EC3401 – NETWORKS AND SECURITY

UNIT I – LECTURE NOTES

Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO

No.

1 2 26/2/25 Overview of Networks C211.1 1,2

and its Attributes

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS
▪ A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links.
▪ A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.
▪ When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or
remote.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A NETWORK
The effectiveness of a network depends on three characteristics.

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN A NETWORK PROCESS

The five components are:Message - It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms

of information include text, pictures, audio, video etc.
1. Sender - It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset etc.
2. Receiver - It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.
 3. Transmission Medium - It is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, radiowaves etc.
4. Protocol - It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected
KEY ELEMENTS OF PROTOCOL
⮚ Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
⮚ Semantics: Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
Timing: Refers to two characteristics. (1). When data should be
sent and (2).

LINE CONFIGURATION / LINE CONNECTIVITY

Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attach to a
link. A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to
another.
There are two possible line configurations:
i. Point to Point (PPP): Provides a dedicated Communication link between two
devices. It is simple to establish. The most common example for Point-to-
Point connection is a computer connected by telephone line. We can connect
the two devices by means of a pair of wires or using a microwave or satellite
link.

ii. MultiPoint : It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two

or more devices share a single [Link] are two kinds of Multipoint
Connections.

• Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link

simultaneously, it is called Spatially shared line configuration

• Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link ,
then its called Temporally shared or Time Shared Line
Configuration.
•
 [Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT
1 Compare between point to point and Part A Nov/Dec 1,2 4
multipoint connections in network 2023

Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO

No.

2 2 28/2/25 Network Models, OSI C211.1 1,2,3

NETWORK MODELS
Two or more devices connect to a link. Two or more links form a [Link]
is defined as
(1) The way in which a network is laid out physically.
(2)The geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and nodes to
one-another.
The various types of topologies are : Bus, Ring, Tree, Star, Mesh and Hybrid.

BUS TOPOLOGY

• Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable.
• The long single cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
• When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
• It transmits data only in one direction.
RING TOPOLOGY

• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with

only the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
•

TREE TOPOLOGY

• It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a
hierarchy.
• It is also called hierarchical topology.
• It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
• Tree topology is ideal if workstations are located in groups.
• They are used in Wide Area Network.

STAR TOPOLOGY

• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another.
•
MESH TOPOLOGY
 • In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
• The number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes
is given by n (n – 1) / 2.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY

• Hybrid Topology is a combination of one or more basic topologies.

• For example if one department in an office uses ring topology, the other
departments uses star and bus topology, then connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology.
• Hybrid Topology inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies
included.

OSI Layer Model

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.

 o It is a reference model that describes how information from a software
application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the intercomputer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

1. State the Purpose of layering in Part A April/May 1,2,3 2

networks 2023
2. With neat diagram, illustrate in Part B Nov/Dec 1,2,3 2
detail about the seven layers of OSI 2023
-architecture model
3. Explain in detail about the seven Part B April/May 1,2,3 2
level layers of the OSI architecture 2023
model with neat diagram
Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO
No.

3 8 28/2/25 TCP/IP, Addressing C211.1 1,3

TCP/IP, Addressing
▪ The TCP/IP architecture is also called as Internet architecture.
▪ It is developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET).
▪ TCP/IP is a protocol suite used in the Internet today.
▪ It is a 4-layer model. The layers of TCP/IP are
1. Application layer
2. Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Interface Layer

APPLICATION LAYER
▪ An application layer incorporates the function of top three OSI layers. An
application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
▪ It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
▪ This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
▪ When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
▪ Protocols such as FTP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, etc running in the application
layer provides service to other program running on top of application layer
▪
TRANSPORT LAYER
▪ The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.
▪ The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
o UDP – UDP provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission. It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not
specify the error.
o TCP – TCP provides a full transport layer services to applications. TCP
is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames.
INTERNET LAYER
▪ The internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
▪ An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
▪ The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
▪ Internet layer handle the transfer of information across multiple networks
through router and gateway .
▪ IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

NETWORK INTERFACE LAYER

▪ The network interface layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
▪ This layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined
in the OSI reference model.
▪ It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
▪ This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

1. Explain in detail about TCP/IP Part B April/ 1,3 2

network models May 2023

2. Exemplify in detail about TCP/IP Part B Nov/Dec 1,3 2

protocol suite 2023

3. A client uses TCP to send data to a Part C Nov/Dec 1,2 3

server. The data are 16 bytes. (i) 2023
Calculate the efficiency of this
transmission at the TCP level. (ii)
Calculate the efficiency of
transmission at the IP level. (iii)
Calculate the efficiency of
transmission at the data link layer
 Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO
No.

