Lecture 13

Rational Function and Their Properties

➢ Ratios of integers are called rational numbers.
➢ Similarly, ratios of polynomial functions are called rational functions.
Examples 1:
𝑥 2 +4𝑥−1
➢ The function 𝑅(𝑥) = is a rational function since the numerator,
3𝑥 2 −9𝑥+2
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1 is a polynomial and the denominator, 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2 is also a
polynomial.
Other Examples:
𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1
3𝑥 2
𝑔(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −1
𝑥3
ℎ(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −4
Definition
➢ A rational function is a function of the form
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑅(𝑥) = =
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) is not the zero
polynomial.
➢ The domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers except those
for which the denominator q(x) = 0.

1
How to Identify a Rational Function?

➢ By the definition of the rational function, if either the numerator or

denominator is not a polynomial, then the fraction formed does NOT represent
a rational function.
✓ For example,
4+√𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
2−𝑥
1
3+
𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
2−𝑥

etc are NOT rational functions as numerators in these examples are

NOT polynomials.

Finding Domain of Rational Function

➢ The domain of a rational function is the set of all x-values that the function
can take.
➢ To find the domain of a rational function y = f(x):
1. Set the denominator ≠ 0 and solve it for x.
2. Set of all real numbers other than the values of x mentioned in the
last step is the domain.

(2𝑥+1)
Example: Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥−2
Solution:

We set the denominator not equal to zero.

3x - 2 ≠ 0
x ≠ 2/3
Thus, the domain = {x ∈ R | x ≠ 2/3}

Example:
2𝑥 2 −4
(a) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers x except -5; that is,
𝑥+5
the domain is {x ∈ R |𝑥 ≠ −5}.
1
(b) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = 2 is the set of all real numbers x except -2 and 2; that
𝑥 −4
is, the domain is {x ∈ R |𝑥 ≠ −2, 𝑥 ≠ 2} .

2
 𝑥3
(c) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers.
𝑥 2 +1
𝑥 2 −1
(d) The domain of 𝑅(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers x except 1; that is, the
𝑥−1

domain is {x ∈ R |𝑥 ≠ 1}.
𝑥 2 −1
➢ Although 𝑅(𝑥) = reduces to 𝑥 + 1, it is important to observe that the
𝑥−1
functions
𝑥 2 −1
𝑅(𝑥) = and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
𝑥−1

are not equal, since the domain of R is {x ∈ R |𝑥 ≠ 1} and the domain of

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 is the set of all real numbers.
𝑝(𝑥)
➢ If 𝑅(𝑥) = is a rational function and if p and q have no common factors,
𝑞(𝑥)
then the rational function R is said to be in lowest terms.
𝑝(𝑥)
➢ For a rational function 𝑅(𝑥) = is in lowest terms, the real zeros, if any,
𝑞(𝑥)
of the numerator in the domain of R are the x-intercepts of the graph of R
and so will play a major role in the graph of R.
➢ The real zeros of the denominator of R [that is, the numbers x, if any, for
which 𝑞(𝑥) = 0], although not in the domain of R, also play a major role in
the graph of R.

Range of Rational Function

➢ The range of a rational function is the set of all outputs (y-values) that it
produces. To find the range of a rational function y= f(x):
✓ If we have f(x) in the equation, replace it with y.
✓ Solve the equation for x.
✓ Set the denominator of the resultant equation ≠ 0 and solve it for y.
✓ Set of all real numbers other than the values of y mentioned in the last
step is the range.

Example: Find the range of f(x) = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2).

Solution:
➢ Let us replace f(x) with y.
➢ Then
y = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2).

3
 ➢ Now, we will solve this for x.

(3x - 2) y = (2x + 1)
3xy - 2y = 2x + 1
3xy - 2x = 2y + 1
x (3y - 2) = (2y + 1)
x = (2y + 1) / (3y - 2)

Now

(3y - 2) ≠ 0
y ≠ 2/3

So, the range = {y ∈ R | y ≠ 2/3}

1 1
Example: Graph 𝑦 = . Analyze the graph of 𝐻(𝑥) = .
𝑥2 𝑥2
Solution:
1
➢ The domain of 𝐻(𝑥) = is the set of all real numbers x except 0.
𝑥2
➢ The graph has no y-intercept, because x can never equal 0.
➢ The graph has no x-intercept because the equation 𝐻(𝑥) = 0 has no solution.
➢ Therefore, the graph of H will not cross or touch either of the coordinate
axes.
➢ Because
1 1
𝐻(−𝑥) = = = 𝐻(𝑥)
(−𝑥)2 𝑥 2
✓ H is an even function, so its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

Table below shows the behavior of for selected positive numbers x.

