Introduction 1.

1 Definition of soil and rock

1.2 Definition of soil mechanics and its importance in civil engineering
1.3 Formation process of soil and its major types
Definition of Soil and Rock
Unconsolidated material, composed of solid particles produced by the disintegration of rocks is called soil. The
void space between solid particles may contain air, water or both.
A natural aggregate of mineral particles bonded by strong and permanent cohesive force is called rock.
Definition of Soil Mechanics and its importance in Civil Engineering
Soil mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with
sediments and other unconsolidated accumulation of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical
disintegration of rocks.
Importance in Civil Engineering

a) Foundation Design and Construction

Every civil engineering structure is constructed on or below the surface of the earth. Foundation
transmits the load of the structure to soil safely and efficiently. It is therefore necessary to know the
bearing capacity of soil, settlement of foundation, effect of ground water. The stability of foundation
depends upon the type of soil strata, magnitude of loads and ground water.
b) Retaining Structures
Sufficient space may not be available for a mass of soil to spread and form a safe slope. In such cases, a
structure to retain soil is needed to be constructed. Soil engineering gives the theories of earth pressure
on retaining structures that is necessary for the design.
c) Stability of Slopes
When the soil surface is not horizontal, there is a component of weight of soil which tends to move it
downward making the slope unstable. Soil engineering provides the methods for checking slope stability.
Design of slope and height of embankment and depth of excavation requires a thorough knowledge of
shear strength.
d) Underground Structures
The forces exerted by the soil on tunnel and conduits need to be analyzed and evaluated for their
design and construction
e) Pavement Design
The thickness of pavement depends upon characteristics of sub-soil where traffic intensity is high.
Knowledge regarding soil improvement techniques is much helpful in constructing pavement in poor soil.
f) Earthen Dam
Construction of earthen dam requires knowledge regarding soil mechanics.

Formation process of soil and its major types

a) Physical Disintegration
 Soil has the properties of parent rock.
 Coarse grained soils as gravel and sand are formed.
i) Temperature Changes :-Different minerals of rock have different coefficient of thermal expansion.
Unequal expansion and contraction of mineral occur due to temperature changes. Stress is induced due
to such changes. The repetition of stress causes the particles to detach from the rocks leading to the
formation of soil.
ii) Wedging action of ice.: -Water in the pores and mineral cracks of rocks freeze during cold climate.
Expansion occurs due to increase in volume. Rocks break into pieces when large stress is developed in
the cracks due to wedging action of ice.
iii) Spreading of roots of plants:- Forces act on rocks when the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the
cracks and fissure of rocks leading to disintegration.
iv) Abrasion:- The movement of wind, rivers and glaciers over the surface of rock leads to abrasion and
scouring.
b) Chemical Decomposition

 Original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical reactions.
 Clayey soils are formed.
i) Hydration
Water combines with rock minerals and results in the formation of new chemical compound.
Chemical reaction causes a change in volume and decomposition of rock takes place.
ii) Carbonation
CO2 in atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid reacts with rocks
and causes their decomposition.

iii) Oxidation
Oxygen ions combine with mineral in rocks resulting in decomposition.
iv) Solution
Some of the rock minerals form a solution when dissolved in water. Chemical reaction takes
place in solution and soil is formed.
v) Hydrolysis
Chemical process in which water gets dissociated into H+ and OHions is called hydrolysis. The
hydrogen cation replace the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium and potassium in rock
materials and soils are formed.

