2.

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) Forms of Vincible Ignorance:

Heidegger contends that this emphasis on freedom enables a. Affected Vincible occurs when a person pretends to
us to understand philosophy as "going-after-the-whole" that be ignorant in order to gain approval or avoid blame for
is at the same time a "going-to-our-roots." In other words, a wrong action. In ordinary language, children might call
we must search for the essence of human freedom in the this "agpalusot." Any action performed under affected
constant presence of being-in-the-world, which precedes or pretended ignorance does not excuse the person; in
and grounds philosophical thinking. fact, it may increase their culpability.
Example: A student pretends not to know the school's
• This is manifested in Martin Heidegger's idea of "dasein" policy on proper haircuts to excuse themselves when
(da means "there" while sein means "being". He challenges confronted by the guards.
us to understand the meaning and what it means to be
there. He claimed that man is dasein (being-there), but b. Supine or Crass happens when a person makes little
Dasein does not necessarily mean man. This means that or no effort to learn something they should know.
being-there has to be made "Ginagawa ang pagiging tao." Example: Giving the wrong medicine to a sick person
We have to create our being as persons. Our mere existence due to negligence, which could worsen the patient's
does not presuppose that we are already living as a person. condition.

• Like Sartre, we are responsible for projecting our lives. 2. Concupiscence is a situation where one's inordinate
So, we must see to it that we are the gardeners of our own passion hinders them from exercising correct reasoning,
lives. This is what makes Heidegger very interested in the thus affecting their actions. Passions refer to our
problem of Being rather than merely in the problem of emotional elements, such as anger, pride, envy, love, joy,
human existence. etc. Not all passions are bad. Some are inherently bad,
while others become bad only when excessive or
Other Factors which Affect the Morality of Human Acts inordinate.
While norms or laws are general, most often, in their Example: Pride and anger become harmful only when
implementation, there are many factors to consider they are excessive and start to control one's mind,
especially in judging the action committed in relation to the pushing the person to act inappropriately. Regarding
law. For example if two people committed the same crime, pride, it is important to have pride in your parents;
how come that their punishments are not the same? Aside without it, you might be content with poor grades, even
from the purpose and circumstance that affects the if they are all lines of seven or all 75%. The morality of
judgment of a certain act, there are other factors to actions done out of concupiscence depends on how the
consider. Some authors refer to these as impediments to passions influenced the doer's action. The culpability
human acts (impediment means hindrance). may increase, decrease, or even be negated.

Impediments to Human Acts Two kinds of concupiscence:

Human actions are naturally a product of will and reason, a. Antecedent concupiscence is a spontaneous or
but sometimes they are influenced by certain factors, which sudden inordinate passion that influences an action
are called impediments to human actions. These factors before it is controlled by the will.
intervene and prevent an action from being fully human or Example: Juan was already running late for class. When
reduce the quality of a particular action. Impediments thus he entered the school campus, the guard confiscated his
affect the overall quality of human acts. ID for no apparent reason. Out of anger,
hemunconsciously cursed the guard. In Ibanag, this is
1. Ignorance pertains to the lack of pertinent information, called "gavva lang", reacting impulsively out of (shock).
as to the nature, circumstances and effect of a certain The culpability of actions done of antecedent
action. Ignorance takes place when an individual concupiscence can be lessened or even negated
consciously proceeds to act on a certain matter without depending on the circumstances.
consideration of the relevant or necessary information
related to it. b. Consequent concupiscence occurs when one is aware
of the inordinate passion, but the will chooses to act
Two classifications of ignorance: upon it, performing the bad action. The passion has
a. Invincible Ignorance occurs when a person is already passed through the intellect and iscontrolled by
completely unaware of the circumstances surrounding the will, yet the individual still performs the human act.
their actions, and there is no way to remove or dispel this In other words, you know you are very angry at
ignorance. In such situations, the individual's culpability is someone, but you still push through with a bad action,
negated. such as punching, kicking, or slapping. You did nothing
Example: A person who is illiterate, unable to read or to calm down or control your anger. Since the passion is
write, caught jaywalking. deliberately and voluntarily acted upon, the culpability
of the action increases.
[Link] Ignorance refers to a lack of knowledge Example: Pedro is obese. During a town fiesta. The
required to determine whether an action is good or bad, but houses of four friends and ate. On his way home, he
this ignorance can be overcome through effort, decided to stop at a fast-food restaurant for more food
conscientiousness, and proper diligence. Mistakes or wrong and later vomited. Clearly, he could have controlled his
actions resulting from vincible ignorance reduce the food intake. Despite being full, he deliberately chose to
person's culpability. eat more. His moral responsibility increases because it
Example: Making a mistake without fully realizing that the was within his reason, will, and control to stop, but he
action is truly wrong. failed to do so.
3. Fear affects the performance of a human act because Problems come when people just kill someone without
the individual is threatened by impending danger "ginawa being attacked physically. There was no actual
o nagawa mo yung isang bagay kasi tinakot ka". The aggression done.
presence of danger and intimidation affects a person's Example: One is just looking at you intently then
thought processes in determining the goodness or badness suddenly you spank or even kill him with a gun or any
of their actions. A human act done under fear is still other hard objects. Remember in self-defense, there is
considered voluntary, and therefore culpable if it is a bad no intention to kill but only to defend oneself or run
act. This is because one can, in principle, still choose not to away from the trouble.
act despite the fear or danger. Example: You have a gun and one is running after you
with a knife. Which part of the aggressor's body should
Example: A woman is forced at gunpoint to remove her you hit with your gun? The head? Stomach? Neck?
clothes. She could just choose not to do the act. However, Chest? None of the above my dear children. It should be
the culpability of a bad act done out of fear can be lessened, the foot or feet.
increased, or negated depending on the severity of the
threat and circumstance, especially in situations where
one acts instinctively to survive. 5. Habit is a firm and stable behavior pattern of acting.
Example: While walking in a dark alley, Pedro is An individual naturally and consciously performs an
confronted by a robber pointing a gun at his head. Trapped action, as a result of its repetitive performance through
and in danger of being killed, he has no choice but to time. One acts based on his/her repeated responses to
defend himself. As a result, the robber is seriously hurt. In situations. Good moral habits are called virtues while
this case, Pedro does not have moral responsibility for bad habits are vices. People are expected to exert
harming because he acted in self-defense. Acts done from utmost effort to free themselves from vicious habits.
fear, in certain cases, can be considered involuntary Examples: Bad habits are speaking bad words when
because the agent is compelled to act to avoid a greater you are mad, always coming late, not attending mass,
evil. This type of situation reduces voluntariness and thus copying during quizzes and exams, etc. How do we
decreases moral responsibility. moralize vices or bad habits? Vices or bad habits are
culpable. The culpability is lessened only when one is
Two classifications of fear: exerting effort to correct or stop his/her vices.
a. Light Fear the threat or imminent danger confronting a
person is not serious or grave enough to strongly influence
or force them to act. Therefore, a seriously bad act done
under light fear is still culpable.

b. Grave Fear the threat is so serious or grave that it can

strongly influence or force a person to perform a certain
act.
Example: During a hold-up, people are forced to give their
money or belongings to a robber out of fear. In such cases,
the culpability of a bad act done under grave fear can be
lessened or even negated.

4. Violence is when you exert all the efforts needed to

defend yourself in extreme cases where your life or your
dignity is at stake. This applies to situations such as rape
or hold-ups, where the aggressors may even attempt to kill
their victims. The morality here is that one is culpable if he
or she does not exert all necessary efforts to defend
themselves from the aggressor when their life or dignity is
at stake. However, culpability can be lessened depending
on the circumstances.
Examples: If a woman is defending herself from a rapist
and, by accident, the rapist's head hits a wall, stone, or
hard object and he dies, her action is not culpable. This is
because she was merely defending herself, with no
intention to kill the aggressor. Self-defense is a classic
example of a morally justified action in the face of
aggression, where one must protect themselves from the
attacker.

