MATHEMATICS LECTURE NOTES FOR

MATURE ACCESS PROGRAMME

SETS

Sets refers to a collection of objects

Examples include:

1. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday

2. Unmarried people in the mature class

A set is a well-defined collection of objects of the same kind.

Consider the following collection:

1. All students in the mature class

2. Months of the year
3. Number of living past presidents of Ghana
4. Dull people
5. Number of public universities in Ghana
6. Set of triplets

SET NOTATION

Sets are conventionally denoted by capital letters

For example: A, B, C, Q, Z etc.

The members of a set are enclosed in a curly brackets { }

The components or objects of a set are called members or elements of a set

They can be anything ie. Numbers, people, schools, churches etc.

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For example, if A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then 4 is a member/element of A

The number of members or elements in set A = {2, 4, 6, 8} is 4 and this is denoted as n(A) = 4

TYPES OF SETS

1. Finite Set
A set whose last member can be found is a finite set
Example, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is a finite set with five members.
B = {1, 3, 5, 7} is finite set with four members
Note that the objects of a finite set can be counted

2. Infinite Set
A set whose last member cannot be found is an infinite set
Example, Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …} which is the set of positive integers is an infinite set
The three dots mean the set continues indefinitely or has no end
Note that the objects of an infinite set cannot be counted as it continues indefinitely

3. Null or empty set

A set which has no member or element is called a null or empty set
A null set is denoted by { }

4. Unit Set
Unit set is a set which has only one member. For example, P = {5} or Q = {2} is a unit
set

5. Universal Set
It is the set of all the object under discussion. It is denoted by the symbol U
For example, if the set of shapes is under discussion, then the universal set is taken to be
the set of all polygons
The universal set is represented by a rectangle when drawing a Venn diagram

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 6. Equivalent Set
Two sets are said to be equivalent if they have the same number of members
For example, if A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {11, 12, 13}, then A is said to be equivalent to B,
since they both have three members

7. Equal Set
Two sets are said to be equal if they have the same members.
For example, if A = {2, 3, 7} and B = {7, 2, 3}, then A = B since each member of set A
has its corresponding member in set B
Example, if set A = {1, 4, 6, 8} and B = {4, 1, n, 8}, and A = B, then n = 6
Note that the order of listing the members may or may not be the same

LISTING THE ELEMENTS OF A SET

Given that Z = {x : 2 ≤ x ≤ 6, where x is an integer}, we can list the elements of the set and
determine the number of elements of Z as follows

Listing: Z = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Number of elements in Z is denoted by n(Z) = 5

Illustrative Examples

List the members of the following sets

1. P = {x : x is a multiple of 3 less than 18}

2. Q = {x : x is an even number between 5 and 21}
3. R = {x : x is an odd number between 6 and 20}
4. C = {x : 3 ≤ x ≤ 12, where x is an integer}
5. A = {x : 6 < x < 12, where x is an integer}
6. B = {-2 < x ≤ 3, where x is an integer}

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VENN DIAGRAM

A closed figure can be used to represent a set

For instance, we can use rectangle, square, circle, triangle etc. to represent a set

The diagrams representing sets are called Venn diagrams

Venn diagrams are therefore pictorial representations of sets

For example, if A = {2, 4, 6,8, 10}

B = {X, Y, Z}

C = {40, 80, 120, 160}

A 2 4 B C

2 8 X Y Z 40

10 80 120 160

SUBSETS

If all members of a set A belong to a set B, then A is said to be a subset of B, written as A ⸦ B

(also referred to as A is contained in B)

For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, then A ⸦ B

Or if X = {a, b, c} and Y = {a, b, c, d, e}, then X ⸦ Y

If A is not a subset of B, we write A ⸦ B

⸦ means “is not a subset of”

The venn diagram for A ⸦ B

B U

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If set X = {a, b, c} and Y = {a, b, c, d, e}

d a b c

OPERATIONS ON SETS

There are three operations on sets

1. Intersection (n)
2. Union (U)
3. Complement ( ')

These operations help us to construct new sets from existing ones

INTERSECTION OF SETS

The set of objects which belong to set A and at the same time set B is called the intersection of A
and B, ie. A n B

n means intersection

Therefore, X n Y means intersection of X and Y

If P = {5, 10, 15, 20}

Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

P n Q = {5, 10}

Shaded area in the two figures below represent A n B

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 U U

A B B A
// //////////////
/// ////////////////
/// ///////////////
/// ////////////

A = {1, 3, 7, 9} A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

B = {2, 3, 7, 11} B = {1, 2, 3}

For example 1, if M = {8, 12, 16, 20} and N = {2, 6, 8, 10, 12}, then M n N = {8, 12}