Types of Soils

Broadly on the basis of origin of their constituents, soils are classified as residual soil and transported
soils.
Residual Soil: Soils that remain at the place of their formation as a result of the weathering action of
parent rocks are called residual soil. The size of grains of residual soil is indefinite. The depth of
residual soil depends upon climatic condition and time of exposure.
Transported Soil: Soil formed at a place may be transported to the other places by agents as water, wind,
ice, gravity. Such soils are called transported soil.
i) Water Transported Soils (Alluvial Deposits)
 Swift running water carries a large quantity of soil either in suspension or by rolling along the
bed.
 Water erodes the hills and deposits the soil in the valleys.
 Size of soil particles carried by water depends upon the velocity.
 Swift can carry boulder and gravels.
 With a decrease in velocity, the coarse particles get deposited.
 The finer particles are carried further downstream and are deposited when the velocity reduces.
ii) Lacustrine Deposits: Deposit made in lakes.
iii) Marine Deposits: Deposits formed when the flowing water carries soil to ocean or sea.
iv) Aeolian Deposits: Soil transmitted by winds. The particle size depends upon the velocity of the
wind.
v) Glacial Deposits: Glaciers are large mass of ice formed by the compaction of snow. Soil gets
mixed with ice and transported far away from their original position.
vi) Gravity Deposits: Soils can be transported through short distance under the action of gravity.
The soil mass deposited at the bottom of the cliff is an example of gravity deposit
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 SOIL COMPACTION
Compaction is a process of pressing soil particles close to each other by mechanical methods.
• In compaction air is expelled from the void space in soil mass and thus dry density of soil is increased.
• In other words, compaction is the densification of soil by removal of air which requires mechanical energy.
PURPOSE OF SOIL COMPACTION
• To increase the dry density of soil.
• Soil compaction is done to improve engineering properties such as shear strength, stability and bearing
capacity.
• To decrease the undesirable settlement of structures.
• To control undesirable volume changes.
• Compaction bring about the a low permeability of soil.
• It increases stability of slopes
DRY DENSITY AND WATER CONTENT RELATIONSHIP
For any soil there exist a definite relationship between the soil water content and dry density to which the soil
can be compacted and that for a specific amount of compaction energy or effort applied on the soil there is a
particular water content at which the soil attains its maximum dry density.
• The water content corresponding to the maximum dry density is known as Optimum Moisture Content
(O.M.C.) or Optimum Water Content (O.W.C. (O.M.C.). (O.M.C.) or Optimum Water Content (O.W.C.

At a water content lower than the optimum, the soil is

rather stiff and has lot of void spaces and, therefore the dry
density is low.

• As the water content is increased, the soil particles get

lubricated and slip over each other, and move into densely
packed positions and the dry density is increased

However, at a water content more than the optimum, the

additional water reduces the dry density, as it occupies the
space that might have been occupied by solid particles •
The curve between water content and dry density is known
as the water content-dry density curve or the moisture
content-dry density curve or the compaction curve

LABORATORY TEST TO OBTAIN COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS

Standard Proctor Test FROM B. PANDIT

Modified Proctor Test

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

• Water Content

Initially ρd increases with increase in water content due to lubricating effect and results ease in compaction.
However, at a water content more than the optimum, the additional water reduces the dry density, as it occupies
the space that might have been occupied by solid particles.

• Admixtures
The compaction characteristics of the soils are improved by adding other materials, known as admixtures. • The
most commonly used admixtures are lime, cement and bitumen
 Amount of Compaction

The effect of increasing the amount of compactive

effort is to increase the maximum dry density and to
decrease the optimum water content. At a water
content less than the optimum, the effect of increased
compaction is more predominant. At a water content
more than OMC, the volume of air voids become almost
constant and the effect of increased compaction is not
significant.

EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

The water content of a compacted soil is expressed with reference to the OMC. Thus, soils are said to be compacted dry
of optimum or wet of optimum (i.e. on the dry side or wet side of OMC). The structure of a compacted soil is not similar
on both sides even when the dry density is the same, and this difference has a strong influence on the engineering
characteristics.

1. Soil Structure

For a given compactive effort, soils have a flocculated structure on the dry side (i.e. soil particles are oriented randomly),
whereas they have a dispersed structure on the wet side (i.e. particles are more oriented in a parallel arrangement
perpendicular to the direction of applied stress). This is due to the well-developed adsorbed water layer (water film)
surrounding each particle on the wet side.
 2. Permeability

The randomly oriented soil in the dry side exhibits the same permeability in all directions, whereas the dispersed soil in
the wet side is more permeable along particle orientation than across particle orientation

3. Compressibility

The flocculated structure developed on the dry side of the optimum offers greater resistance to compression than the
dispersed structure on the wet side. Thus, the soils on the dry side are less compressible.

4. Pore Water Pressure

A sample compacted dry of the optimum has low water content. The pore water pressure for the soil compacted dry of
the optimum is therefore less than that for the same soil compacted wet of the optimum

5. Swelling

Due to a higher water deficiency and partially developed water films in the dry side, when given access to water, the soil
will soak in much more water and then swell more.

6. Shrinkage

During drying, soils compacted in the wet side tend to show more shrinkage than those compacted in the dry side. In the
wet side, the more orderly orientation of particles allows them to pack more efficiently.

7. Stress-Strain Relationship
The soils compacted dry of optimum have steeper stress-strain curve than those on the wet side. The modulus of
elasticity for the soils compacted dry of the optimum is therefore high. Such soils have brittle failure.

The soils compacted on the wet of the optimum have relatively flatter stress-strain curve and a corresponding lower value
of modulus of elasticity. The failure in this case occurs at a large strain and is of plastic type.