4 Introduction to C211.1 1,3,4

1 3/3/25
Datalink Layer

DATA LINK LAYER

It is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next node.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
⮚ Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into data units called frames.
⮚ Physical addressing – If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network , data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and receiver.
⮚ Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate produced in the sender ,the Data link layer imposes a flow ctrl mechanism.
⮚ Error control- Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames and to
prevent duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at the end of
the frame.
⮚ Medium Access control -Used to determine which device has control over the link at
any given time.

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

1. List out the issues in Data Link Part A April/ 1,2 2

layer May2023
2. If the data link layer can detect Part A Nov/Dec 1,2 4
errors between hops why do you 2023
think we need another checking
mechanism at the transport layer?

Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO

No.

5 Error Detection and C211.1 1,2

7 3/3/25
Correction
 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION
Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, errors
must be detected and corrected. Error Control is a technique of error detection and
retransmission.
TYPES OF ERRORS
SINGLE-BIT ERROR
The term Single-bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such as byte, character,
data unit or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1

BURST ERROR
The term Burst Error means that two or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or
from 0 to 1.
The basic idea behind any error detection scheme is to add additional information to a frame
that can be used to determine if errors have been introduced.

ERROR DETECTION TECHNIQUES / METHODS

The basic idea behind any error detection scheme is to add additional
information to a frame that can be used to determine if errors have been introduced.

PARITY CHECK
• One bit, called parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number
of 1’s in the data unit becomes even (or) odd.
• The source then transmits this data via a link, and bits are checked and
verified at the destination.
• Data is considered accurate if the number of bits (even or odd) matches the
number transmitted from the source.
 • This techniques is the most common and least complex method.
1. Even parity – Maintain even number of 1s
E.g., 1011 → 1011 1
2. Odd parity – Maintain odd number of 1s
E.g., 1011 → 1011 0
3.
CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK
• Cyclic codes refers to encoding messages by adding a fixed-length check
value.
• CRCs are popular because they are simple to implement, easy to analyze
mathematically and particularly good at detecting common errors caused in
transmission channels.

Steps Involved :
• Consider the original message (dataword) as M(x) consisting of ‘k’ bits and
the divisor as C(x) consists of ‘n+1’ bits.
• The original message M(x) is appended by ‘n’ bits of zero’s. Let us call this
zero-extended message as T(x).
• Divide T(x) by C(x) and find the remainder.
• The division operation is performed using XOR operation.
• The resultant remainder is appended to the original message M(x) as CRC
and sent by the sender(codeword).

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

1. Describe the basic concepts of error Part B April/May 1,2,3 2

detection and correction 2023
2. Find the minimum hamming Part B Nov/Dec 1,2,3 3
distance for the following cases; 2023
 Detection of two errors.
 Correction of two errors.
 Detection of 3 errors or
correction of 2 errors.
 Detection of 6 errors or
 correction of 2 errors.
3. How do you represent the number 6 Part A April/May 1,2,3 3
in one’s complement arithmetic 2024
using only 4 bits.
4. In CRC, show the relationship Part B April/May 1,2,3 2
between the following entities: 2024
(i)The size of the dataword and the
size of the codeword.
(ii)The size of the divisor and the
remainder
(iii)The degree of the polynomial
generator and the size of the divisor.
(iv)The degree of the polynomial
generator and the size of the
remainder.

Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO

No.

6 1 4/3/25 Ethernet(802.3) C211.1 1,2

WIRED LAN : ETHERNET (IEEE 802.3)

• Ethernet was developed in the mid-1970’s at the Xerox Palo Alto Research
Center (PARC),
• IEEE controls the Ethernet standards.
• The Ethernet is the most successful local area networking technology, that
uses bus topology.
• The Ethernet is multiple-access networks that is set of nodes send and
receive frames over a shared link.
• Ethernet uses the CSMA / CD ( Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection) mechanism.

