Wind Energy

Wind Energy or Wind Power describe the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity

Wind Turbines convert the Kinetic energy of the wind into Mechanical Power. This
mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping
water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity.

It is a clean, cheap, and eco-friendly renewable source

Very slow winds are useless, having no possibility of power generation. On the other
hand, very strong stormy winds cannot be utilized due to safety of turbine. Moderate to
high-speed winds, typically from 5 m/s to about 25 m/s are considered favourable for
most wind turbines.
Introduction

Wind is a form of solar energy caused by the

uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun,
the irregularities of the earth’s surface, and
rotation of the earth.

a) Hadley Circulation: The circulation of air, from

the north to south because of temperature
difference is termed as Hadley Circulation

b) Trade Winds: Used for sailing purposes

c) Ross by Circulations: These are the Wave like

circulations which help in transforming cold air
southward and warm air northward
Main disadvantages: are a dispersed, erratic and location-specific source.

Favourable winds for small-scale applications such as wind pumps, battery chargers,
heaters, etc., are estimated to be available on about 50 per cent of earth’s surface that
means small-scale wind turbines can be practical in many parts of the world.
Globally, wind energy has become a mainstream energy source and an important player in
the world’s energy markets, and it now contributes to the energy mix in more than 70
countries across the globe.

Major factors that have led to accelerated development of the wind power are as follows:

(i). Availability of high strength fiber composites for constructing large low-cost rotor
blades.
(ii). Falling prices of power electronics
(iii). Variable speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy
(iv). Improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95 per cent
(v). Economy of scale, as the turbines and plants are getting larger in size.
(vi). Accumulated field experience (the learning curve effect) improving the capacity
factor.
(vii). Short energy payback (or energy recovery) period of about one year.
ORIGIN OF WINDS

The origin of winds may be traced basically to uneven heating of earth surface due to sun. This
may lead to circulation of widespread winds on global basis, producing planetary winds or may
have a limited influence in a smaller area to cause local winds.

Global (or Planetary) Winds:

Two major forces determine the speed and direction of wind on global basis.

(i). Primary force for global winds is developed due to differential heating of earth at equator and
Polar Regions. In the tropical regions there is net gain of heat due to solar radiation,
whereas in the Polar Regions there is net loss of heat. This means that the earth’s
atmosphere has to circulate to transport heat from tropics towards the poles. On a global
scale, these atmospheric currents work as an immense energy transfer medium. Ocean currents
act similarly and are responsible for about 30 per cent of this global heat transfer.

(ii). Spinning of earth about its axis produces Coriolis force, which is responsible for deviation of
air currents towards west.
Local Winds

Localized uneven heating is responsible for local winds. Local winds are produced due to two
mechanisms:

(i). The first is differential heating of land surface and water bodies due to solar radiation.
During the day, solar energy is readily converted to sensible thermal energy on the
land surface and thus quickly increases its temperature. Whereas, on water bodies it is
partly consumed in evaporating water and only partly absorbed to cause an increase in
temperature. The land mass thus becomes hotter than water, which causes
differential heating of air above them. As a result, cool and heavier air blow from
water towards land.
At night, as the land mass cools to sky more rapidly than the water thus the direction of wind
is reversed, and the mechanism is called shore breeze.

(ii). This second mechanism of local winds is differential heating of slope on the hillsides and
that of lowlands. The slope heats up during the day and cools down during night more
rapidly than the low land. This causes the heated air to rise along the slope during the day
and relatively cool air to flow down at night.
NATURE OF WINDS

To be able to understand and predict performance of wind turbines it is essential to have some
knowledge of the behaviour and structure of wind which varies from site to site depending on the
general climate of the region, the physical geometry of the locality, the surface condition of the
terrain around the site and various other factors.
Characteristics of the flow in the region near ground. Main conclusions may be drawn as:

(i). Wind speed increases with height

(ii). Wind speed is fluctuating with time, i.e., turbulences are present at the site.
(iii). The turbulence is spread over a broad range of frequencies.
Wind speed increases with height
Wind speed is fluctuating with time.
Turbulence is spread over a broad range of frequencies
Variation of Wind Speed with Height

(i). At the earth surface wind speed is always zero.

(ii). Wind speed increases with height above the ground. The rate of change of wind speed
with height is called wind shear which results from the retardation of wind near the
earth surface due to surface roughness.
(iii). The lower layers of the air retard those above them, resulting in change in mean wind
speed with height. The height, for which the shear forces are reduced to zero, is called the
gradient height and is typically of about 2000 m.
(iv). Above the gradient height, known as free atmosphere, changes in wind speed are not
affected by ground conditions.
(v). The layer of air from ground to gradient height is known as planetary boundary layer. The
planetary boundary layer mainly consists of:

(a). surface layer, which extends from the height of local obstructions to a height
approximately 100 m.