8. Shear strength
COMPACTION CONTROL AT FIELD
• The laboratory compaction tests give the optimum water content and the maximum dry density.
• In the field, during the compaction of the soils, it is essential to check the dry density and the water content in order to
effect proper quality control.
• Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density and the water content of the compacted soil in the field.

COMPACTION CONTROL AT FIELD

Dry Density
1. Sand Replacement Method (Suitable for cohesionless, firm, gravelly soil)
2. Core-cutter Method (Suitable for loose cohesive soil)

Water Content

 The oven-drying method of the determination of the water content takes 24 hours.
 Water content can be determine using sand bath method, alchol method, calcium carbide method
 The water content can be determined indirectly using a Proctor needle also known as plasticity needle.
 The proctor needle consists of a rod attached to a spring-loaded plunger. The stem of the plunger is marked to
read the resistance in Newton.
 The needle-shank has graduations to indicate the depth of penetration.
 For cohesive soil, the needle points of larger cross-sectional areas are required and for cohesionless soil, those
of smaller crosssectional areas are used
 After the soil has been compacted at a given water content in the compaction test in laboratory, the rod with
a suitable needle point is forced into the soil mass by 7.5cm at the rate of 1.25cm/sec.
 The maximum force used to penetrate the needle is read out of the scale. This force when divided by the
needle (tip) area, will give the penetration resistance.
 A number of such measurements area made in the lab during compaction test, and a calibration curve is
obtained between the penetration resistance (R) and the water content.
 To determine the water content of the compacted soil in the field, the soil is compacted in the standard
compaction mould in the field. The penetration resistance of the compacted soil is measured.
  The moisture content is then obtained from the calibration curve.

RELATIVE COMPACTION / PERCENT COMPACTION

• The dry density achieved in the field is compared with the maximum dry density obtained in the standard
proctor test or that in the modified proctor test. The ratio of the dry density in the field to maximum dry
density in the laboratory is known as the relative compaction or percent compaction.
• For cohesive soils, the dry density of the order of 95% of the maximum dry density of the standard proctor
test can be achieved using a sheep-foot roller or a pneumatic-tyred roller.
• For moderately cohesive soils, the dry density of the order of 95% of that in modified proctor test can be
achieved using pneumatic tyred roller with an inflation pressure of 600KN/m2
. • For very heavy clay, sheep-foot rollers are effective
. • For cohesionless soils, the dry density of the order of 100% or even more of that in the modified proctor
test can be obtained using pneumatic-tyred rollers, vibratory rollers and other vibratory equipmen

COMPACTION SPECIFICATION

• End-Product Specification

Relative compaction or percentage compaction is specified.

• Method Specification

• Type and weight of roller.

• The number of passes.

• Suitable for large projects on

Consistency of soil
Consistency is a termed used to indicate the degree of firmness of soils. Consistency of natural cohesive soil deposits is
expressed qualitatively by terms as very soft, stiff, very stiff and hard. It is mostly used for fine grained soil (clay) for which
the consistency is related to a large extent of water content. Mr. Atterberg stated that if the water content of a thick
suspension of clay is gradually reduced, the clay-water mixture undergoes changes from liquid state to through a plastic
state and finally into a solid state. The different states through which the soil sample passes through with the degree in
the moisture content has been shown alongside.

The water content corresponding to the transition from one state to another state is termed as Atterberg limit or
consistency limit.

Liquid Limit (LL)

The liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes from liquid state to the plastic state. It is the minimum water
content at which the soil is still in liquid state but has a small shearing strength against flowing. At liquid limit, the soil
possess a small value of shear strength. The liquid limit is determined using the standard liquid limit apparatus.

1) About 120gm of the dried soil sample passing through 425 micron sieve is taken. It is mixed thoroughly with distilled
water.
2) A portion of the soil paste is kept in cup and levelled by means of spatula.
3) Using standard grooving tool a groove is cut in the soil from back to front dividing the paste in the bowl into two equal
halves. Consider Cassagrande's tool for a normal fine grained soil and ASTM tool for sandy fine grained soil.
4) Turn the handle of Cassagrande's device at a steady rate of two revolutions per second. Continue turning until two
halves of soil pat come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13mm.
5) Note the number of blows.
6) The water content of the soil is atlered and process is repeated.
7) Adjusting the water in such a way that the number of blows to close the groove may fall within the range of 5 to 40
blows carries out at least four tests.
8) The water content values are plotted as ordinate on natural scale against number of blows to obtain a best fitting
straight line which is referred as flow curve.
9) From this plot, the liquid limit is obtained as water content corresponding to 25 blows.