EVOLUTION OF ETHERNET
 Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)
The original Ethernet technology with the data rate of 10 Mbps as the Standard
Ethernet.
Standard Ethernet types are
1. 10Base5: Thick Ethernet,
2. 10Base2: Thin Ethernet ,
3. 10Base-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet
10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet

Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Fast Ethernet or 100BASE-T provides transmission speeds up to 100 megabits

per second and is typically used for LAN backbone systems.
The 100BASE-T standard consists of three different component specifications
–
1. 100 BASE-TX
2. 100BASE-T4
3. 100BASE-FX
Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
• The Gigabit Ethernet upgrades the data rate to 1 Gbps(1000 Mbps).
• Gigabit Ethernet can be categorized as either a two-wire or a four-wire
implementation.
• The two-wire implementations use fiber-optic cable (1000Base-SX,
shortwave, or 1000Base-LX, long-wave), or STP (1000Base-CX).
• The four-wire version uses category 5 twisted-pair cable (1000Base-T).

10 Gigabit Ethernet(10 Gbps)

• 10 Gigabit Ethernet is an upcoming Ethernet technology that transmits at 10
Gbps.
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet enables a familiar network technology to be used in
LAN, MAN and WAN architectures.
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet uses multimode optical fiber up to 300 meters and
single mode fiber up to 40 kilometers.
• Four implementations are the most common: 10GBase-SR, 10GBase-LR,
10GBase-EW, and 10GBase-X4.

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

- - - - - -
Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO
No.

7 Wireless LAN – IEEE C211.1 1,2

2 7/3/25
802.11

WIRELESS LAN ( IEEE 802.11)

• Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies.
• The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing
everywhere.
• Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and
in many public areas.

ADVANTAGES OF WLAN / 802.11

1. Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can access each other as radio
waves can penetrate even partition walls.
2. Planning : No prior planning is required for connectivity as long as devices
follow standard convention
3. Design : Allows to design and develop mobile devices.
4. Robustness : Wireless network can survive disaster. If the devices survive,
communication can still be established.

DISADVANTAGES OF WLAN / 802.11

1. Quality of Service : Low bandwidth (1 – 10 Mbps), higher error rates due
to interference, delay due to error correction and detection.
2. Cost : Wireless LAN adapters are costly compared to wired adapters.
3. Proprietary Solution : Due to slow standardization process, many solution
are proprietary that limit the homogeneity of operation.
4. Restriction : Individual countries have their own radio spectral policies.
This restricts the development of the technology
5. Safety and Security : Wireless Radio waves may interfere with other
devices. Eg; In a hospital, radio waves may interfere with high-tech
equipment.
TECHNOLOGY USED IN WLAN / 802.11

⮚ WLAN’s uses Spread Spectrum (SS) technology.

⮚ The idea behind Spread spectrum technique is to spread the signal over a
wider frequency band than normal, so as to minimize the impact of
interference from other devices.
⮚ There are two types of Spread Spectrum:
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

⮚ Frequency hopping is a spread spectrum technique that involves
transmitting the signal over a random sequence of frequencies.
⮚ That is, first transmitting at one frequency, then a second, then a third, and
so on.
⮚ The random sequence of frequencies is computed by a pseudorandom
number generator.
⮚ The receiver uses the same algorithm as the sender and initializes it with the
same seed and hence is able to hop frequencies in sync with the transmitter
to correctly receive the frame.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

⮚ Each bit of data is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal.
⮚ DSSS takes a user data stream and performs an XOR operation with a
pseudo –random number.
⮚ This pseudo random number is called as chipping sequence.
 ARCHITECURE OF WLAN / 802.11
 The standard defines two kinds of services: the Basic Service Set (BSS) and the
Extended Service Set (ESS).

Basic Service Set (BSS)

• IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building blocks of a
wireless LAN.
• A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an
optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).

Extended Service Set (ESS)

• An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs.
• In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is a
wired or a wireless network.
• The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs. The extended service set
uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary.
• The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS.
• The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
Station Types
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless
LAN:
1. No-transition - A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary
(not moving) or moving only inside a BSS.
2. BSS-transition - A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one
BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS ESS-
transition - A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS
to another.

