LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

GE MATH
MODULE 4
Sets and Its Operations

Organized by:

JIMBO JUANITO B. VILLAMOR

Faculty, College of Teacher Education
SSCT Del Carmen | Del Carmen, Siargao Islands, Surigao del Norte

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1. Title: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

2. Topic: Sets and Its Operations

3. Time Frame: 4 hrs.

4. Introduction

A set in mathematics is a collection of well-defined and distinct objects,

considered as an object in its own right. Sets are one of the most fundamental
concepts in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is
now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which
nearly all of mathematics can be derived.

5. Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. describe sets using the set-roster and set-builder notations;
2. perform the operations involving sets; and
3. solve basic word problems involving sets.

6. Learning Activities

Definition
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Georg Cantor, the founder of
set theory, gave the following definition of a set at the beginning of his Beiträge
zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre:

A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our

perception and of our thought – which are called elements of the set.

The elements or members of a set can be anything: numbers, people,

letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Sets are conventionally denoted
with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely the
same elements. The most basic properties are that a set "has" elements, and
that two sets are equal (one and the same) if and only if every element of one is
an element of the other.

Describing sets
There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set:
1. Rule Method or Semantic Description – using intentional definition or
rules describing the elements of the set. This is otherwise referred as
the set-builder notation.

Illustration:
A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers.
B is the set of colors of the Philippine flag.

2. Roster/Listing Method – listing each member of the set. An extensional

definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:

Illustration:
C = {4, 2, 1, 3}
D = {blue, white, red, yellow}

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Every element of a set must be unique; no two members may be identical.

The order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant. For instance,

the set {6, 11} can also be written as {11, 6}.

For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be

abbreviated. For instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be
specified as:

{1, 2, 3, …, 1000}

where the ellipsis ("...") indicates that the list continues in the obvious way.
Ellipses may also be used where sets have infinitely many members. Thus, the
set of positive even numbers can be written as

{2, 4, 6, 8, ... }.

The notation with braces may also be used in an intentional specification of a set.
In this usage, the braces have the meaning "the set of all ...".

A more general form of this is set-builder notation, through which, for instance,
the set F of the twenty smallest integers that are four less than perfect
squares can be denoted:

F = {n2 – 4 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤ 19}.

In this notation, the colon (":") means "such that", and the description can be
interpreted as "F is the set of all numbers of the form n 2 − 4, such that n is a
whole number in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive." Sometimes the vertical bar
("|") is used instead of the colon.

Example 1: Using Set-Roster Notation

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, b = {3, 1, 2} and C = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the
elements of A, B and C? How A, B and C are related?
2. Is {0} = 0?
3. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
4. For each nonnegative integer n, let U n ={ n ,−n } . Find U 1, U 2, and U 0 .

Solution
1. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and 3. Therefore,
A , B, and C are simply different ways to represent the same set.
2. {0}≠ 0 because {0} is a set with one element, namely, 0, whereas 0 is just
the symbol that represents the number zero.
3. The set {1 , {1 } has two elements: 1 and the set whose only element is 1.
4. U 1={1 ,−1 }, U 2={2 ,−2 }, U 0 ={ 0 ,−0 }={ 0 , 0 } ={0 }

Example 2: Using Set-Builder Notation

Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers, Z the set of all integers, and
+ ¿¿
Z the set of all positive integers, describe each of the following sets:
1. { x ∈ R∨−2< x<5 }
2. { x ∈ Z ∨−2< x< 5 }
3. ¿

Solution
1. { x ∈ R∨−2< x<5 }is the open interval of real numbers (strictly) between -2
and 5, denoted by (-2, 5).

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2. { x ∈ Z ∨−2< x< 5 }={−1 , 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 }

3. ¿

Membership

element of another. If a is a member of B, this is denoted a ∈ B, while if c is not a

The key relation between sets is membership – when one set is an

member of B then c ∉ B.

For example, with respect to the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {blue, white,
red}, and F = {n2 − 4 : n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤19}, we say, that

4 ∈ A and 285 ∈ F; but 9 ∉ F and green ∉ B.

Subsets

subset of B, written A ⊆ B (also pronounced A is contained in B).

If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a

Equivalently, we can write B ⊇ A, read as B is a superset of A, B includes

A, or B contains A. The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called
inclusion or containment.

B, written A ⊊ B (A is a proper subset of B) or B ⊋ A (B is a proper superset of

If A is a subset of, but not equal to, B, then A is called a proper subset of

A).

Note that the expressions A ⊂ B and B ⊃ A are used differently by

different authors; some authors use them to mean the same as A ⊆ B
(respectively B ⊇ A), whereas other use them to mean the same as A ⊊ B
(respectively B ⊋ A).