Plastic Limit (PL)

Plastic limit is the water content below which the soil stops behaving as a plastic material. At this water content the soil
loses its plasticity and passes into semi-solid state. It is the minimum water content at which a soil will just begin to
grumble (crack) when rolled into a thread approximately 3mm in diameter.

1) Take about 20gm of soil for plastic limit test. The soil should pass through 0.425mm IS sieve.
2) Mix the soil with distilled water thoroughly to get soil paste.
3) Make the soil paste into a ball of diameter 10 to 20mm.
4) Convert the ball of soil into a thread by rolling on a glass plate with the hand until it formed in form of thread of 3mm
diameter.
5) If the thread crumbles when rolled into diameter of 3mm, collect such threads for water content determination. The
crumbled thread is tested for water content when its weight is found out before drying say w1 and after drying say w2 (in
oven), then Wp = Ww/W, = (W1-W2)/W₂. If the thread does not crumble, knead the sample and again make the thread.
Repeat this process until the thread crumbles at 3mm diameter

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

It is defined as the lowest water content at which a reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in the volume of
a soil mass.

1) About 30gm of air dried soil sample passing through 425 micros I.S. Sieve is placed in an evaporating dish and
thoroughly mixed with distilled water to form a soil paste of slightly flowing consistency.
2) The shrinkage dish (non-corrodible cup of 30-40 mm dia. and 15mm height) is weighed.
3) Fill mercury in the shrinkage dish. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the plain glass plate over the top of the
shrinkage dish. The plate should be flush with the top of the dish, and no air should be entrapped.
4) Transfer the mercury of the shrinkage dish to a mercury weighing dish and determine the mass of the mercury. The
volume of the shrinkage dish is equal to the mass ofthe mercury divided by its unit weight.
5) Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of grease.
6) The shrinkage cup is filled with the soil paste in three layers the cup being gently tapped on a cushioned surface after
filling with each layer to ensure expulsion of air bubbles.
7) The surface of the soil is leveled and outer side of cup is cleaned.
8) The mass of shrinkage cup with wet soil pat is found and this is deducted from mass of shrinkage cup to get mass of
wet soil pat (M1).
9) The wet soil is allowed to dry in air sometime, then kept in thermostatically controlled oven, and dried for 24 hours at
105°C-110°C.
10) After oven drying the mass of dry soil pat (Ms) is found.
 Soil Structure
Soil structure is defined as the geometrical arrangement of soil particles in a soil mass. The soils in nature have
different structures depending upon the particle size and the mode of formation. If the individual particles are packed
very close to each other, the void ratio is low and the soil is dense and strong. More voids in the soil makes the soil weak
and loose.
The formation of soil structure is governed by several factors as the force of gravity for coarse grained soils and
the surface bonding forces for fine grained soils.
1. Single grained structure
Cohesion less soils, such as gravel and sand, are composed of bulky grains in which the gravitational forces are
more predominant than surface forces. When deposition of these soil occurs, the particles settle under gravitational
forces and take an equilibrium position as shown in Figure. Each particle is in contact with those surrounding it. The
arrangement is somewhat similar to the stacking of oranges on a grocer’s counter. Depending upon the relative position
of soil particles, the soil may be a loose structure or dense structure.
2. Honey comb structure
It is possible for fine sands or silts to be deposited such that the particles when setting develop a particle-to-
particle contact that bridges over large voids in the soil mass (Refer to Figure). The honeycomb structure usually develops
when the particle size is between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm.
3. Dispersed clay
The final structures of clay are established from the balance of interactive forces and external forces applied to
the clay assemblage. If the final inter particle forces are repulsive, the particles want to separate from each other when
the boundary confinements are removed. This is a situation of dispersed clay. The soils in dispersed structure generally
have a low shear strength, high compressibility, and low permeability.
4. Flocculated Structure
If the inter particle force are attractive, then particles want to come together, making flocculated clay. If the edge
charges are positive, most likely, the edges are attracted to the flat surface of other clay particles. This makes a card
house structure of flocculated clay, most commonly in salt water environment. In freshwater environments, more face-
to-face flocculated structures are formed due to negative charges at the edges.
5. Coarse-grained Skeleton
A coarse-grained skeleton is a composite structure which is formed when the soil contains particles of different
types. When the amount of bulky, cohesionless particles is large compared with that of fine-grained clayey particles, the
bulky grains are in particle to particle contact. These particles form a skeleton. As long as soil structure is not disturbed, a
coarse-grained skeleton can take heavy loads without much deformation.
6. Clay-matrix Structure
Clay-matrix structure is also a composite structure formed by soils of different types. However, in this case, the
amount of clay particles is very large as compared with bulky coarse-grained particles. The clay forms a matrix in which
bulky grains appear floating without touching one another.