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

1. Write a note on IEEE 802.11 Part A April/May 1,2 2

2024
Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO
No.

8 Bluetooth – Flow and C211.1 1,2,3

8 7/3/25 Error Control
Protocols

BLUETOOTH (IEEE 802.15.1 )

▪ A Bluetooth is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed
spontaneously.
▪ Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of
different functions such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and
laptop), cameras, printers, when they are at a short distance from each other.
▪ Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE
802.15 standard.
▪ The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN) ▪ Bluetooth
operates in the 2.4 GHz Unlicensed ISM band.
▪ The range for Bluetooth communication is 0-30 feet (10 meters).
▪ This distance can be increased to 100 meters by amplifying the power.
▪ Bluetooth links have typical bandwidths around 1 to 3 Mbps.
▪ Bluetooth is specified by an industry consortium called the Bluetooth Special
Interest Group.
▪ Upto eight devices can be connected through Bluetooth.
▪ One device will function as a Master and the other seven devices will function
as slaves.
▪ Bluetooth uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) to avoid any
interference.
▪ Bluetooth supports two kinds of links:
⮚ Asynchronous Connectionless (ACL) links - for data
⮚ Synchronous Connection oriented (SCO) links - for audio/voice

BLUETOOTH ARCHITECTURE
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: Piconet and Scatternet.

PICONET
▪ The basic Bluetooth network configuration is called a Piconet
▪ A Piconet is a collection of eight bluetooth devices which are synchronized.
▪ One device in the piconet can act as Primary (Master), all other devices
connected to the master act as Secondary (Slaves).
▪ All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence
with the primary.

• Any communication is between the primary/master and a secondary/slave.

• The communication between the primary and secondary stations can be one-
to-one or one-to-many.
▪ The slaves do not communicate directly with each other.
▪ The devices in a piconet can be in any one of the three types/states.
▪ They are
⮚ Active Device / State
1. Connected to the piconet and participates in the communication.
2. Can be a Master or a Slave device.
3. All active devices are assigned a 3-bit address (AMA).

⮚ Parked Device / State

1. Connected to the piconet, but does not actively articipate in the
communication.
2. More than 200 devices can be parked.
3. All parked devices use an 8-bit parked member address (PMA).

⮚ Stand-by Device / State 1. Not connected to the piconet.

2. They do not participate in the piconet currently but may take part at
a later time.
3. Devices in stand-by do not need an address.

▪ If a parked device wants to communicate and there are already seven active
slaves, one slave has to switch to park state to allow the parked device to
switch to active state.
SCATTERNET
• Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet.
• Many piconets with overlapping coverage can exist simultaneously,called
Scatternet.
• A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.
• This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a
secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second
piconet.
• A station can be a member of two piconets.

• In the example given below, there are two piconets, in which one slave
participates in two different piconets.
• Master of one piconet cannot act as the master of another piconet.
• But the Master of one piconet can act as a Slave in another piconet

BLUETOOTH LAYERS

Radio Layer
• The radio layer is roughly equivalent to the physical layer of the Internet
model.
 • Bluetooth uses the frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) method
in the physical layer to avoid interference from other devices or other
networks.
• Bluetooth hops 1600 times per second, which means that each device
changes its modulation frequency 1600 times per second.
• To transform bits to a signal, Bluetooth uses a sophisticated version of FSK,
called GFSK.

Baseband Layer
• The baseband layer is roughly equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs.
• The access method is TDMA.
• The primary and secondary stations communicate with each other using
time slots. The length of a time slot is exactly 625 µs.
• During that time, a primary sends a frame to a secondary, or a secondary
sends a frame to the primary.

L2CAP
• The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP (L2 here
means LL) is equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs.
• It is used for data exchange on an ACL link.
• SCO channels do not use L2CAP.
• The L2CAP functions are : multiplexing, segmentation and reassembly,
quality of service (QoS), and group management.

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

- - - - - -
Lecture Period Date Topic CO PO
No.

9 1 10/3/25 HDLC – PPP C211.1 1,2,3

HDLC (HIGH-LEVEL DATA LINK CONTROL)

o High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol o HDLC is

used for communication over point-to-point and multipoint links.
o HDLC implements the Stop-and-Wait protocol.