M 2 N

16 12 6
20 8 10

For example 2, if P = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and Q = {4, 5, 6}, then P n Q = {4, 5, 6}

P U

7 Q

4 5 6 8

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Exercises

Exercise 1: if C = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11} and D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, find C n D {illustrate it on venn

diagram

Exercise 2: if A = {20, 30, 40, 50, 60} and B = {20, 30}, find A n B {illustrate it on venn
diagram

Exercise 3: Find A n B if A = {x : x ≥ -4} and B = {x : x ≤ 2}, where x is an integer

Exercise 4: if M = {x : x > -4} and N = {x : x < 4}, where x is an integer, find M n N

DISJOINT SETS

If no member of a set A belongs to a set B, then the sets A and B are disjoint sets

In particular, if A and B do not intersect, then they are disjoint sets

Example 1, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {6, 7, 8, 9,10}, then A and B are disjoint sets since no
member of A belongs to B

AnB={}

Example 2, if A = {3, 6, 9, 12} and B = {2, 4, 5, 7}, then A and B are disjoint sets since no
member of A belongs to B

AnB={}

UNION OF TWO SETS

A union of two sets A and B is the set formed by putting the two sets together

In particular, the union of sets A and B is the set of elements that belong to either A or B or both

A U B means “A union B”

The symbol U means union

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Example 1, if A = {1, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {2, 3, 4, 5}

Then A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

Example 2, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 6, 7, 8}

Then A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Note that if a member appears in both sets, it is listed or written once

For example 1, 4 and 5 appeared in both A and B, but were written once in A U B

Example 3, if Q = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12} and P = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Then Q U P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}

Example 4, if C = {20, 30, 40} and D = {50, 60, 70}

Then C U D = {20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70}

Example 5, find A U B, if A = {8 < x < 15} and B = {-3 < x < 10}

COMPLEMENT OF A SET

If A is a subset of the universal set U, then the complement of A is the set of members which
belong to the Universal set U but do not belong to A

The complement of A is written as Aʹ

In particular, the complement of a set is equal to elements in the universal set minus elements in
the set under consideration

Example, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and A = {6, 7, 8}

Then Aʹ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Exercises

1. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}

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 Find Bʹ
2. If U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} and Q = {4, 6, 8}
Find Qʹ
3. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 11, 12, 13} and P = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11}
Find Pʹ
4. U = {-5 < x ≤ 5} and A is a subset of U, where A = {-2 < x ≤ 3} and x is an integer
Find Aʹ

SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICAL PROBLEMS USING VENN DIAGRAM

Two-Set Problems

If U is the universal set and A and B are two intersecting subsets of the universal set, there are
four regions in the Venn Diagram

Whenever any two-set problem is given, each of the regions must be represented correctly on the
diagram

n(A) n(B) n(U)

1 2 3

Region 4

n(U) = Region 1 + Region 2 + Region 3 + Region 4

If there is no element in Region 4, then n(U) = n(A U B)

Illustrative Example

In a class of 40 students, 30 read Mathematics and 20 read English. Each student reads at least
one subject. How many students read both Mathematics and English?

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Solution

Step 1

Identify the number of students reading each subject

Let U = {students in the class}

Therefore, n(U) = 40

M = {students who read Maths}

n(M) = 30

E = {students who read English}

n(E) = 20

x = number of students who read both subjects

Step 2

Draw a venn diagram of two intersecting sets using the information given in the problem

Note that n(M n E) = x

n(M)=30 n(E)=20 n(U)=40

Step 3

There are 30 students in the mathematics subset, so there are (30 – x) students who read
Mathematics only.

Similarly, there are 20 students in the English subset. So there are (20 – x) students who read
English only.