𝑥 1
𝐻(𝑥) =
𝑥2
½ 4
1/100 10,000
1/10,000 100,000,000

4
 1 1
2 ¼
100 1/10,000
10,000 1/100,000,000

➢ We will use symmetry to obtain the graph of H when x < 0 .

➢ From the first three rows of the Table, we see that, as the values of x approach
(get closer to) 0, the values of H(x) become larger and larger positive numbers,
so H is unbounded in the positive direction.
➢ We use limit notation,
✓ lim 𝐻(𝑥) = ∞ , mean that 𝐻(𝑥) → ∞ as 𝑥 → 0.
𝑥→0

➢ Look at the last four rows of the Table. As 𝑥 → ∞, the values of H(x)approach
0 (the end behavior of the graph). In calculus, this is symbolized by writing
lim𝐻(𝑥) = 0.
𝑥→0

Figure below shows the graph

5
Asymptotes of Rational Function
➢ A rational function can have three types of asymptotes: horizontal, vertical,
and slant/oblique asymptotes.

➢ Apart from these, it can have holes as well.

Let R denote a function.

➢ If, as 𝒙 → −∞ or as 𝒙 → ∞ , the values of R(x) approach some fixed
number L, then the line 𝒚 = 𝑳 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of R.

➢ If, as x approaches some number c, the values |𝑅(𝑥)| → ∞[𝑅(𝑥) →

−∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑅(𝑥) → ∞], , then the line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph
of R.

➢ A horizontal asymptote, when it occurs, describes the end behavior of the

graph as 𝑥 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −∞.
6
 ✓ The graph of a function may intersect a horizontal asymptote.

➢ A vertical asymptote, when it occurs, describes the behavior of the graph

when x is close to some number c.
✓ The graph of a rational function will never intersect a vertical
asymptote.
➢ There is a third possibility.
✓ If, as 𝑥 → −∞ or as 𝑥 → ∞, the value of a rational function
approaches a linear expression 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑎 ≠ 0, then the line 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏, 𝑎 ≠ 0, is an oblique asymptote of R.
✓ An oblique asymptote, when it occurs, describes the end behavior of
the graph.
✓ The graph of a function may intersect an oblique asymptote.

7
Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function

➢ A horizontal asymptote (HA) of a function is an imaginary horizontal line to

which its graph appears to be very close but never touch.
➢ It is of the form y = some number.
➢ Here, "some number" is closely connected to the excluded values from the
range.
➢ A rational function can have at most one horizontal asymptote.
➢ Easy way to find the horizontal asymptote of a rational function is using the
degrees of the numerator (N) and denominators (D).

✓ If N < D, then there is a HA at y = 0.

✓ If N > D, then there is no HA.
✓ If N = D, then the HA is y = ratio of the leading coefficients.

8
Example: Find the horizontal asymptote (if any) of the function
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2

Solution:

➢ Here the degree of the numerator is, N = 2, and the degree of the denominator
is, D = 2.
➢ Since N = D, the HA is

y = (leading coefficient of numerator) / (leading coefficient of denominator)

= 1/1 = 1.

➢ Thus, the HA is y = 1.

Vertical Asymptote of a Rational Function

➢ A vertical asymptote (VA) of a function is an imaginary vertical line to

which its graph appears to be very close but never touch.
➢ It is of the form x = some number.
➢ Here, "some number" is closely connected to the excluded values from the
domain.
➢ But note that there cannot be a vertical asymptote at x = some number

✓ if there is a hole at the same number.

➢ A rational function may have one or more vertical asymptotes.

➢ So, to find the vertical asymptotes of a rational function:

✓ Simplify the function first to cancel all common factors (if any).
✓ Set the denominator = 0 and solve for (x) (or equivalently just get the
excluded values from the domain by avoiding the holes).

9
Example: Find the vertical asymptotes of the function

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 +𝑥−2
Solution:

➢ Simplify the function we get

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟔 (𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟐) (𝒙 + 𝟑)
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 = 𝟐 = =
𝒙 +𝒙−𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟐)(𝒙 − 𝟏) (𝒙 − 𝟏)

➢ Setting the denominator to 0, we get

x-1=0

x=1

➢ Thus, there is a VA of the given rational function is, x = 1.

Slant (Oblique) Asymptotes of a Rational Function

➢ A slant asymptote is also an imaginary oblique line to which a part of the

graph appears to touch.
➢ A rational function has a slant asymptote only when the degree of the
numerator (N) is exactly one greater than the degree of the denominator (D).
➢ Its equation is y = quotient that is obtained by dividing the numerator by
denominator using the long division.
𝑥2
Example: Find the slant asymptote of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+1

Solution:

➢ Here the degree of numerator is 2 and that of denominator is 1.

➢ So, it has a slant asymptote.
➢ Let us divide x2 by (x + 1) by long division (or we can use synthetic division
as well).

10
Thus, the slant asymptote is y = x - 1.

11