HDLC CONFIGURATIONS AND TRANSFER MODES

HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different
configurations:
1. Normal response mode (NRM)
2. Asynchronous balanced mode
(ABM).

Normal response mode (NRM)

In normal response mode (NRM), the station configuration is unbalanced. o We
have one primary station and multiple secondary stations.
o A primary station can send commands; a secondary station can
only respond. o The NRM is used for both point-to-point and
multipoint links.

Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM) In ABM, the configuration is balanced. o The link is
point-to-point, and each station can function as a primary and a secondary (acting as peers).
This is the common mode today.
HDLC FRAMES
HDLC defines three types of frames:
1. Information frames (I-frames) - used to carry user data
2. Supervisory frames (S-frames) - used to carry control information
3. Unnumbered frames (U-frames) – reserved for system management

Each type of frame serves as an envelope for the transmission of a different

type of message.
Each frame in HDLC may contain up to six fields:
1. Beginning flag field
2. Address field
3. Control field
4. Information field (User Information/ Management Information)
5. Frame check sequence (FCS) field
6. Ending flag field

In multiple-frame transmissions, the ending flag of one frame can serve as the
beginning flag of the next frame.

o Flag field - This field contains synchronization pattern 01111110, which

identifies both the beginning and the end of a frame. o Address field - This field
contains the address of the secondary station. If a primary station created the
frame, it contains a ‘to’ address. If a secondary station creates the frame, it
contains a ‘from’ address. The address field can be one byte or several bytes
long, depending on the needs of the network.
o Control field. The control field is one or two bytes used for flow and error
control. o Information field. The information field contains the user’s data
from the network layer or management information. Its length can vary
from one network to another.
o FCS field. The frame check sequence (FCS) is the HDLC error detection
field. It can contain either a 16- bit or 32-bit CRC.
 CONTROL FIELD FORMAT FOR THE DIFFERENT FRAME TYPES
Control Field for I-Frames o I-frames are designed to carry user data from the
network layer. In addition, they can include flow-control and error-control
information

o The first bit defines the type. If the first bit of the control field is 0, this
means the frame is an I-frame.
o The next 3 bits, called N(S), define the sequence number of the frame.
o The last 3 bits, called N(R), correspond to the acknowledgment number
when piggybacking is used. o The single bit between N(S) and N(R) is
called the P/F bit. If this bit is 1 it means poll (the frame is sent by a
primary station to a secondary).
o If this bit is 0 it means final(the frame is sent by a secondary to a Primary).

Control Field for S-Frames

o Supervisory frames are used for flow and error control whenever
piggybacking is either impossible or inappropriate. o S-frames do not have
information fields

o If the first 2 bits of the control field are 10, this means the frame is an
Sframe.
o The last 3 bits, called N(R),correspond to the acknowledgment number
(ACK) or negative acknowledgment number (NAK), depending on the type
of S-frame.
o The 2 bits called code are used to define the type of S-frame itself. o With 2
bits, we can have four types of S-frames –
Receive ready (RR), Receive not ready (RNR), Reject (REJ) and
Selective reject (SREJ).

Control Field for U-Frames

o Unnumbered frames are used to exchange session management and control
information between connected devices. o U-frames contain an information
field, but used only for system management information and not user data.
 o If the first 2 bits of the control field are 11, this means the frame is an
Uframe.
o U-frame codes are divided into two sections: a 2-bit prefix before the P/F bit
and a 3-bit suffix after the P/F bit.
o Together, these two segments (5 bits) can be used to create up to 32
different types of U-frames.

POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL (PPP)

o Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) was devised by IETF (Internet Engineering

Task Force) in 1990 as a Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP). o PPP is a
data link layer communications protocol used to establish a direct
connection between two nodes. o It connects two routers directly without
any host or any other networking device in between.
o It is used to connect the Home PC to the server of ISP via a modem.
o It is a byte - oriented protocol that is widely used in broadband
communications having heavy loads and high speeds. o Since it is a data
link layer protocol, data is transmitted in frames. It is also known as RFC
1661.