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 n(M)=30 n(N)=20 n(U)=40

30 – x x 20 – x

Sum of all the four regions = n(U) = 40

40 = 30 – x + x + 20 – x

40 = 30 + 20 – x

40 = 50 – x

40 – 50 = -x

-10 = -x

x = 10

Exercises

1. In a certain school, 40% are in the hockey team, and 70% are in the football team. Each
students is in at least one team.
a) Find the number of students who are in both teams
b) How many students are in the hockey team only
c) How many students are in the football team only

2. In a class of 60 students, 46 passed Biology and 42 passed Chemistry. Every student

passed at least one of the two subjects
a) How many students passed in both subjects
b) How many students passed Biology only
c) How many students passed Chemistry only

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Instances where Region 4 is not empty

n(A) n(B) n(U)

1st 2nd 3rd

x

4th

Example 1

If in a class of 20 students, 14 read Biology, 12 read Biology and 10 read both Biology and
Chemistry, find the number of students who neither read Biology nor Chemistry

Solution

n(B) n(C) n(U)=20

14 – 10 10 12 - 10

20 = (14 – 10) + 10 + (12 – 10) + Z

20 = 4 + 10 + 2 + Z

20 = 16 + Z

20 – 16 = Z

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Z=4

Example 2

In a community of 40 youths, 20 youths play football, 24 youths play volleyball, 7 youths play
both football and volleyball. Find the number of youth that does not play neither football nor
volleyball

Solution

40 = (20 – 7) + 7 + (24 – 7) + Z

40 = 13 + 7 + 17 + Z

40 = 37 + Z

40 – 37 = Z

Z = 3 youths

Exercise

In a class of 80 students, 40 students study Philosophy, 30 students study Sociology, 20 students

neither study Philosophy nor Sociology. Find the number of students who study both Philosophy
and Sociology.

ALGBRAIC EXPRESSION

In algebra, letters are used to stand for numbers

When letters are used to stand for different numbers, they are called variables

Usually, we use such letters as h, n, x, y z for variables

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Example

Wage = Hour × Rate

W = HR, if R = 20, then

W = 20H

An algebraic expression is a collection of letters and symbols combined with at least one of the
arithmetic operations (+, –, ×, ÷)

Example 2x + y – 4 and 4ab3 are algebraic expressions

Note that × and ÷ signs are not usually written in algebraic expressions but you have to know
that ab means a × b

a
and means a ÷ b
b

The terms in an expression are separated by plus (+) or minus (–) signs

4x + 3y + 2 are 4x, 3y and 2

A number on its own is called a constant term

For example, 4x + 3y + 2, the constant term is 2

The number placed in front of and thus multiplying a letter or group of letters is called the
coefficient

For example, 2y, the coefficient is 2

4x2 – 6y, 4 is the coefficient of x2, and 6 is the coefficient of y

Forming algebraic expressions

Statements in words are often written as algebraic expressions in mathematics. Any letter may be
used for the unknown number, but different letter must be used for each different unknown.

Phrase Expression

Five increased by a number x 5+x

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Twelve decreased by a number y 12 – y

Fourteen less than a number Z Z – 14

The product of 9 and number n 9 × n or 9n

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Twenty-two divided by a number x 22 ÷ x or
x

In the above examples, each expression consists of one number, one operation and one variable

Other examples

Phrase Expression

Five more than twice a number 2n + 5

The product of a number and 6 added to 10 6n + 10

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Seven divided by twice a number 7 ÷ 2n or
2n

Three times a number decreased by 11 3n – 11

Exercises

Write the following sentences in an algebraic expression

1. Twice a certain number minus 4 is equal to 5

2. When 10 is added to a certain number and the result is multiplied by 2, the answer is 40
3. The square of a certain number plus ten is equal to 81
4. A certain number plus eight is equal to three times the number
5. A certain number is added to four and the result is doubled
6. Half a certain number is 3 more than the number
7. One=fourth of a number is equal to 9
8. Two-fifth of a certain number plus 2 is equal to 10
9. When 5 is added to three-fifth of a certain number, the result is 15

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OPERATIONS ON ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

The four rules of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be used to simplify
algebraic expressions

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

We can only add or subtract like terms to give a single term

This is often called collecting/grouping like terms

The reason being if you have bottles of Sobolo and bottles of Coca Cola, you cannot add them
and get a uniformed outcome

Similarly, with algebra, we can only add (or subtract) similar objects, or those with the same
letter raised to the same power

Expressions often contain several sets of like terms. It is easier to simplify, if you rewrite the
expression with the like terms to each other