Conditions for Self-defense:

1. The aggression must be unjust.
2. The aggression must be actual.
3. Use minimum violence/it must be proportional
MODULE 4:
5. An objectively bad act can never become good in spite of
Elements in determining the morality of Human Acts the good motive. Example: to steal money with the good
1. The Object/Act intention of giving it to charitable institutions or to the
• This is the action itself. This answers the question poor, as the legendary Robin Hood did. As the principle
WHAT. It refers to the Human Act itself. For an act to be says, “The end does not justify the means.”
ethically and morally good, the object must be good in
itself, otherwise it is bad. Types of Ethics
1. Deontology
2. The Circumstance Deontology (or Deontological Ethics) is an approach to
• This refers to the persons involved, the time, place Ethics that focuses on the rightness or wrongness of
and occasion that surround an object/act. In other actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or
words, it answers the questions: WHO, WHEN, WHERE wrongness of the consequences of those actions
and HOW. This can change or completely alter the moral (Consequentialism) or to the character and habits of the
quality of a human act. Circumstance is a condition actor (Virtue Ethics).
modifying human actions, either by increasing or
diminishing the moral responsibility. • Deontology may sometimes be consistent with Moral
Absolutism (the belief that some actions are wrong no
3. The Intention or End or Purpose matter what consequences follow from them), but not
• Every human act, no matter how trivial or significant, necessarily. The deontological class of ethical theories
is states that people should adhere to their obligations and
done with an intention or purpose – the reason behind duties when engaged in decision making when ethics are
the act. This answers the question WHY. For a human in play.
act to be ethically and morally good, the agent or doer • Deontology is ethics of doing and action.
must have a good intention. Many such activities are
said to be morally indifferent in themselves but when • The word deontology derives from the Greek words for
performed, their moral quality lies in the intention and duty (deon) and science (or study) of (logos).
circumstance behind this activities. In contemporary moral philosophy, deontology is one of
The end or intention can modify human action in four those kinds of normative theories regarding which choices
ways: are morally required, forbidden, or permitted. In other
a. An indifferent act may become morally good or bad. words, deontology falls within the domain of moral
b. An objectively good act may become morally bad. theories that guide and assess our choices of what we
c. An objectively good act can receive added goodness. ought to do (deontic theories), in contrast to
d. An objectively bad act can never become good in those that guide and assess what kind of person we are
spite of the good motive and should be (aretaic [virtue] theories). And within the
domain of moral theories that assess our choices,
1. Act /Action – There are actions that we can easily deontologists—those who subscribe to deontological
see if they are good or bad. theories of morality—stand in opposition to
• Killing is obviously bad consequentialists (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
• Helping is generally good 2016)
2. Purpose/Intention – There are actions which
morality 2. Virtue ethics/Character-based ethics
can only be seen upon examining the purpose of the • A right act is the action a virtuous person would do in
doer. the same circumstances.
• Helping someone. Is it good or bad? • Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks
• It depends on the purpose of the doer. at the virtue or moral character of the person carrying
out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or
3. Circumstance – (who, what, when, where, how or the consequences of particular actions.
person/doer, action/thing, time, place, and manner) • Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or
• Is punching someone bad? What if it’s a baby punch wrongness of individual actions, it provides guidance as to
or just a friendly punch? the sort of characteristics and behaviours a good person
• What if you slap someone unintentionally out of will seek to achieve.
panic? • A good person is someone who lives virtuously - who
• Bawal bang maghubad? How about in the bathroom? possesses and lives the virtues.

