the station must wait for an arbitrary amount of time (not
continuously), and when it discovers the channel is empty, it sends the frames.

• P-Persistent: It consists of the 1-Persistent and Non-Persistent modes combined. Each node
observes the channel in the 1Persistent mode, and if the channel is idle, it sends a frame with a
P probability. If the data is not transferred, the frame restarts with the following time slot after
waiting for a (q = 1-p probability) random period.

• O-Persistent: A supervisory node gives each node a transmission order. Nodes wait for their
 CSMA (ACCESS MODES)

• O-Persistent: A supervisory node gives each node a transmission order. Nodes wait for their
time slot according to their allocated transmission sequence when the transmission medium is
idle.
 CSMA
Advantages of CSMA
• Increased Efficiency: CSMA ensures that only one device communicates on the network at a time, reducing
collisions and improving network efficiency.
• Simplicity: CSMA is a simple protocol that is easy to implement and does not require complex hardware or software.
• Flexibility: CSMA is a flexible protocol that can be used in a wide range of network environments, including wired
and wireless networks.
• Low cost: CSMA does not require expensive hardware or software, making it a cost-effective solution for network
communication.

Disadvantages of CSMA

• Limited Scalability: CSMA is not a scalable protocol and can become inefficient as the number of devices on the
network increases.
• Delay: In busy networks, the requirement to sense the medium and wait for an available channel can result in delays
and increased latency.
• Limited Reliability: CSMA can be affected by interference, noise, and other factors, resulting in unreliable
communication.
• Vulnerability to Attacks: CSMA can be vulnerable to certain types of attacks, such as jamming and denial-of-
service attacks, which can disrupt network communication.
 CSMA / CD

• In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission
was successful.

• If successful, the transmission is finished, if not, the frame is sent again.

Only 1 persistent and p

persistent is there in
CSMA/CD
 CSMA / CA

• The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able to receive while transmitting
to detect a collision from different stations

• If a collision has occurred then the energy of the received signal almost doubles, and the station
can sense the possibility of collision.

• InterFrame Space (IFS): When a station finds the channel busy it senses the channel again,
when the station finds a channel to be idle it waits for a period of time called IFS time. IFS can
also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame. Higher the IFS lower is the priority.

• Contention Window: It is the amount of time divided into slots. A station that is ready to send
frames chooses a random number of slots as wait time.

• Acknowledgments: The positive acknowledgments and time-out timer can help guarantee a
successful transmission of the frame.
 CSMA / CA

Characteristics of CSMA/CA

• Carrier Sense: The device listens to the channel before transmitting, to ensure that it is not
currently in use by another device.

• Multiple Access: Multiple devices share the same channel and can transmit simultaneously.

• Collision Avoidance: If two or more devices attempt to transmit at the same time, a collision
occurs. CSMA/CA uses random backoff time intervals to avoid collisions.

• Acknowledgment (ACK): After successful transmission, the receiving device sends an ACK to
confirm receipt.

• Fairness: The protocol ensures that all devices have equal access to the channel and no single
device monopolizes it.
 CSMA / CA

• Binary Exponential Backoff: If a collision occurs, the device waits for a random period of time
before attempting to retransmit. The backoff time increases exponentially with each
retransmission attempt.

• Interframe Spacing: The protocol requires a minimum amount of time between transmissions
to allow the channel to be clear and reduce the likelihood of collisions.

• RTS/CTS Handshake: In some implementations, a Request-To-Send (RTS) and Clear-To-Send

(CTS) handshake is used to reserve the channel before transmission. This reduces the chance of
collisions and increases efficiency.

• Wireless Network Quality: The performance of CSMA/CA is greatly influenced by the quality
of the wireless network, such as the strength of the signal, interference, and network congestion.

• Adaptive Behavior: CSMA/CA can dynamically adjust its behavior in response to changes in
network conditions, ensuring the efficient use of the channel and avoiding congestion.