Services Provided by PPP

The main services provided by Point - to - Point Protocol are −
1. Defining the frame format of the data to be transmitted.
2. Defining the procedure of establishing link between two points and
exchange of data.
3. Stating the method of encapsulation of network layer data in the frame.
4. Stating authentication rules of the communicating devices.
5. Providing address for network communication.
6. Providing connections over multiple links.
7. Supporting a variety of network layer protocols by providing a range os
services.

PPP Frame
PPP is a byte - oriented protocol where each field of the frame is composed of
one or more bytes.
 1. Flag − 1 byte that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The bit
pattern of the flag is 01111110.
2. Address − 1 byte which is set to 11111111 in case of broadcast.
3. Control − 1 byte set to a constant value of 11000000.
4. Protocol − 1 or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the payload
field.
5. Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. The maximum
length of the payload field is 1500 bytes.
6. FCS − It is a 2 byte(16-bit) or 4 bytes(32-bit) frame check sequence for
error detection. The standard code used is CRC.

Byte Stuffing in PPP Frame

Byte stuffing is used is PPP payload field whenever the flag sequence appears
in the message, so that the receiver does not consider it as the end of the frame. The
escape byte, 01111101, is stuffed before every byte that contains the same byte as
the flag byte or the escape byte. The receiver on receiving the message removes the
escape byte before passing it onto the network layer.

Transition Phases in PPP

The PPP connection goes through different states as shown in a transition
phase diagram.

❖ Dead: In dead phase the link is not used. There is no active carrier and the
line is quiet.
❖ Establish: Connection goes into this phase when one of the nodes start
communication. In this phase, two parties negotiate the options. If
negotiation is successful, the system goes into authentication phase or
directly to networking phase.
❖ Authenticate: This phase is optional. The two nodes may decide whether
they need this phase during the establishment phase. If they decide to
proceed with authentication, they send several authentication packets. If the
result is successful, the connection goes to the networking phase; otherwise,
it goes to the termination phase.
 ❖ Network: In network phase, negotiation for the network layer protocols
takes [Link] specifies that two nodes establish a network layer
agreement before data at the network layer can be exchanged. This is
because PPP supports several protocols at network layer. If a node is
running multiple protocols simultaneously at the network layer, the
receiving node needs to know which protocol will receive the data.
❖ Open: In this phase, data transfer takes place. The connection remains in
this phase until one of the endpoints wants to end the connection.
❖ Terminate: In this phase connection is terminated.
Components/Protocols of PPP
Three sets of components/protocols are defined to make PPP powerful:
❖ Link Control Protocol (LCP)
❖ Authentication Protocols (AP)
❖ Network Control Protocols (NCP)

Link Control Protocol (LCP) − It is responsible for establishing, configuring,

testing, maintaining and terminating links for transmission. It also provides
negotiation mechanisms to set options between the two endpoints. Both endpoints
of the link must reach an agreement about the options before the link can be
established.

Authentication Protocols (AP) − Authentication means validating the identity

of a user who needs to access a set of resources. PPP has created two protocols for
authentication -Password Authentication Protocol and Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol.

PAP :
The Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is a simple authentication
procedure with a two-step process:
a. The user who wants to access a system sends an authentication
identification (usually the user name) and a password.
b. The system checks the validity of the identification and password and
either accepts or denies connection.

CHAP :
The Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is a three-way
handshaking authentication protocol that provides greater security than PAP. In this
method, the password is kept secret; it is never sent online.
a. The system sends the user a challenge packet containing a challenge
value.
b. The user applies a predefined function that takes the challenge value and
the user’s own password and creates a result. The user sends the result in
the response packet to the system.
c. The system does the same. It applies the same function to the password of
the user (known to the system) and the challenge value to create a result.
If the result created is the same as the result sent in the response packet,
access is granted; otherwise, it is denied.
 CHAP is more secure than PAP, especially if the system continuously changes
the challenge value. Even if the intruder learns the challenge value and the result,
the password is still secret.

Network Control Protocols (NCP) − PPP is a multiple-network-layer

protocol. It can carry a network-layer data packet from protocols defined by the
Internet. PPP has defined a specific Network Control Protocol for each network
protocol. These protocols are used for negotiating the parameters and facilities for
the network layer. For every higher-layer protocol supported by PPP, one NCP is
there.

[Link] QUESTION PARTA/B/C YEAR PO BT

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