Principles/application of the Act, Purpose and 3. Consequentialism

Circumstance criteria: • It is ethics of being. It asks the questions: “what does it
1. The Act is good if the three (Act, Purpose, and mean to be human?”; “what is done repetitively?” or “is it
Circumstance) are good. part of your character or very being?”
2. If one of the three (Act, Purpose, and Circumstance) • It is the class of normative ethical theories holding that
is bad, then the act is bad. the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis
3. An indifferent act may become morally good or bad. for any judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that
(depending on the intention/purpose of the doer) conduct.
4. An objectively good act may become morally bad. • What is the effect of the action? Is the effect good?
Natural Law • Examples of Positive Laws are: Constitution,
• Natural Law are the patterns, order, “rules” or “laws” of Policies, ordinances, rules and regulations, etc.
nature. These are discovered through observation,
experience, common sense, thinking/reasoning or • The Positive Law is an ordinance of reason
reflecting. We are part of nature since we are living on promulgated for the common good by one in charge of
earth/nature. We have a body that connects us with the community or by a competent authority. Examples
mother nature. of human positive laws are the ordinances of a certain
place or the constitution of a certain country.
• Natural Law asserts that moral standards that govern
human behaviors are objectively derived from the nature 1. Ordinance. It is a decree or a command and not a
of human beings and the nature of the world. request; it demands obedience. One has to follow it.
2. Reasonable. It means a certain positive law is based
• Natural Law affirms that since humans are by nature on reason and not on mere emotion. It must be useful
rational beings, it is morally appropriate that they should or good which means it must attain its goal. A positive
behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. In law is also reasonable if it has the following
relation to human actions, Natural Law is defined as the characteristics: just or fair, honest, possibility of
light of human reason so we know what to do and what to fulfillment, relatively permanent, and must be
avoid. promulgated.
3. Common Good. A law must serve the interest of the
Characteristics of Natural Law majority and not favor only few individuals.
a. Universal. This law is applicable to all creatures. 4. Competent Authority. One who enacts or authors
b. Recognizable. It can be notice through observations, a law could be characterized as someone who is
interactions with others, and through deeper reflection. knowledgeable, just, wise, and respectable.
c. Obligatory. Since this is the very law that will lead to
our well-being there is no other choice or better choice Conscience
than to obey it. Not obeying it would lead to the things that • the inner sense of what is right or wrong in one's
the human person would like to avoid in life which is conduct or motives, impelling one toward right action.
destruction and damnation. • is a personal awareness of right and wrong that you
d. Immutable. it will never be changed or is not subject to use to guide your actions to do right.
change. • conscience is the practical judgment of reason
allowing the person to recognize the moral quality of an
Contents of the Natural Law are classified into: act. (CCC).
a. fundamental moral principles in their general • Conscience would tell, one must abhor the evil/bad
applications such as “Good is to be done and evil is to and embrace what is good.
be avoided”, “Never do unto another what you would not
want him to do unto you,” “the end does not justify the The Two General Kinds of Conscience
means,” etc.; • Antecedent conscience. It is a conscience that judges
b. General moral principles which sustain and preserve an act before it is done.
the basic relations of the human person to God, to himself/ (A typical example is during a quiz -- when a student
herself, and to neighbors. Examples: “honor your parents;” has two options whether to cheat or not to cheat. Before
“preserve your own life;” “do not murder;” and others; he/she cheats, the person knows and is able to
c. Applications of the general principles of morality to deliberate whether such action is pleasing to him/her
specific situations in life and society which come in the or not.)
form of specific laws to govern specific situations and
circumstances; and • Consequent conscience. It judges an act after it is
d. Remote conclusions derived by a process of reasoning being done.
which require good education and deeper reflection. (Consequent conscience works after the cheating has
Examples of this content are moral problems such as been executed by the student and so he/she starts
mercy killing, indissolubility of marriage, contraceptive feeling guilty about the act that he/she committed.)
practices and others.
a. Correct conscience - is a conscience that judges a
Positive Law good act as good and a bad act as indeed bad.
• The word “positive” means being promulgated or b. False conscience - the opposite of correct
“published” or announced. a law enacted should not take conscience. One judges a good act as bad and bad act as
effect unless it is promulgated or announced. good.
c. Scrupulous conscience - one is always afraid of
• The Positive Laws are the specific formulations derived committing errors; thus not following rules/laws is
from the Natural Law. These are the specific application of tantamount to committing errors.
the Natural Law in different human or societal contexts. d. Lax conscience - a person keeps on excusing him/
So the Natural Law is seen, expressed or applied through herself from every mistake committed. It is as if, he/she
the Positive Law. A positive law which does not respect the does not commit any mistake at all.
Natural Law contributes to the damage on the e. Certain conscience is a firm judgment that one is not
development of the human person and of the whole in error. It means, it is clear and evident that what a
creation. It is territorial or contextual, a law continues person does is indeed right.
until it is changed by another and it is promulgated by a f. Doubtful conscience - judgment is always suspended
public authority. because of the uncertainty of the goodness and
badness of a human action. The word ‘doubt’ denotes
the idea that one is not sure of what he/she is doing.
Module 5: We may think that dilemma is synonymous to a
problem of deciding among options.
Values are a basic set of fundamental beliefs that guide • College is a paradigm of being anxious because the
and motivate certain attitudes and actions. They denote decisions made during this time are crucial for it may
the degree of importance of some thing or some action for determine who we are in the near future. Some are
the person. hard up in choosing a course to take. In choosing we
may consider passion over wealth, fitted to one's
Ethics speaks about matters of good things that we personality or following barkada's choice, personal
dream or parents' dream.
should pursue and bad things that we should avoid; right
• In these consumeristic times, we may also experience
ways in which we should act and the wrong ways of
a dilemma when we visit shopee, and we are compelled
acting.
to decide whether to buy it or not, or which product is
most needed by me.
Ethics as a subject for us to study is about determining
• Ectopic pregnancy is an abnormal pregnancy where
the grounds for the values with particular and special
the fetus is formed outside the uterus. The mother is in
significance to human life.
a moral dilemma since she needs to choose whether to
abort the child or to let the pregnancy continue but her
There are instances when we make value judgments that
life may be endangered which may lead to her death.
are not considered to be part of ethics. Movies and music
may describe something to be good according to the
Thus, dilemma is a situation where an individual is
judgment of the senses. Moreover, we may say that the
forced to choose between two or among many
right sawsawan for my shanghai is ketchup and not
conflicting options neither of which is acceptable. When
vinegar. These valuations fall under aesthetics.
dilemmas involve human actions which have moral
implications, they are called ethical or moral dilemmas.
Aesthetics refers to the judgments of personal approval
or disapproval that are dependent on what we see, hear,
Moral agents are forced to choose between two or more
smell and taste. We also have a sense of approval and
conflicting options, neither of which resolves the
disapproval concerning certain actions which are
situation in a morally acceptable manner.
relatively more trivial in nature.
Example: I think it is 'right' to knock on the door before
In a dilemma, a person is in a situation where there is
entering it, and it is wrong to barge into one's office. In a
no one obvious right choice or in a situation where the
fine dining setup, you should follow the correct usage of
choice is especially difficult because no solution is
utensils, when to use the goblet, glass water, spoon and
appealing. It is very important to know choices need
fork. These examples belong to the category of etiquette.
careful decisions. It is just appropriate to feel guilt no
matter what course of action is taken. This means that
Etiquette is concerned with right and wrong actions, but
a dilemma is tough action.
they are not grave enough to be considered part of ethics.
"What is common to the two well-known cases is
Recognizing the characteristics of aesthetic and
conflict. In each case, an agent regards herself as
technical valuation allows us to have a rough guide as to having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but
the discussion of ethics. They involve valuations that doing
make a sphere of human actions, characterized by both actions is not possible. Ethicists have called
certain gravity and concern the human well-being or
situations like these moral dilemmas. The crucial
human life itself. Therefore, matters that concern life and
features of a moral dilemma are these: the agent is
death such as war, capital punishment, abortion and
required to do each of two (or more) actions; the agent
matters that concern human well-being such as poverty,
can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both
inequality or sexual identity are included in the
(or all) of the actions. The agent thus seems condemned
discussion of ethics.
to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do
something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought
We say that moral issues are issues which are included to do)."
in ethics and non-moral issues are issues which are not.
Three Conditions of Moral Dilemma
Moral Dilemma when you are in a difficult situation and 1. If the agent of moral action is obliged to make a
each option looks equally bad, you are in a dilemma. decision about which course of action is best.
2. There must be different courses of action to choose
Dilemma - greek word "double proposition". from.
It was originally a technical term of logic, but we use it 3. No matter what course of action is taken,
now for any time you have a problem with no satisfactory some moral principles are always compromised.
solution.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning • Stage one (punishment/obedience):
Lawrence Kohlberg is considered the first psychologist to Heinz should not steal the medicine because he will
do heavy research into human ethics and how people consequently be put in prison which will mean he is a
reacted to dilemmas. The comprehensive stage theory of bad person. Or: Heinz should steal the medicine
moral development was based on Jean Piaget's theory of because it is only worth $200 and not how much the
druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even offered to pay
moral judgment for children (1932) and this was
for it and was not stealing anything else.
developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958.
• Stage two (rewards):
Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg's theory focuses on the
thinking process that occurs when one decides whether a Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be
behavior is right or wrong. Thus, the theoretical emphasis much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have
is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not to serve a prison sentence. Or: Heinz should not steal
what one decides or what one actually does. the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he
would more likely languish in a jail cell than over his
The theory asserts that moral reasoning as the basis for wife's death.
ethical behavior, has six identifieable developmental
stages, each more adequate at responding to moral • Stage three (good intention):
dilemmas than its predecessor. Kohlberge follow the Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife
development of moral judgment far beyond the ages expects it; he wants to be a good husband. Or: Heinz
studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and should not steal the drug because stealing is bad and
morality develop through constructive stages, Expanding he is not a criminal; he has tried to do everything he
on Piaget's work, Kohlberge determined that he process of can without breaking the law, you cannot blame him.
moral development was principally concerned with justice,
and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime. • Stage four (obedience to authority): Heinz should
not steal the medicine because the law prohibits
For his studies, Kohlberg relied on the Heinz dilemma. The stealing, making it illegal. Or: actions have
Heinz dilemma was a hypothetical situation that consequences.
Kohlberg used to see how individuals would justify their
actions if placed in a moral dilemma. He then analyzed the • Stage five (moral versus legal right): Heinz should
form of moral reasoning displayed, rather than its steal the medicine because everyone has a right to
conclusion, and classified it as belonging to one of six choose life, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz should not
distinct stages. steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to
fair compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not
The Heinz dilemma, as used in Lawrence Kohlberg's stages make his actions right.
of moral development, is stated as follows:

"A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. • Stage six (individual principals of conscience):
There was one drug that the doctor thought might save Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same human life is a more fundamental value than the
town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should
make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the not steal the medicine, because others may need the
drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally
charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick significant. From the responses to the Heinz dilemma
woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to and responses to other similar hypothetical dilemmas,
borrow the money, but he could only get together about Kohlberg developed the six stages of moral
$1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist development. These stages are summarized in the
that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or diagram below.
let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered
the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So, Heinz 1. Level 1: Pre-Conventional
got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the Morality In the Pre-conventional level, right and
drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the wrong are determined by rewards or punishment.
laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?" Reasoners judge the morality of an action by its direct
consequences.
From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what
the participant thinks that Heinz should do. Kohlberg's • Stage One: Punishment/Obedienc e Orientation
theory holds that the justification the participant offers is This is the stage that all young children start at. Rules
what is significant, the form of their response. Below are are seen as being fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules
some of many examples of possible arguments that belong is important because it means avoiding punishment.
to the six stages: The individual will obey in order to avoid punishment.
Behaviour is determined by consequences. Whatever
leads to punishment is wrong. Morality is based on
punishment. Example: Heinz should not steal the
medicine, because he will consequently be put in
prison. Individuals focus on the direct consequences
that their actions will
have for themselves.
 3. Level 3: Post Conventional
• Stage Two: Rewards/Self Interest
Morality The individual moves beyond the perspective of
As children grow older, they begin to see that other people
his or her own society.
have their own goals and preferences and that often there
Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and
is room for negotiation. Decisions are made based on the
values that apply to all situations and societies. The
principle of "what's in it for me?" For example, an older
individual attempts to take the perspective of all
child might reason: "If I do what mom or dad wants me to
individuals. There is abstract notion of justice. Rights of
do, they will reward me. Therefore, I will do it." Morality is
others can override obedience to laws/rules. Most people
based on rewards. The right way to behave is the way that
do not reach this level of moral reasoning.
is rewarded. Behaviour is determined again by
consequences.
The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying • Stage 5: Human Rights/Social Contract
personal needs. Right behavior is defined by what is in Individual rights determine behavior. The individual
one's own best interest. views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving
Example: Heinz should steal the medicine because he will human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there
are exceptions to rules.
be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to
When laws are not consistent with individual rights and
serve a prison
the interests of the majority, it does not bring about good
sentence.
for people and alternatives should be considered. This
stage is defined not by what is legally right but what is
2. Level 2: Conventional Morality
morally right. Saving the most amount of lives is always
In this level, views of others matter, there is avoidance of
the best decision.
blame, and it seeks approval. Conformity to social rules
Example: Heinz should steal the medicine because
remains important to the individual. However, the
everyone has a right to live, regardless of the law; or
emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with
Heinz should not steal the medicine because the
other people and social systems. The individual strives to
scientist has a right to fair compensation
support rules that are set forth by others to win their
approval or to maintain social order. People who reason
in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by Stage 6: Universal Human Ethics According to
comparing these actions to social rules and expectations. Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning.
However, he claimed that some individuals will never
• Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance/Good reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is
determined by one's self chosen ethical principles of
Intentions/Social Conformity Orientation/Good boy/
conscience. These principles are abstract and universal
Nice girl orientation
in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the
In this stage, it is behaving in ways that conform perspective of every person or group that could
"good behaviour". potentially be affected by the decision.
• There is a sense of what "good boys" and "nice girls" do
Example: Heinz should steal the medicine because
and the emphasis is on living up to social expectations and
saving a human life is a more fundamental value than
norms because of how they impact day to day
respecting the property another person. Moral
relationships. Behaviour is determined by social approval.
reasoning is based on the use abstract reasoning using
The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and
universal principles.
approval of others by being a "good person".
Example: Heinz should steal the medicine because his
wife expects it. Individuals seek approval from other
people.
Evaluation of the consequences of the actions
is based on person's relationship.