Example 1: 12x + 7y – 3x + 7a

Like terms in the expression are 12x and -3x

(12x – 3x) + 7y + 7a

9x + 7y + 7a

Example 2: 4x2y + 5xy2 + 3x2y – 2xy2

4x2y + 3x2y + 5xy2 – 2xy2

7x2y + 3xy2

Example 3: x2 + x + 2x2

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 x2 + 2x2 + x

3x2 + x

Exercises

Simplify the following algebraic expressions

1. 3c2 + 7cd – 4c2 + 5d

2. x2 – 5x2y – 6x2 + 2x2 – x2y
3. 20k3 – 6k3 + k3
4. 16m4 – 15mn + m4 + 17mn
5. 6k2 –kl2 + 2k2 + 12k2 – 3kl2
6. 11v2w – 2v2 + 3v2 – 8v2w – 2v2
7. 3y6 – y6 + 5y6
8. 3cd5 + 5dc5 + 2cd5 + dc5 – 3dc5
9. 14hk3 – 2kh3 – 2hk3 + 3kh3
10. 7a4 + 5a – 2a4 – 4a – a4

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

When multiplying of dividing expressions, it is easier if you group the numbers and same letters
together and then use the basic rules of indices

Note that a bracket may be used to show a multiplication ie. a(bc) means a × (bc)

Examples

Simplify the following expressions

1. 4p × 8p2
2. -2a × 4c × 5b
3. 5xy2 × 4x4y3

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 4. 16a3b2 ÷ 2ab
5. 15y3 ÷ 3y2
6. 2st3 × 4s4t2

Removing Brackets

Brackets are used to group terms together. An expression with brackets in it can be replaced by
an equivalent one without brackets.

This is called removing the brackets or expanding the expression

To remove the bracket, we use the distributive law

Multiplying the term outside the bracket by each of the terms inside the bracket

For example, 4a(2a + 3) = 8a2 + 12a

Take care with the signs when removing brackets

Note that a letter or number without a sign is +

For example, 2a means +2a

4 means +4 etc

When there is – sign in front of the bracket, the signs inside the bracket change when the
brackets are removed

-2a(b – c + d)

-2ab + 2ac – 2ad

Exercises

Simplify the following expressions

1. 4(x + 1) + 2(2x + 1)
2. -3(2x – 4)
3. 5a + 2(2a -3) + 4
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 4. 12b – (5 + 2b) – 7
5. 4(2t + 1) – 3(t – 2)
6. 3a(a + 4ab – b)
7. 2a[(a + 3b) + 4(2a – b)]

BINMIAL EXPRESSIONS

A binomial expression of two terms separated by a plus (+) or a minus (–)

Example, (a + 3), (x2 – y3), (2n – 3m)

The multiplication of two binomials requires the use of the distributive property

Multiply each term in one bracket by each term in the other bracket

After removing the brackets, always collect any like terms together and simplify

Example: (a + b)(c + d)

a(c + d) + b(c + d)

ac + ad + bc + bd

Exercises

Simplify the following

1. (a + 2)(a + 3)
2. (2x + 3)2
3. (3x – 2)(3y + 4)
4. (2x + y)(2x – y)
5. (y – 2)(y – 3)
6. (k + 9)2
7. (m – n)2
8. (r + t)2 + (7r – 9t)2
9. (x + y)2 + (x – y)2
10. (x + h)2 – (x – h)2

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FACTORIZATION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION

When each of the terms of an expression is divisible by a common factor, the expression may be
simplified by dividing each term separately by this factor, and enclosing the quotient within
brackets

The common factor being placed outside the bracket as a coefficient

This process of putting an expression in brackets is called factorization

Example 1: the expression 4a + 4b has the highest common factor 4

Therefore, 4a + 4b = 4(a + b)

Example 2: Expression 6x2 – 10x

6x2 – 10x = 2x(3x – 5)

Using Common factors to Factorize

The general method used to factorize terms with common factors is to find the factor common to
all the terms in the expression and bring it outside the brackets

Example: 3ax + 6ay

Highest common factor here is 3a

3ax + 6ay = 3a(x + 2y)

Note: after factorizing, expand to see whether you will get the original expression

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Examples

1. 54 – 81x = 9(6 – 9x)

2. x3 – x2y = x2(x – y)
3. 100x – 25x2 = 25x(4 – x)