(b). Ekman layer, which starts from 100 m and extends up to gradient height as shown in
Fig.1. In the surface layer the variation of shear stress can be neglected and mean wind speed
with height can be represented by Prandtl logarithmic law model:
Where, V is characteristic speed, d is zero plane
displacement, its magnitude is a little less than the
height of local obstructions, z0 is roughness length,
(z0 + d) is the height of local obstructions.

Fig.1: Wind Speed Variation with height

Main disadvantages: are a dispersed, erratic
and location-specific source.
Favourable winds for small-scale applications such
as wind pumps, battery chargers heaters, etc

Wind Velocity, u0 : Velocity of free air in the

neighbourhood of wind turbine (at a distance
where the disturbances due to rotation of turbine
does not reach).

Blade Element Linear Velocity, v : Linear

circumferential velocity of the blade element due
to rotation of blade.
Incident Wind Velocity, u1 : Velocity of air
passing through the rotor, i.e. the velocity at which
the wind strikes the blade, which is slightly less
than u0.
Relative Wind Velocity, vr : Velocity of air
relative to the blade element as both the air and
blade elements move.

Angle of Attack (or Angle of Incidence),

α: Angle between central line of the
blade element and relative wind
velocity, vr

Blade Setting Angle (or Pitch Angle), γ:

Angle between central line of the blade
element and direction of linear motion of the
blade element or angle between relative wind
velocity vr and normal to the plane of blade.
Chord: Width of the blade or distance from one
edge (fore) of the blade to the other (aft) (i.e.
length of blade element as shown in Fig.3. (b)).

Drag Force ΔFD : Incremental force acting on the

blade element in the direction of relative velocity
of wind

Lift Force, ΔFL : Incremental force acting on the

blade element in a direction perpendicular to the
relative velocity of wind

Axial Force, ΔFA : Incremental force acting on

the blade element along the axis of rotation of
blade

Tangential Force, ΔFT : Incremental force acting

on the blade element tangential to circular path of
rotation
Elementary Fluid Flow Concepts:
The nature of flow around a body at a given velocity
depends upon the relative magnitudes of the inertia and the
viscous forces. The ratio of these forces is known as
Reynolds number.
In a very slow moving (creeping) fluid, there is no relative
motion at the body wall, and the drag on the body may be
directly attributed to viscous, frictional shear stresses set up
in the fluid. The flow remains attached to the surface of the
body as shown in Fig.(a).
In practical situations, when the viscosity is low and the
velocity is relatively high, the drag force that exists is due
primarily to an unsymmetrical pressure distribution, fore and
aft. This is caused by the fact that the fluid does not follow
the boundary of the body, but separates from it leaving to a
low pressure, stagnant fluid in the wake as shown in Fig.(b).
On the upstream side, where the flow remains attached, the
pressure is high, because the flow has been slowed down
and pushed aside by the body obstructing its path.
As air foil is a streamlined body tapered gently in the aft
region and has sharp trailing edge. For an air foil the flow
remains attached to the body throughout.
WIND TURBINE TYPES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION

Wind turbines are broadly classified into two categories:

(i). When the axis of rotation is parallel to the air stream (i.e. horizontal), the
turbine is said to be a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT).

(ii). When it is perpendicular to the air stream (i.e. vertical), it is said to be a

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT).

The size of the rotor and its speed depends on rating of the turbine. Some of the
features of HAWT estimated at wind speed of 12 m/s and CP or available power =
30 per cent.
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT):

HAWT’s have emerged as the most successful type of turbines. These are being
used for commercial energy generation in many parts of the world. Their
theoretical basis is well researched and sufficient field experience is available with
them.

(i). Main Components

The constructional details of most common, three-blade rotor, horizontal axis
wind turbine is shown in Fig. Main parts are as follows:
Fig: Horizontal axis wind Turbine
(a). Turbine Blades:
Turbine blades are made of high-density wood or glass fibre and epoxy composites.
They have air foil type cross-section. The blades are slightly twisted from the outer
tip to the root to reduce the tendency to stall. In addition to modern wind turbines
have two or three blades.
Two/three blade rotor HAWT are also known as propeller type wind
turbines owing to their similarity with propellers of old aero planes.
However, the rotor rpm in case of wind turbine is very low as compared to that for
propellers.