• Stage 4: Law and order/Obedience to authority

Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual
now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that of
societal laws. All people have the duty to uphold laws.
Moral decision making becomes more than consideration
of close ties to others. The individual believes that rules
and laws maintain social order that is worth preserving.
By the time individuals reach adulthood, they usually
consider society as a whole when making judgments. The
focus is on maintaining law and order by following the
rules, doing one's duty and respecting authority. The focus
is on maintaining social order by doing one's duty, obeying
laws, and following the rules.
Example: Heinz should not steal the medicine because the
law prohibits it. Individual thinks it is important to obey
the law and conventions of the society.
Module 6: 2. Realism
There are varied philosophical thoughts and systems but • Realism is based on the thinking of Aristotle.
the four main philosophical schools of thought include Reality exists independent of the human mind and the
Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, and Existentialism. character is developed through training in the rules of
conduct.
These philosophical thoughts are relevant in the evaluation Example: You are looking at a computer screen. Pixels
of one's own principles in life. In one way or the other, these are glowing and changing before your eyes, creating
schools of thought influence the behavior of human patterns that your mind transforms into words and
persons. sentences. The sentences and ideas are in your mind
The four main philosophical schools of thought according to (and mine, as 1 write them), but the computer, the
Narejo (2015) are the following: server, the pixels, and your eyeballs are all real objects
1. Idealism in the real world.
• The Father of Idealism is Plato.
• Idealism is a philosophical system within the field of • "The materialists hold the complete opposite view to
Metaphysics. It claims that reality is dependent upon the the idealists on the nature of reality". Materialists
mind rather than independent of it. Thus, the "mind and believe that everything that exists is either matter or
soul" are unobservable aspects of reality which makes it a depends on matter for its existence. The real world is out
metaphysical system. in the street, not in the head.

a. Extreme Versions of Idealism deny that any world • This is the position of philosophical realism: the view
exists outside of our mind. that whatever we perceive is real, truly out there. It's
b. Narrow Version of Idealism claims that our not an illusion, or "all in our minds".
understanding of reality reflects the workings of our mind
first and foremost is the meaning. The properties of the • This is most people’s common-sense view of the
object have no standing or it is independent of the mind. world. We use our senses to gather information about
real objects that are around us. Those objects are really
• Idealism is based on the early writings of Plato. It says out there, and they have physical properties that we can
that ideas are the only true reality and every material sense: they reflect light for us to see, or they emit odor
thing is an idea or a form of an idea. particles for us to [Link] the mind directly
• Mental phenomena are what is fundamentally connects with these objects through memory, thinking,
important or real and all other things reflect ideas. etc. in other words, reality is a collection of objects that
• There are different types of idealism which include: we sense.
a. subjective idealism
b. divine idealism • Idealists reject this picture of the world. They argue
c. ontological idealism that the universe is not a collection of objects that
d. epistemological idealism human minds can perceive, but rather a collection of
• Idealism can be considered as an ontological school of ideas that human minds can grasp. All physical objects,
thought whereas rationalism is known as an they say, are manifestations, or a kind of physical
epistemological one. clothing on top of the idea.

• In idealism you assert that reality is fundamentally made a. Realism is a philosophical school thought affirming
of ideas. This thinking is opposed to materialism where that universals are real that exist and are distinct from
reality is fundamentally made up of matter. the particulars that instantiate them while.
• It should be clear that there is a necessary relation
between the field of metaphysics and epistemology. b. Empiricism, on the other hand, holds that the only or,
• Our conception of reality depends on our understanding at least, the most reliable source of human knowledge is
of what can be known. Conversely, our theory of knowledge experience, especially perception by means of the
will depend on our own understanding of ourselves in physical senses.
relation to the whole of reality.
• Idealism flourished in the Ancient Period during the To differentiate further between realism and
time of Plato. He is known for Platonic Idealism, where empiricism:
there exists a perfect realm. In Plato's view, this realm of • An advocate of realism is concerned for facts or
forms and ideas is the true reality, while the physical world realities and rejects the impractical and visionary
merely contains the shadows of that realm. • An advocate of empiricism pursues knowledge purely
through experience, especially by means of observation
a. Subjective Idealism according to this system, only ideas and sometimes by experimentation.
can be known or have any reality.
• In consideration of the above it is good to keep in mind
b. Transcendental Idealism,was developed by Immanuel that you can't be an:
Kant and he argued that all knowledge originates or a. Idealist and an Materialist
perceives phenomena are organized by categories. b. Rationalist and an Empiricist.