Illustration:

2. {1, 3} ⊊ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

1. The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all people.

3. {1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

∅ ⊆ A.
The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:

A ⊆ A.

An obvious but useful identity, which can often be used to show that two

A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

seemingly different sets are equal:

A partition of a set S is a set of nonempty subsets of S such that every

element x in S is in exactly one of these subsets.

Example 3: Subsets
Let A=Z +¿ ¿, B= {n ∈ Z|0 ≤ n ≤100 } and C={100 , 200 , 300 , 400 , 500 }. Evaluate the
truth and falsity of each of the following statements.
1. B⊆ A
2. C ⊊ A
3. C and B have at least one element in common
4. C ⊆ B
5. C ⊆ C

Solution

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1. False. Zero is not a positive integer. Thus, zero is in B but not in A, and so
B is not a subset of A.
2. True. Each element in C and, hence, is in A, but there are elements in A
that are not in C. For instance, 1 is in A and not in C.
3. True. For example, 100 is in both C and B.
4. False. For example, 200 is in C but not in B.
5. True. Every element in C is in C. In general, the definition of subset
implies that all sets are subsets of themselves.

Power sets
The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S, including S itself
and the empty set. The number of elements in a power set is determined using
the formula 2n, where n is the number of elements in a given set. For example,
the number of elements in the power set of the set S = {1, 2, 3} is: 2n=2 3=8.

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, and ∅. This power set is written as:
That is, the power set of a set S, written as P(S), has 8 elements: {1, 2, 3},

P(S) = {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, ∅}.

Remarks:
1. The power set of an infinite (either countable or uncountable) set is always
uncountable.
2. The power set of a set is always strictly "bigger" than the original set in the
sense that there is no way to pair the elements of a set S with the elements of
its power set P(S) such that every element of S set is paired with exactly one
element of P(S), and every element of P(S) is paired with exactly one element
of S.
3. Every partition of a set S is a subset of the power set of S.

Cardinality
The cardinality of a set S, denoted by | S |, is "the number of members of
S."

Example: If B = {blue, white, red}, then | B | = 3.

called the empty set (or the null set) and is denoted by the symbol ∅ or { }. For
There is a unique set with no members and zero cardinality, which is

example, the set of all three-sided squares has zero members and thus is the
empty set.

Some sets have infinite cardinality. The set N of natural numbers, for
instance, is infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For
instance, the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural
numbers.

Basic operations
There are several fundamental operations for constructing new sets from
given sets.

B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all things which are members

1. Unions. Two sets can be "added" together. The union of A and

of either A or B.

1. {1, 2} ∪ {red, white} = {1, 2, red, white}

Examples:

2. {1, 2, green} ∪ {red, white, green} ={1, 2, red, white, green}

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3. {1, 2} ∪ {1, 2} = {1, 2}

1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A
Some basic properties of unions:

2. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
3. A ⊆ (A ∪ B)
4. A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B = B
5. A ∪ A = A
6. A ∪ ∅ = A

2. Intersections. A new set can also be constructed by

determining which members two sets have "in common". The

which are members of both A and B. If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B

intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things

are said to be disjoint.

1. {1, 2} ∩ {red, white} = ∅.

Examples:

2. {1, 2, green} ∩ {red, white, green} = {green}

3. {1, 2} ∩ {1, 2} = {1, 2}

Some basic properties of intersections:

1. A ∩ B = B ∩ A

3. A ∩ B ⊆ A
2. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

5. A ∩ ∅ = ∅
4. A ∩ A = A

6. A ⊆ B if and only if A ∩ B = A

3. Complements. Two sets can also be "subtracted". The relative

complement of B in A (also called the set-theoretic difference of
A and B), denoted by A \ B (or A − B), is the set of all elements
which are members of A but not members of B.
Note that it is valid to "subtract" members of a set that are not
in the set, such as removing the element green from the set {1, 2,
3}; doing so has no effect. In certain settings, all sets under
discussion are considered to be subsets of a given universal set
U. In such cases, U \ A is called the absolute complement or
simply complement of A, and is denoted by A′.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} \ {red, white} = {1, 2}

3. {1, 2} \ {1, 2} = ∅
2. {1, 2, green} \ {red, white, green} = {1, 2}

4. {1, 2, 3, 4} \ {1, 3} = {2, 4}

5. If U is the set of integers, E is the set of even integers, and O is the set of
odd integers, then U \ E = E′ = O.

Some basic properties of complements:

2. A ∪ A′ = U
1. A \ B ≠ B \ A for A ≠ B

3. A ∩ A′ = ∅

5. A \ A = ∅
4. (A′)′ = A

6. U′ = ∅ and ∅′ = U
7. A \ B = A ∩ B′

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An extension of the complement is the symmetric difference, defined for sets A,

B as:
AΔB=( A ¿)∪( B ¿)

For example, the symmetric difference of {7,8,9,10} and {9,10,11,12} is the set
{7,8,11,12}.