Exercises

Factorize the following expressions

1. 25ax + 15a
2. 10a – 15b
3. p – pq
4. 12ab + 20ax
5. 24an – 8nb
6. 4qr – 12q2
7. 15m2 – 10m
8. 12cm + 16dm
9. px + qx
10. 6uvw + 10uvw

Using Grouping to Factorize

An expression may be re-organized if terms can be arranged in groups which have common
compound factors

Such expressions usually have four terms

The general method used to factorize such expressions is to group the first two terms and the last
two terms separately

Next, factorize each group separately

In doing so, the term in the brackets will be the same

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Then put the factors in each group in one bracket and multiply by the common term in the
bracket

Note: You do not always group in pairs as the expression is written. You can reposition some of
the terms so that you can factorize

Example 1: factorize completely x2 – ax + bx – ab

Solution

Notice that the first two terms contain a common factor x, and the last two terms a common
factor b, we can enclose the first two terms in one bracket, and the last two in another bracket

(x2 – ax) + (bx – ab)

We then factorize each term separately so that the terms in the bracket will be the same

ie. x(x – a) + b(x – a)

Finally, we pick the terms outside each bracket and put them in a bracket and multiply with one
of the “same brackets”

ie. (x – a)(x + b)

Note: You should always multiply out your answer to check whether it is correct

If you obtain the original expression, then it is correct

Exercises

Factorize completely the following

1. 3a2 + 2ab – 12ac – 8bc

2. 2ap + aq – bq – 2bp
3. mp + np – mt – nt
4. 3x2 + 2xy – 12xz – 8yz
5. x2 – xu + xy – uy
6. 2ab – 8a + 5b – 20
7. x2 – 2x + ax – 2a
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 8. x2 + 6x + 2x2 + 3x

QUADRATIC TRINOMIALS

A trinomial is an expression containing three terms

Any expression of the form

ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, & c are constants and not equal to zero is a quadratic trinomial

A quadratic trinomial has 3 terms ie. an x2 term, an x term and a constant term

For example, 2x2 – 3x + 4 is a quadratic trinomial with a = 2, b = -3 and c = 1

For quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c, a is said to be the coefficient of x2, b is the coefficient of x
and c is called a constant

Steps for Factorizing quadratic trinomials

This method changes the 3 terms into 4 by splitting the middle term

The four terms are then factorized using the method of grouping

Step 1

Find the product ac ie. multiply the coefficient of x2 by the constant

Step 2

Find the factors of the result in step 1 which when added or subtracted give us the coefficient of
x (ie. b)

Step 3

Replace the coefficient of x(ie. b) by the factors obtained in step 2 and use the method of
grouping to complete the factorization

Example: Factorize x2 + 5x + 6

Solution

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Step 1: For the quadratic trinomial, x2 + 5x + 6, the coefficient of x2 = 1, and the constant is 6

Therefore, ac = 1 × 6 = 6

Step 2: The possible pairs of factors of 6 are (1, 6), (-1, -6), (2, 3) and (-2, -3), but of these, only
the pair (2, 3) gives us 5 (ie. the coefficient of x) when added

Step 3: Replace 5x by 2x + 3x in the given expression and factorize using the grouping method

x2 + 5x + 6 = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6

(x2 + 2x) + (3x + 6)

x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2)

(x + 2)(x + 3)

Exercises

Factorize completely the following expressions

1. x2 + x – 6
2. 2x2 – 3x + 1
3. 3x2 – 2x – 5
4. 5x2 – 13x – 6
5. 4x2 – 8x + 3
6. 6x2 + 7x – 5
7. y2 – 9y + 14

SURDS

When we cannot simplify a number to remove a square root, then it is a surd

Taking only the positive square root, √ 4 , √ 9, √ 25 etc. give exact values 2, 3, 5 respectively
called rational numbers

However, √ 2 = 1.414, √ 20 = 4.472, √ 3 = 1.732, √ 5 = 2.236 etc. cannot be obtained exactly, and
the roots are said to give irrational numbers, generally called surds.