c. Absolute Idealism according to this system, all objects • On the other hand, you can be an:
are identical with an idea meaning they claim that a. Idealist and a Rationalist
knowledge is itself the system of ideas. It is known as b. Idealist and an Empiricist.
Objective Realism, this sort of idealism promoted by Georg c. Materialist and a Rationalist
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Unlike the other forms of d. Materialist and an Empiricist
idealism, there's only one mind in which reality is created.
• That is because Idealism and Materialism are • In pragmatic ethics, a human act is always
statements of ontology which means they are statements valueneutral, and the morality of a human act depends
about what you believe is real. on the quality of the results such as practicality,
• Rationalism and Empiricism are statements of workability, beneficiality, and usefulness.
epistemology which means statements about what is the
best way to know what is real. • Morality does not seek final and absolute answers; yet
it is not relativistic.
3. Pragmatism
Pragmatism was founded by the American • Pragmatic ethics is not relativistic in a sense that it
philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce and was developed recognizes that there are different circumstances and
by other American philosophers namely William James that in different circumstances, different actions might
and John Dewey. be appropriate.
• Pragmatic ethics is the result of the application of the
principles of pragmatism to moral issues. • In popular usage, a "pragmatist" is someone who
• Pragmatism is epistemological by nature. It holds the always thinks about the practical side of things and
doesn't worry about theory or ideology. In philosophy,
belief that the true and meaningful form of knowledge is
the term has a significantly different meaning.
one that is practical, workable, beneficial, and useful.
• Thus, in pragmatism, if an idea works and brings good
• Pragmatism is based on the thoughts of a number of
results, then it is true and meaningful. If it does not,
nineteenth-century American philosophers like William
then the idea is useless and meaningless, that is, it has
James and John Dewey.
no value.
• According to the pragmatist, an idea is; • For a pragmatist, knowledge is subordinate to action.
a. practical if it produces good results Meaning and truth of ideas are determined by their
b. workable if it can be put to work relation to practice.
c. beneficial if it benefits people
d. useful if it can be used to attain good results • Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly
changing and that we learn best through applying our
• But how do we know if an idea is practical, workable, experiences and thoughts to solve problems.
beneficial, and useful? In other words, how do we know if
an idea is true or meaningful? • Even though the pragmatists saw words as vague tools
1. William James said that ideas are proven true and rather than eternal truths, they still believed in an
meaningful through the process of experimentation or important "pragmatic" notion of truth. They saw the
testing. human search for truth as similar to a doctor's search for
2. While John Dewey said that ideas are proven to be a diagnosis: the doctor will never know with absolute
true and meaningful if they proved to be an effective certainty what disease you have. But in order to treat
instrument in attaining something. This model of you, she has to make a decision, so she does the best she
pragmatism is a form of Instrumentalism. can with the information available and then treats you
on that basis.
Application of Pragmatism to Ethics
• When applied to moral issues, a pragmatist may view • Similarly, for the pragmatists, we'll never know the
the morality of the human act from the vantage point of absolute truths of the universe - all we can do is try to
its practicality, workability, beneficiality, and usefulness. understand things as best we can and then act, even
though our information will always be incomplete and
• Hence, in pragmatic ethics, an action is considered there's always the real possibility of error.
morally right if it is practical, workable, beneficial, and
useful; otherwise, it has no moral worth. 4. Existentialism
• Existentialism is based on the writings of Jean-Paul
• An example of a moral issue is aborting a deformed Sartre.
fetus. Christian ethics, through St. Thomas Aquinas, • Individual persons interpret the world from their own
believed that abortion in whatever form is absolutely perceptions and create their own realities. Accordingly,
immoral. While in pragmatic ethics, it is better to abort a people have to create their own values in a world in
deformed fetus than let it suffer for a lifetime. So, the act which traditional values no longer exist. Choices have to
of aborting a deformed fetus for the pragmatists, be made arbitrarily by individuals who thus create
therefore, is practical because the act will produce good themselves because there are no objective standards to
results such as sparing the parents and child from determine choices.
physical, mental, or emotional suffering that may be
brought by the deformity; workable because the act of • Existentialism is a philosophical theory that people
aborting a deformed fetus can be put to work; it is are free agents who have control over their choices and
beneficial to both parent and the child especially in terms actions.
of freedom from emotional and physical suffering that • Existentialists believe that society should not restrict
may be brought by the deformity; and useful if it can an individual's life or actions and that these restrictions
be used to attain good results sparing the parents and the inhibit free will and the development of that person's
child from physical, mental, and emotional suffering that potential.
may be brought by deformity.
• People who uphold existentialism consider themselves 2. Virtue Ethics is a character-based ethics.
as free persons who must be in control of their own • A right act is the action a virtuous person would do in
choices or actions. They don't want much restriction from the same circumstances.
social norms for these will inhibit their free will and the • It is person based rather than action based: it looks at
development of their potential. the virtue or moral character of the person carrying out
• Thus, an existentialist is prone to "existential crisis". an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the
Example: "You identify yourself as an athlete and have a consequences of particular actions.
promising career. Then you have a severe injury and your
career is over. At that point, you would have an • It not only deals with the rightness or wrongness of
existential crisis because you have defined yourself as an individual actions, it provides guidance as to the sort of
athlete." characteristics and behaviours a good person will seek to
achieve.

• It is concerned with the whole of a person's life, rather

than particular episodes or actions.
• A good person is someone who lives virtuously; it is
Module 7: who possesses and lives the virtues.
In virtue ethics, Aristotle emphasizes the excellence of • It is the ethics of being.
philosophical contemplation and virtuous actions that • It asks the questions: "what does it mean to be
stem from virtuous persons. human?"; "what is done repetitively?" or "is it part of your
character or very being?"
Virtuous actions are those that a person with wisdom
would choose, because what is good is evident to such a 3. Consequentialism (Teleological Ethics) is the class
person. of normative ethical theories holding that the
consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for
Regarding the material world, Aristotle holds that any judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that
organisms continually move from imperfect to perfect conduct.
states through teleological development. The perfect • What is the effect of the action? Is the effect good?
state is innate within the imperfect (e.g., a seed becomes a
plant; an embryo becomes a baby and then an adult). The Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics
essential nature of things lies not at their cause or • Aristotle conceives ethical theory as a field distinct
beginning, but at their end (telos). from the theoretical sciences. Its methodology must
match its subject matter, good action, and must respect
Types of Ethics the fact that in this field many generalizations hold only
1. Deontology or Deontological for the most part.
Ethics is an approach to Ethics that focuses on
the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as • We study ethics in order to improve our lives, and
opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the therefore its principal concern is the nature of human
consequences of those actions (Consequentialism) or to well-being.
the character and habits of the actor (Virtue Ethics).
• Aristotle follows Socrates and Plato in taking the
• It may sometimes be consistent with Moral Absolutism virtues to be central to a well-lived life. Like Plato, he
is the belief that some actions are wrong no matter what regards the ethical virtues (justice, courage,
consequences follow from them, but not necessarily. temperance) as complex rational, emotional, and social
• The deontological class of ethical theories states that skills.
people should adhere to their obligations and duties when
engaged in decision making when ethics are in play. However, he rejects Plato's idea that to be completely
• Deontology is ethics of doing and action. virtuous one must acquire, through training in the
sciences, mathematics, and philosophy, an
• The word deontology derives from the Greek words: understanding of what goodness is.
"deon" - duty
"logos" - science or study • According to Aristotle, what we need in order to live
well is a proper appreciation of the way in which goods
• In contemporary moral philosophy, deontology is one of such as friendship, pleasure, virtue, honor, and wealth fit
the normative theories that determine which choices are together as a whole.
morally required, forbidden, or permitted. In other words,
deontology falls within the domain of moral theories that • To apply this general understanding to particular
guide and evaluate our choices about what we ought to do situations, we must acquire, through proper upbringing
(deontic theories), in contrast to those that guide and and habits, the ability to see, on each occasion, which
assess what kind of person we are and should be (aretaic course of action is best supported by reasons.
or virtue theories). Within the domain of moral theories
that assess our choices, deontologists are those who • Therefore, practical wisdom (as Aristotle conceives it)
subscribe to deontological theories of morality, and stand cannot be acquired solely by learning general rules. We
in opposition to consequentialists. must also develop, through practice, the deliberative,
emotional, and social skills that enable us to apply our
general understanding of well-being in ways that are
appropriate to each situation.
The Human Good and the Function rgument • The soul is analyzed into a connected series of
• The principal idea with which Aristotle begins is that capacities:
there are differences of opinion about what is best for a. the nutritive soul is responsible for growth and
human beings, and that to profit from ethical inquiry we reproduction
must resolve this disagreement. b. the locomotive soul for motion
c. the perceptive soul for perception and so on.
• He insists that ethics is not a theoretical discipline: we
are asking what the good for human beings is not simply • The biological fact Aristotle makes use of is that
because we want to have knowledge, but because we will be human beings are the only species that has not only
better able to achieve our good if we develop a fuller these lower capacities but a rational soul as well.
understanding of what it is to flourish.
• The good of a human being must have something to do
• In raising this question of what is good? Aristotle is not with being human; and what sets humanity off from
looking for a list of items that are good. He assumes that other species, giving us the potential to live a better life,
such a list can be compiled rather easily; most
is our capacity to guide ourselves by using reason.
would agree
Example: It is good to have friends, to experience
• If we use reason well, we live well as human beings; or,
pleasure, to be healthy, to be honored, and to have such
to be more precise, using reason well over the course of a
virtues as courage at least to some degree.
full life is what happiness consists in.
• The difficult and controversial question arises
• Doing anything well requires virtue or excellence, and
when we ask whether certain of these goods are more
therefore living well consists in activities caused by the
desirable than others.
rational soul in accordance with virtue or excellence.
• Aristotle's search for the good is a search for the
• Aristotle's conclusion about the nature of happiness is
highest good, and he assumes that the highest good,
in a sense uniquely his own. No other writer or thinker
whatever it turns out to be, has three characteristics:
had said precisely what he says about what it is to live
a. it is desirable for itself well.
b. it is not desirable for the sake of some other good
c. and all other goods are desirable for its sake. • But at the same time his view is not too distant from a
common idea. As he himself points out, one traditional
• Aristotle thinks everyone will agree that the terms: conception of happiness identifies it with virtue.
eudaimonia and eu zên designate such an end.
"eudaimonia" happiness • Aristotle's theory should be construed as a refinement
"eu zên" - living well of this position. He says, not that happiness is virtue, but
that it is a virtuous activity.
• The Greek term "eudaimon" is composed of two parts:
"eu" - well • Living well consists in doing something, not just being
"daimon" - divinity or spirit in a certain state or condition. It consists in those
lifelong activities that actualize the virtues of the
• To be eudaimon is therefore to be living in a way that is rational part of the soul.
well-favored by a god. But Aristotle never calls attention to
this etymology in his ethical writings, and it seems to have • At the same time, Aristotle makes it clear that in order
little influence on his thinking. to be happy one must possess others goods as well such
goods as friends, wealth, and power. And one's
• He regards "eudaimon" as a mere substitute for "eu zên". happiness is endangered if one is severely lacking in
These terms play an evaluative role, and are not simply certain advantages.
descriptions of someone's state of mind. Example: One is extremely ugly, or has lost children or
good friends through death.
• No one tries to live well for the sake of some further goal;
rather, being eudaimon is the highest end, and all • If one's ultimate end should simply be virtuous activity,
subordinate goals such as health, wealth, and other then why should it make any difference to one's
resources are sought because they promote well-being, not happiness whether one has or lacks these other types of
because they are what well-being consists of. Unless we can good? Aristotle's reply is that one's virtuous activity
determine which good or goods happiness consists in, it is will be to some extent diminished or defective, if one
of little use to acknowledge that it is the highest end. lacks an adequate supply of other goods.