The relative merits and demerits of two and three blade rotors are as follows:
(i). Compared to two-blade design, the three-blade machine has smoother power
output and balanced gyroscopic force.
(ii). There is no need to teeter the rotor, allowing the use of simple rigid hub. The
blades may be cross-linked for greater rigidity.
(iii). Adding third blade increases the power output by about 5 per cent only, while
the weight and cost of rotor increases by 50 per cent, thus giving a diminished
rate of return for additional 50 per cent weight and cost.

(iv). The two-blade rotor is also simpler to erect, since it can be assembled on
ground and lifted to the shaft without complicated manoeuvres during the lift.
Three blades are more common in Europe and other developing countries
including India. The American practice, however, is in favour of two blades.

(b). Hub: The central solid portion rotor wheel is known as hub. All blades are
attached to the hub. Mechanism for pitch angle control is also provided
inside the hub.
(c). Nacelle: The term nacelle is derived from the name for housing containing
the engines of an aircraft. The rotor is attached to nacelle, mounted at the
top of a tower. It contains rotor brakes, gearbox, generator and electrical
switchgear and control. Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power generation
is not desired. Gearbox steps up the shaft rpm to suit the generator. Protection
and control functions are provided by switchgear and control block. The generated
electrical power is conducted to ground terminals through a cable.
(d). Yaw Control Mechanism: The mechanism to adjust the nacelle around
vertical axis to keep it facing the wind is provided at the base of nacelle.

(e). Tower: Tower supports nacelle and rotor. For medium and large sized turbines,
the tower is slightly taller than the rotor diameter. In case of small sized turbine,
the tower is much larger than the rotor diameter as the air is erratic at lower
heights. Both steel and concrete towers are being used. The construction can be
either tubular or lattice type.
The tower vibrations and resulting fatigue cycles under wind speed fluctuations are
avoided by careful design. This requires avoidance of all resonance frequencies of
tower, the rotor and the nacelle from the wind fluctuation frequencies.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT):

VAWTs are in the development stage and many models are undergoing field trial.
Main attractions of a VAWT are:
(i). it can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need of yaw control.
(ii). gearbox, generator etc. Are located at the ground, thus eliminating the heavy
nacelle at the top of the tower. This simplifies the design and installation of the whole
structure, including tower.
(iii). the inspection and maintenance also get easier and
(iv). it also reduces the overall cost

1. Main Components:
The constructional details of a vertical axis wind turbine (Darrieus type rotor) are
shown in Fig. The details of main components are as follows:
(a). Tower (or Rotor Shaft): The tower is a hollow vertical rotor shaft, which
rotates freely about vertical axis between top and bottom bearings. It is installed
above a support structure. In the absence of any load at the top, a very strong tower
is not required which greatly simplifies its design. The upper part of the tower is
supported by guy ropes. The height of the tower of a large turbine is around 100 m.
(b). Blades: It has two or three
thin, curved blades shaped like an
eggbeater in profile, with blades
curved in a form that minimizes
the bending stress caused by
centrifugal forces-the so-called
‘Troposkien’s profile. The blades
have air foil cross-section
with constant chord length.
The pitch of blades cannot be
changed. The diameter of the
rotor is slightly less than the
tower height. The first large (3.8
MW), Darrieus type, Canadian
machine has rotor height as 94 m
and diameter as 65 m with a
chord of 2.4 m.

Fig.: Vertical axis wind (Darrieus) turbines

(c). Support Structure: Support structure is provided at the ground to support the
weight of the rotor. Gearbox, generator, brakes, electrical switchgear and controls are
housed within this structure.
2. Types of Rotors
Various types or rotors for VAWTs are shown in Fig. The simplest being three or four
cups structure attached symmetrically to a vertical shaft. Drag force on concave
surface of the cup facing the wind is more than that on convex surface. As a result,
the structure starts rotating. Some lift force also helps rotation. However, it cannot
carry a load and is, therefore, not used as power source.
Main characteristic of this rotor is that its rotational frequency is linearly related to
wind speed. Therefore, it is used as transducer for measuring the wind speed and
the apparatus is known as cup anemometer.

The Savonius or S-rotor consist of two half cylinders attached to a vertical axis
and facing in opposite direction to form a two-vanned rotor. It has high starting
torque, low speed and low efficiency. It can extract power even from very slow
wind, making it work most of the time. These are used for low power
applications. High starting torque particularly makes it suitable for pumping
applications, using positive displacement pumps.