4. Cartesian product. A new set can be constructed by associating every

element of one set with every element of another set. The Cartesian product
of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
such that a is a member of A and b is a member of B.

Examples:
1. {1, 2} × {red, white} = {(1, red), (1, white), (2, red), (2, white)}
2. {1, 2, green} × {red, white, green} = {(1, red), (1, white), (1, green), (2,
red), (2, white), (2, green), (green, red), (green, white), (green, green)}
3. {1, 2} × {1, 2} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}.

1. A × ∅ = ∅
Some basic properties of cartesian products:

2. A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
3. (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C)
4. Let A and B be finite sets. Then | A × B | = | B × A | = | A | × | B

Application
1. In a survey of university students, 64 had taken mathematics course, 94 had
taken chemistry course, 58 had taken physics course, 28 had taken
mathematics and physics, 26 had taken mathematics and chemistry, 22 had
taken chemistry and physics course, and 14 had taken all the three
courses. Find how many had taken one course only.

Solution:

Let M, C, P represent sets of students who had taken mathematics, chemistry

and physics respectively

Step 1 :
Venn diagram related to the information given in the question:

Step 2 :
From the Venn diagram above, we have
No. of students who had taken only math = 24
No. of students who had taken only chemistry = 60
No. of students who had taken only physics = 22

Step 3 :
Total no. of students who had taken only one course = 24 + 60 + 22 = 106

Hence, the total number of students who had taken only one course is 106.

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2. In a group of students, 65 play football, 45 play hide and seek, 42 play chess,
20 play football and hide and seek, 25 play football and chess, 15 play hide
and seek and chess and 8 play all the three games. Find the total number of
students in the group (Assume that each student in the group plays at least
one game).

Solution:

Let F, H and C represent the set of students who play football, hide and seek
and chess respectively.

Step 1 :

Venn diagram related to the information given in the question:

Step 2 :

Total number of students in the group :

= 28 + 12 + 18 + 7 + 10 + 17 + 8

= 100

So, the total number of students in the group is 100.

3. In a college, 60 students enrolled in chemistry, 40 in physics, 30 in biology, 15

in chemistry and physics,10 in physics and biology, 5 in biology and
chemistry. No one enrolled in all the three. Find how many are enrolled in at
least one of the subjects.

Solution:

Let C, P and B represents the subjects Chemistry, Physics and Biology

respectively.

The number of students enrolled in at least one of the subjects :

= 40 + 15 + 15 + 15 + 5 + 10 + 0
= 100

So, the number of students enrolled in at least one of the subjects is 100.
7. Learning Assessment Tasks

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Answer the following comprehensively. Write your answer in a separate sheet of

paper.
1. Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers, Z the set of all integers, and
+ ¿¿
Z the set of all positive integers, write the following in words:
a. { x ∈ R∨x ≤ 0∨x ≥1 }
b. { n ∈ Z∨n is a factor of 6 }
c. ¿

2. Use the set-roster notation to indicate the elements in each of the following
sets:
a. S= { n ∈ Z|n=(−1)k , for some integer k }
b. T ={ m ∈ Z|m=1+(−1)i , for some integer i }
c. X ={ u ∈ Z| n=u ≤ 4∨u ≥1 }

3. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

A = {2, 3, 5, 7}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

1. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
Show that the following is true:

3. A ∪ A′ = U
2. A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

5. (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C)
4. A \ B = A ∩ B′

4. In a town 85% of the people speak Tamil, 40% speak English and 20% speak
Hindi. Also 32% speak Tamil and English, 13% speak Tamil and Hindi and
10% speak English and Hindi, find the percentage of people who can speak
all the three languages.

8. References:

Dauben, Joseph W., Georg Cantor: His Mathematics and Philosophy of the
Infinite, Boston: Harvard University Press (1979) ISBN 978-0-691-02447-9.

Halmos, Paul R., Naive Set Theory, Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand (1960) ISBN
0-387-90092-6.

Stoll, Robert R., Set Theory and Logic, Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications (1979)
ISBN 0-486-63829-4.

Velleman, Daniel, How To Prove It: A Structured Approach, Cambridge

University Press (2006) ISBN 978-0-521-67599-4

[Link]
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