• To resolve this issue, Aristotle asks what the "ergon" • Someone who is friendless, childless, powerless, weak,
(function, task, work) of a human being is, and argues that and ugly will simply not be able to find many
it consists in activity of the rational part of the soul in opportunities for virtuous activity over a long period of
accordance with virtue. time, and what little he can accomplish will not be of
great merit.
• One important component of this argument is expressed
in terms of distinctions he makes in his psychological and • To some extent, then, living well requires good
biological works. fortune; happenstance can rob even the most excellent
human beings of happiness.
• Nonetheless, Aristotle insists, the highest good and The Virtuous Person and Virtue Theory
virtuous activity is not something that comes to us by • Imagine a person who always knows what to say, can
chance. diffuse a tense situation, deliver tough news gracefully,
confident without being arrogant, brave but not reckless,
• Although we must be fortunate enough to have parents generous but never extravagant. This is the type of
and fellow citizens who help us become virtuous, we person that everybody wants to be around and to be
ourselves share much of the responsibility for acquiring liked, someone who seems to have mastered the art of
and exercising the virtues. being a person. But this seems to be impossible, but
Aristotle believed that while rare these people do exist
Aristotle's Virtue Ethics - Nicomachean Ethics and they are what we should aspire to be virtuous.
• Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics leads us to knowledge
of ethics known as virtue ethics because of its reference • When we relate this topic to Virtue theory, there is no
to the concept of virtue. categorical imperative or principle of utility; instead
ethical theory emphasizes an individual's character
• The word virtue comes from the Greek word: rather than following a set of rules just to be a good
"aretê" - which could be translated in English as person.
excellence
• Aristotle reasoned that if we can just focus on being
• Someone has an aretê if he/she performs well with the good people, the right actions will follow, effortlessly.
intellectual and moral virtues. Meaning, become a good person and you do good things.
There is no book needed. But why should you become a
• Aristotle defines moral virtue as a disposition to behave virtuous person? It is because of Eudaimonia.
in the right manner and as a means between extremes of
deficiency and excess, which are vices. We learn moral • Virtue theory says that you should become virtuous
virtue primarily through habit and practice rather than because if you are, you can attain the pinnacle of
through reasoning and instruction. humanity. It allows us to achieve what's known as
eudaimonia, a Greek word that means "a life well
• Each of the virtues is a state of being that naturally lived" or "human flourishing."
seeks its meaning relative to us. According to Aristotle,
the virtuous habit of action is always an intermediate • "A life of Eudaimonia is a life of striving". It's a life of
state between the opposed vices of excess and deficiency: pushing yourself to your limits and finding success.
too much and too little are always wrong; the right kind of
action always lies in the mean. • A Eudaimonistic life will be full of happiness that
comes from achieving something really difficult, rather
• Happiness (flourishing or living well) is a complete than just having it handed to you. Choosing to live life in
and sufficient good. This implies: this way also means you'll face disappointments and
(a) that it is desired for itself failures.
(b) that it is not desired for the sake of anything else
(c) that it satisfies all desire and has no evil mixed in with • Eudaimonia doesn't mean a life of cupcakes and
it rainbows rather it is a fulfilled accomplishment and
(d) that it is stable satisfaction through hard work.

• Aristotle begins with the Nicomachean Ethics by asking • This is morality for Aristotle, being the best person
"What is the good of man?" and his answer is "an activity of you could ever be and honing your strength while
the soul in conformity with virtue." To understand ethics, working on weaknesses. And for Aristotle, the kind of
therefore, we must understand what makes someone a person who lives like this is a kind of person who will do
virtuous person. good things.

• According to Aristotle, we study Ethics, not merely to • Like Socrates and Aristotle, people should strive to be
know, but to attain the good and to live good lives. good.
• The good is happiness (most desired), and the good is He came up with a "means test" so that people could
reasoning well (by analogical argument). hone their virtues.
• Aristotle produces his definition of happiness from those
two lines of reasoning (since happiness and reasoning well
must be the same somehow).

• In short, happiness is an activity of the soul (reasoning)

in conformity with virtue (reasoning well).