Derrieus rotor:
(i). It is used for large-scale power generation. Power coefficient is considerably
better than S-rotor.
(ii). It runs at a large tip-speed ratio.
(iii). The aerodynamic force on the blade reverses in every revolution causing
fatigue. This along with centrifugal force complicates the design of the blade.
(iv). One of the drawbacks of this rotor is that it is usually not self-starting.
Movement may be initiated by using electrical generator as motor.
(v). As the pitch of the blade cannot change, the rotor frequency and thus the
output power cannot be controlled. Rotor frequency increases with wind speed and
power output keeps on increasing till the blades stall. Hence at high wind speed it
becomes difficult to control the output.
(vi). For better performance and safety of the blades, gearbox and generator, etc., it
is desirable to limit the output to a level much below its maximum possible value.

Horizontal Axis versus Vertical Axis Turbines

Most wind turbines used at present are of horizontal axis type. They have been well
researched and have gone through extensive field trial. As a result, well-established
technology is available for HAWTs. Some advantages of VAWT have recently
generated considerable interest in this type of turbine. These are:
(i). it can accept wind from any direction without adjustment, which avoids the cost
and complexity of yaw orientation system.
(ii). gearing and generators, etc., are located at ground level, which simplifies the
design of tower, the installation and subsequent inspection and maintenance.
(iii). also, they are less costly as compared to HAWTs.

The principle disadvantages of VAWTs are:

(i). many vertical axis machines have suffered from fatigue arising from numerous
natural resonances in the structure.
(ii). rotational torque from the wind varies periodically within each cycle, and thus
unwanted power periodicities appear at the output.
(iii). it normally requires guy ropes attached to the top for support, which could limit
its applications particularly for offshore sites.
(iv). it is noisier than HAWT.
(v). as wind speed increases significantly with height, for the same tower height
HAWT captures more power than VAWT.
(vi). the technology is under development stage and far less is known about them as
compared to HAWTs.
Power Extraction from Wind

Wind turbine is used to harness useful mechanical power from wind. The rotor of the
turbine collects energy from the whole area swept by the rotor. For the purpose of
simple analysis, a smooth laminar flow with no perturbations is assumed. A horizontal
axis wind turbine, which is most commonly used, is considered. The rotor may be
considered as an actuator disk across which there is reduction of pressure as energy is
extracted. As air mass flow rate must be same everywhere within the stream tube the
speed must decrease as air expands. The stream tube model, also known as Betz
model of expanding air stream tube, is shown in Fig.
 Fig: Betz model of expanding air stream tube

The stream tube area of constant air mass is A0 upstream, which expands to A1
while passing through rotor and become A2 downstream. The wind speed is u0
upstream, which reduces to u1 while passing through the rotor and becomes u2
downstream.
The air mass flow rate remains same throughout the stream tube, therefore:
 P T = CP x P 0 ……………… (9)

where, CP is the fraction of available power in

the wind that can be extracted and is known
as power coefficient. CP is given as:
CP = 4a × (1 – a)^2 ………………… (10)

The variation of power coefficient, CP with interference factor ‘a’ is shown graphically
in Fig.6. Physical significance of the curve is discussed below:
(i). When no load is coupled to the turbine, the blades just freewheel. There is no
reduction of wind speed at the turbine, therefore, u1 = u0 and the value ‘a’ is zero.
The turbine does not generate any power and CP = 0. The air just passes through the
turbine without any reduction of speed.
(ii). Now as load is applied, power is extracted, so CP increases as u1 decreases.
Maximum value of CP (i.e. CP max = 16/27 = 0.593) occurs at ‘a’ = 1/3.
At this condition:
Fig.6: Cp versus a
(iii). When u2 = 0, ‘a’ = 0.5
The simple model breaks down as no wind is predicted to be leaving downstream. In
practice, this is equivalent to onset of turbulence downstream. Power extraction
decreases due to mismatch of rotational frequency and wind speed and partial stalling
begins. The turbine blades will still be turning, causing extensive turbulence in the air
stream, leading to more losses.
(iv). When the wind speed at the turbine is reduced to zero (. i.e. u1= 0), ‘a’ becomes
unity and no power is extracted. This state is known as (complete) stall state of
blades.

Betz Criterion
In practice all of the kinetic energy in the wind cannot be converted to shaft power
since the air must be able to flow away from the rotor area. The Betz criterion
derived using the principles of conservation of momentum and conservation
of energy suggests a maximum possible turbine efficiency, (or power
coefficient) of 59 per cent. In practice power coefficients of 20-30 per cent are
more common.