• In Book I, Chapter 13 of the Nicomachean Ethics,

Aristotle says, "Since happiness is an activity of the soul in
accordance with perfect virtue, we must consider the
nature of virtue; for perhaps we shall thus see better the
nature of happiness."
Module 8: THOMAS AQUINAS ON THE NATURAL LAW The Fundamental Principle of Natural Law
• The fundamental principle of the natural law is that
• Natural law deals with the qualities ingrained in the whole good is to be done and evil avoided.
of creation which leads us on our way home with the
Creator (translated as LIKAS NA DAPAT). Basic goods mentioned by Aquinas:
• Natural law even precedes Christianity and has its origins Aquinas holds that we know immediately, by
in Ancient Greece. inclination, that there are a variety of things that count
• It has also its roots in the Bible when nature is considered as good and thus to be pursued - life, procreation,
as source of moral enlightenment. knowledge, society, and reasonable conduct are all
• "Ever since the creation of the world his eternal power mentioned by Aquinas
and divine nature, invisible though they are, have been
understood and seen through the things he has made." Aquinas's view it is the good that is fundamental:
• Whether an action is right is logically posterior to
Thomas Aquinas whether that action brings about or realizes some good.
• Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was dubbed "the dumb ox" • Right action is action that responds nondeceptively to
by his fellow students, for being large and quiet. the good.
• Aquinas merged Aristotle with Christianity after the • Some actions are always wrong according to natural
recovery of his philosophy via Muslim scholars in the 12th law such as:
and 13th century. • Killing of the innocent
• The 'purposiveness' or 'end-directedness' of nature in • Lying
Aristotle is identified by Aquinas with God's purposes. • Adultery
• Sodomy
Natural Law Tradition in Ethics • Blasphemy
• 'Natural law theory' is a label that has been applied to
theories of ethics, theories of politics, theories of civil law, Paradigmatic Natural Law Theory
and theories of religious morality. The natural law view holds that:
• We will be concerned only with natural law theories of 1. The natural law is given by God.
ethics. 2. It is naturally authoritative over all human beings.
3. It is naturally knowable by all human beings.
Key Features of Natural Law Theories 4. The good is prior to the right
According to Aquinas, there are two key features of the 5. Right action is action that responds nondeceptively
natural law, features the acknowledgment of which to the good.
structures his discussion of the natural law at Question 94 6. There are ways in which action can be defective with
of the Prima Secundae of the Summa Theologiae. respect to the good.
1. Natural law as part of divine providence 7. Some of these ways can be formulated as general
• When we focus on God's role as the giver of the natural rules.
law.
• The theory of natural law is from that perspective just one Basic Principles of Natural Law
part among others of the theory of divine providence. a. Natural law is an eternal moral law revealed to all
2. Natural law as principles of practical rationality people through human nature.
• When we focus on the human's role as recipient of the b. Natural law influences even fallen and sinful
natural law. humanity.
• Those principles by which human action is to be judged as c. Natural law is the proper basis of political authority.
reasonable or unreasonable.
d. Natural law authorizes society to establish a
• The theory of natural law is from that perspective the
government.
preeminent part of the theory of practical rationality.
e. Governments are themselves subject to the natural
law.
Natural Law and Divine Providence
f. Each society's laws should apply the natural law to
• The fundamental thesis affirmed by Aquinas is that the
that society's particular circumstances.
natural law is a participation in the eternal law.
• The eternal law is that rational plan by which all creation
is ordered. Two Strains of Interpretation of Natural Law
• Rational beings like us are able to grasp our share in the 1. Order of Nature
eternal law and freely act on it. • Source of moral norms: "Written" in nature.
• Law is a rule of action put into place by one who has care • Knowledge comes from observing the way nature
of the community. works.
• Stoics they are the earliest to develop notion of
Natural Law and Practical Rationality natural [Link] conforming to what is given in
• The natural law constitutes the basic principles of nature.
practical rationality for human beings. • Ulpian - Jus naturale - rule of action common to
• The precepts of the natural law are universally binding humans and to animals; natural law became identified
by nature: No beings could share our human nature yet fail with animal instincts.
to be bound by the precepts of the natural law.
• The precepts of the natural law are universally
knowable by nature: All human beings possess a basic
knowledge of the principles of the natural law
• All human beings possess a basic knowledge of the
principles of the natural law.
2. Order of Reason Why People Violate Natural Law
• Source: human experience and relationships. Aquinas gave two reasons:
• Knowledge through reason that promotes human well- 1. Ignorance - we seek what we think is good, but we're
being. wrong, because we're just ignorant.
• Aristotle - He did not develop a natural law theory. 2. Emotion - emotions overpower reason.
• Nature is cause or source of activity in a being; specific
nature of humans is rationality. Morally good actions are Criticism of Natural Law
those rationally directed toward the full actualization of • It may not appeal to people who do not believe in God.
human potential. • David Hume's is-ought problem: just because
• Romans - They stressed "law" of natural order because something exists in nature does not mean it ought to be
they are interested in establishing political order morally right.
throughout the Roman empire.
• Cicero - Natural Law is the innate power of reason to Contemporary Issues Related to Natural Law
direct action. Debatable issues today include:
• Gaius - Natural law refers to international law; regulates • Transgender identity
relationships between legally autonomous territories. • Same-sex marriage
• Artificial contraception
Natural Law in Church Teachings • In vitro fertilization
Order of Nature • Masturbation is unnatural self-abuse and it is sinful as
Casti Connubii, Humanae Vitae - teachings against every sperm is sacred. Sigmund Freud would say that
artificial contraception masturbation is normal for healthy adolescent sexual
Letter on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons development. Pope Paul VI said that In Vitro
- teaching against same-sex relations Fertilization is interfering with God given nature;
Violations of Natural Law: however, Lord Winston also said that using reason to
• Artificial contraception meet infertile couple's natural desire to become parents
• Same-sex relations is not a sinful act.
• Sex change

Order of Reason
Gaudium et Spes - see-judge-act method CST after Vatican
II
Declaration on Euthanasia - allows for cessation of
disproportionate means of prolonging life.
Not a Violation of Natural Law:
Cessation of disproportionate means of prolonging life

•The human person being an image of God (imago dei)

exists within the divine mind even before creation.
•Christians believe that before the world and human
beings were created, from nothing (ex nihilo), by God,
there existed within the divine mind an idea, or essence, of
what is to be fully human.

Five Primary Principles of Aquinas

1. To live
2. To learn
3. To reproduce
4. To live in an ordered society
5. To worship God

Basic Goods According to Natural Law Theory

The basic goods include:
• Self-preservation - the drive to sustain life.
• Reproduction - to make more life
• Education of offspring - need to educate those kids we
just made.
• Seeking God
• Living in community
• Avoiding actions that harm social relationships
• Seeking knowledge
Module 9: IMMANUEL KANT’S ETHICS Deontological Ethics
• Morality is a matter of duty
Kantian Ethics • Right/wrong depends on the action itself, not results
• Uses a deontological approach to ethics. Focuses on or consequences
proper motives, not consequences Examples:
• “Good Will” acting out of duty and respect for moral law • Keep promises
• Uses categorical imperatives, not hypothetical • Tell the truth, even at a cost
• The possible problems have something to do with
overemphasis on autonomy, ignores consequences, vague Hypotheticalm vs. Categorical Imperative
maxims, rationality with ethics. Imperatives are instructions; they tell us what to do.

• Immanuel Kant is one of the philosophers in the 1. Hypothetical imperative - tells you what to do in
modern period or in the Age of Reason and Enlightenment. order to achieve a particular goal.
• Kant believed that morality can be summed up in one • I wanted to buy clothes I should find a job.
ultimate principle, from which all our duties and • If I don't want to go to prison then I should not steal.
obligations are derived. He called this principle the
Categorical Imperative. 2. Categorical Imperative - tells us what we must do,
• This is what Kant called the Universalizability no matter what.
Principle. • Means a command to perform actions that are
• A maxim is a rule of action absolute moral rules that do not consider consequences.
• Universal law is something that must always be done in
similar situations. Three Formulations of Categorical Imperative
• Before acting, ask: Can this be a universal law? 1. Universal Law - act only if it can be universalized
• If universalizing leads to contradiction, the action is without contradiction
immoral 2. Humanity Formula - treat people as ends, not mere
• Example: stealing cannot be universalized means
3. Autonomy - humans are rational lawmakers (moral
Moral Equality independence)
• Moral rules apply to everyone equally
• No exceptions for oneself Summary:
• Known through reason (a priori)
The first formulation of the categorical imperative is about • Universal and necessary
the universality of our actions. But the second formulation • Do not depend on consequences
focuses on how we should treat other people.
Main Points of Kant's Theory
To use something as a “mere means” is to use it only for • Moral actions come from rational duty, not selfish
your own benefit, with no thought to the interests or desires
benefit of the thing you’re using. • Hypothetical: "If you want something, do this"
It’s perfectly fine to use things as mere means, but not • Categorical: "You must do this"
humans. This is because we are what Kant called • Test actions by universalizability
ends-in-ourselves. • Focus on rationality, dignity, freedom, and equality

• Humans are ends-in-themselves: The goal of humanity is to achieve perfect happiness

• Rational and virtue (Summum Bonum).
• Autonomous
• Have goals and values
• Using people is allowed, but not as mere means (without
respect or consent)

Means vs. Mere Means

• Treating as mere means = using someone only for
personal benefit
• Must respect others' autonomy and rational consent
• Lying and deception are wrong because they remove
autonomy

Good Will and Duty

• Only Good Will is good in itself
• Good will = acting from duty and moral obligation,
guided by reason
• Morality is not based on consequences
• Duty = obligation, not pleasure or benefit
Module 10: UTILITARIANISM Three Main Principles of Utilitarianism
1. Consequentialist Principle
In the Middle Ages, moral philosophy is represented by • Determinant of the morality of an action is always
Thomas Aquinas. based on its consequences.
• Middle Ages: moral philosophy is God-centered • "End justifies the means"
(theocentric) - Thomas Aquinas
• Modern Period: morality is man-centered 2. Hedonic Principle
(anthropocentric) - Immanuel Kant • Consequences is always inspired by happiness.
• Contemporary Period: introduces Utilitarianism • Pleasure as a value, anything that is pleasurable are
represented by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill means for happiness.

3. Equity Principle
Definition of Utilitarianism
• Everyone's happiness is equal
• Based on the Greatest Happiness Principle
• No one is more important than others
• Actions are:
• Right → if they promote happiness Summary:
• Wrong → if they produce unhappiness Classical Utilitarianism (3 Propositions)
1. Morality depends only on consequences
Jeremy Bentham 2. Consequences matter based on happiness produced
• Morality is about maximizing happiness 3. of everyone's happiness
• Introduced the Principle of Utility: * Right action = produces greatest overall
• Produce most happiness and least unhappiness happiness
• Morality is not based on God or strict rules, but on
results (consequences) Hedonism
• Happiness = pleasure
John Stuart Mill
• Pain = evil
• Focuses on consequences of actions and not on rights
• Anything that feels anod contributes to happiness
nor ethical sentiments.
• Actions are right if they promote overall happiness Application: Euthanasia
• Euthanasia = ending life to stop suffering
Mill’s Theory of Value and the Principle of Utility
Mill defines “utilitarianism” as the creed that considers a
Christian View
particular “theory of life” as the “foundation of morals”
• Life is a gift from God
• His view of theory of life was monistic: that is
• Killing is always wrong
intrinsically desirable, namely pleasure.
• Not all pleasures are equal:
Utilitarian View
• Higher pleasures → intellect, imagination,
• Focus on reducing suffering
moral feelings
• If death removes extreme pain → may be
• Lower pleasures - basic physical satisfaction
• "Better to be a dissatisfied human than a satisfied pig" considered right
.
Greatest Happiness Principle (Bentham)
• “Greatest happiness of the greatest number”.
• Most happiness (majority)
• Least pain (minority)

Utilitarianism as applied on Euthanasia

Euthanasia is also called mercy killing, however, for
Christians they described it as assisted suicide. Euthanasia
is a deliberate killing with the patient’s and or families’
consent in order to end the suffering of a severely sick and
ailing patient. To summarize the church’s doctrine,
theologians formulated the rule: the intentional killing of
innocent human beings is always wrong.

The main inspiration and basis of Utilitarianism is called

the Greatest Happiness Principle.
Module 11: IMMANUEL LEVINA’S ETHICS Levinas' View:
• Criticizes Western idea
• Emmanuel Levinas - 20th century French philosopher • Other is not an object
• Ethics is first philosophy (not metaphysics or theology) • Introduces "Welcome Approach"
• Focus: encounter with another person • Emphasizes moral responsibility to Others
• Ethics arises from responsibility for others
• Influenced by: Husserl, Heidegger, Hegel Philosophy of the Other
• The Other cannot be reduced to the self
• After World War II and the Holocaust, Levinas rejected • Self depends on the Other
theodicy • Responsibility toward Others is essential
• The Odyssey is an attempt to answer why God would
allow the manifestation of evil God's actions can be Ethics as First Philosophy
explained. • Ethics comes before knowledge or reasoning
• Suffering cannot be justified • Based on responsibility to the Other
• Ethics = responding to others' suffering • Identity develops through interaction with others
• We must act ethically, not rely on God to justify
suffering The Face and Responsibility
• The face is:
Core Idea • Vulnerable
• Encountering another person creates responsibility • Ethical
• Ethics comes from compassion and presence, not • A call to responsibility
explanation
• "Face-to-face" encounter:
Levinas' Main Ethics (Relational Ethics - 6 • Creates obligation to care
Subcategories) • Commands: "Do not kill"
1. Sameness of Things
• Labeling everyone as a group called "Beings". • Responsibility:
2. Singularity of Things • Not chosen → automatically given
• It is the singularity that gives each of us our identities • We are responsible even for others' suffering
3. The Good is Infinite
• “Central Good”
• Good is infinite; experienced through rational
encounters with traces of good,
4. Face as Witness of the Good
• The face reveals traces of God/good
• The "Other" is superior and different
5. Face as Ethical
• The face of a stranger (weak/powerless) shows ethics
• Face = trace of God
6. Made Responsible by the Face
• The face makes us responsible for others
• Responsibility is human calling

Examples of Levinas' Ethics

• Pope Jorge Mario Bergoglio
• Accepting of People‘s Uniqueness
• He goes beyond self and Catholic teachings to help
others.
• He believes God is shown through all of us.

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau

• He is accepting everyone regardless of identity.
• Ensures no one is erased in the face of God.
• Treats everyone the same and sees others do as well.

Hugh Jackman
• Superstar actor who embodies Levinas Ethics especially
when it comes to seeing the face as ethical.
• Jackman treats the face ethically through his Laughing
Man Coffee Foundation. His Foundation treats coffee
farmers in Africa who are strangers to Jackman, with
strong ethics by supporting them.
Module 12: SELF, SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT
• Environmental ethics appeared in the 20th Century.
• One has to pay attention not just how one deals with • Focus now includes human to non-human relations.
oneself, but also how one interacts with other individuals
in personal relations. UTILITARIANISM (ENVIRONMENT)
• Ethical theories: utilitarianism, natural law theory, • Pleasure and pain should extend to other creatures.
deontology, and virtue ethics. • Animals also experience pleasure and pain.
• These are aids for us to realize that our life as humans • Greatest happiness principle includes animals.
are made for greater purpose and worth appreciating its • Actions should not lead to destruction of ecosystem.
dignity. • Benefit not just humans but the whole ecosystem.
• This is a synthesis of the four classic ethical theories.
DEONTOLOGY (ENVIRONMENT)
SELF AND SOCIETY • Cannot universalize maxims that lead to environmental
• One's membership in any society brings forth demands destruction.
of communal life in terms of group's rules and regulation. • “One ought to not worry about environmental
• Ethical question arises when expectations of a destruction as long as it produces economic wealth for my
particular society is in conflict with one's inherent values. society?” Such thinking is shortsighted.
• Great issue here is land ownership, when ancestral land
is at stake. NATURAL LAW (ENVIRONMENT)
• Does not produce a harmonious, peaceful society.
UTILITARIANISM ( MILL) • Neglecting environment leads to disasters (flooding,
• Greatest happiness principle must take precedence in famine).
one's choice of actions.
• The other is as important as one's self. VIRTUE ETHICS (ENVIRONMENT)
• "Will this action bring about the greatest happiness for • Shortsightedness is a lack of intellectual virtue.
the greatest number?"
•One becomes a better person if he learns to expand his
• One must think carefully whether action will truly
vision to see beyond what is merely close at hand.
benefit everyone affected.
• Harming environment for economic needs leads to
something much worse.
NATURAL LAW THEORY (AQUINAS)
• Inviolable value of human life.
• Production and care of offspring, promotion of truth
and peaceful and orderly social life.
• No harmonious social life if individuals do not value
human life, truth and peaceful coexistence.
• Issues that have to do with the dissemination of
post-truth, alternative facts, and fake news.

DEONTOLOGY (KANT)
• Principle of humanity as end in itself.
• Recognizes full autonomy of every single rational agent.
• One must not treat oneself or others as mere means.
• "One must always treat humanity... as an end itself."

VIRTUE ETHICS (ARISTOTLE)

• One must always find and act on the mean (mesotes).
• Concerned with becoming a better person in cultivating
character.
• Life is learning from one's own experiences.
• Virtues such as justice, liberty, magnificence,
friendliness, rightful indignation are socially-oriented
Aristotelian virtues.
• Mean is determined by a particular context.
• Temperance as one Aristotelian virtue is vital here.

Four ethical frameworks be used as a starting point for

thinking through what a person’s moral responsibility is
towards himself and leading to the other (self and
society). The frameworks concern our relationship with
humans. Another realm: non-human, physical
environment that human being live in.