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A surd is a square root which cannot be reduced to a whole number

Therefore, a surd can only be expressed exactly using the square root sign √ ❑

So if a calculation requires an exact answer, irrational numbers must be left in the surd form

Other examples of surds are

√ 7, √ 8, √ 3, √ 13 etc.
A rational multiple of a surd is also a surd

Examples are 2√ 7, 4 √ 8, 3 √ 3 etc. are all surds

SIMPLIFYING SURDS

If √ x is such that it cannot be reduced further, then it is said to be in the simplified or basic form
ie. x does not contain a factor, which is a perfect square

For example √ 2, √ 3, √ 5, and √ 7 are in their basic form and cannot be simplified any further

However, √ 24 , √ 8, √ 50, √ 75 etc. can be simplified

We know that

√4 × √9 = 2 × 3 = 6 --------------------(1)

Also √ 4 × 9 = √ 36 = 6 --------------------(2)

From equation (1) and (2), we can see that

√4 × √9 = √4 × 9
In general:

If a and b are positive numbers, then

√ a × √ b = √ ab
This property can be used to reduce surds to their simplest form

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√ 24 = √ 4 × 6 = √ 4 × √ 6 = 2√ 6

√ 8 = √ 4 × 2 = √ 4 × √ 2 = 2√ 2

√ 50 = √ 25 ×2 = √ 25 × √ 2 = 5√ 2

√ 75 = √ 25 ×3 = √ 25 × √ 3 = 5√ 3

√ 18 = √ 9 ×2 = √ 9 × √ 2 = 3√ 2

√ 200 = √ 100 ×2 = √ 100 × √ 2 = 10√ 2

Exercises

Simplify the following surds

1. √ 27
2. √ 32
3. √ 81
4. √ 125
5. √ 400
6. √ 44

Properties of Surds

1. ( √ a ) 2 = √ a × √ a = a

Examples

( √ 3 )2 = √ 3 × √ 3 = 3
( √ 5 )2 = √ 5 × √ 5 = 5

2. √ a2 = a
Examples

√ 32 = √ 9 = 3

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 √ 22 = √ 4 = 2

3.
√a
√b
= (√ ab )
Examples

√6
√2
= (√ 62 ) = √ 3
√12
√3
= (√ 123 ) = √ 4 = 2

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SURDS

We can only add or subtract surds which are alike or have the same form

Note: Reduce first to their basic forms, if they are not

m√ k + n√ k = (m + n)√ k

m√ k – n√ k = (m – n)√ k

Note

√ 5 + √ 2 ≠ √ 7 OR

√5 – √2 ≠ √3

Examples

1. 5√ 2 + 3√ 2 = 8√ 2
2. 4√ 3 + √ 3 = 5√ 3
3. √ 3 – 2√ 3 = -√ 3
4. 5√ 2 – 3√ 2 = 2√ 2
5. 2√ 5 – 5√ 5 = -3√ 5
6. 4√ 3 – 2√ 3 = 2√ 3

27
Simplify the following

2
1. 3√ 8 + 3√ 200 + √ 162
3
2
3√ (4 ×2) + 3√(100 × 2) +
3
√(81 × 2)
6√ 2 + 30√ 2 + 6√ 2
42√ 2

2. √ 50 + √ 32 – √ 162
√(25 × 2) + √(16 × 2) – √(81 × 2)
5 √ 2 + 4 √2 – 9 √ 2
0

Exercises

Simplify the following

1. √ 147 – √ 75 + √ 27
2. √ 24 – 3 √ 6 – √ 216 + √ 294
3. 3 √ 500 – 2 √ 125
4. √ 50 + √ 18 – √ 32
5. √ 80 + √ 20 – √ 45

MULTIPLICATION OF SURDS

When multiplying two surds, the following rules of Surds must be used

1st Rule

√ a × √ b = √ ab

√ 2 × √ 3 = √ 2× 3 = √ 6

√ 2 × √ 5 = √ 2× 5 = √ 10

28
√ 3 × √ 5 = √ 3 ×5 = √ 15

2nd Rule

We know that

( √ 2 )2 = √ 2 × √ 2 = √ 2× 2 = √ 4 = 2

( √ 5 )2 = √ 5 × √ 5 = √ 5 ×5 = √ 25 = 5

In general

( √ a )2 = √ a × √ a = a

The multiplication of like surds gives a rational number

3rd Rule

a √ b × √ c = a √ bc

2 √ 3 × √ 5 = 2 √ (3 ×5) = 2√ 15

4th Rule

a × √ b = a√ b

2 × √ 3 = 2√ 3

5th Rule

a√ b × c√ d = ac √ bd

2√ 3 × 4√ 5 = (2 × 4)√ (3 ×5) = 8√ 15

6th Rule

a × b√ c = ab√ c

2 × 3√ 5 = 6√ 5

Examples: Simplify the following:

29
1. √8 × √5
√ 8 × √ 5 = √ 40 = √ 4 × 10 = 2√ 10

2. 2√ 18 × 3 √ 20
2√ 9 ×2 × 3√ 4 × 5
2 × 3√ 2 × 2 × 3√ 5
6√ 2 × 6√ 5
36√ 10

3. √ 18 × √ 75
√(9× 2) × √(25 × 3)
3 √2 × 5 √3
15√ 6

4. √ 20 × ( √ 5 )3
√ 20 × ( √ 5 × √ 5 × √ 5 )
√ 20 × √ 125
√(4 ×5) × √(25 × 5)
2√ 5 × 5 √ 5
10√ 25
10 × 5 = 50

5. ( 2+ √ 3 ) ( √ 3+1 )

2√ 3 + 2 + √ 9 + √ 3

2√ 3 + 2 + 3 + √ 3

2√ 3 + 5 + √ 3

5 + 3√ 3

6. ( √ 3−1 )( 2−√ 3 )

30
 2√ 3 – √9 – 2 + √3
2√ 3 – 3 – 2 + √ 3
2√ 3 – 5 + √ 3
-5 + 3 √ 3

Exercises

Expand and simplify the following surds:

1. ( 2−3 √ 3 ) ( 3+2 √ 3 )
2. √ 2 ( 3−√ 2 )
3. ( 2 √ 6−3 )2
4. ( 2 √ 5+3 ) ( 3 √ 5−2 )
5. ( 2 √ 2+ 1 )( √ 2−2 )

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

An equation is a mathematical statement which involves the equal sign “=”

A linear equation in one variable is an equation in which the highest power of the variable is
equal to 1

For example, x + 3 = 12 and 4x – 2 = 14 are linear equations of one variable because the highest
power of the variable is 1

Linear equations in one variable can be solved by two methods: the balancing method and the
transpose method

Solving an equation by Balancing method

When solving an equation, you want all the letter terms on one side of the equal sign and all
number terms on the other ie. “letter terms” = “number terms”

To obtain this by the balancing method or inverse operation method:

1. Add the same quantity to each side

31
 2. Subtract the same quantity from each side
3. Multiply each side by the same quantity
4. Divide each side by the same quantity

You may do the above to get rid of some unwanted terms from each side of the equation. You
may decide to add or subtract to get rid of these terms. To get rid of a “+ term”, subtract the term
from each side. Also to get rid of a “– term”, add the term to each side

Examples

Solve for x in the following equations

1. 5x + 3 = 3x + 7
1
2. x=3
4
3. 6 x +5 = 2x – 7

Solving an equation by transpose method

The following rules apply

1. A term in an equation can be transposed from one side to the other side by changing the
sign
2. A number that divides a variable or another number on one side, when transposed,
multiplies on the other side and vice versa
We transpose terms such that the variable remains on the left hand side (LHS) and the
constant on the right hand side (RHS)

Solve the following equations

1. 5x – 3 = 3x + 7
2. 4x + 2 = 2x – 6
3. 4x + 5 = 13

Solution

5x – 3 = 3x + 7

32
Transposing -3 to the RHS

5x = 3x + 7 + 3

5x = 3x + 10

Transposing 3x to the LHS

5x – 3x = 10

Transposing 2 to the RHS

10
x= =5
2

Exercises

Solve the following equations

1. x – 2 = 4
2. 5x = 20
3. 2x + 1 = 9
4. 2x = 8
5. 3x + 1 = 2x + 5
6. 6x – 2 = 4x – 1
7. 7p – 13 – 15p – 12
8. x + 6 + 2x = 8 – 2x + 3
9. 4(m + 2) = 3(2m – 1)
10. 2(a + 1) = 6(a – 2)
11. 4(3 – 5y) = -7(5 – 4y)
12. 4(3m – 7) = 9(m + 3)
2 x−1 x−2
13. – =1
3 4
x 3 3x
14. + = –2
4 5 2
2 1
15. (3y – 1) – (y + 2) =
3 3

33
 3 1
16. (x + 1) + 1 = (x – 5) + 5
4 2
3x 5x
17. – =1
2 3
7 x
18. =
13 52
2n−1
19. =0
4
x−1 1
20. =
21 3

Word problems involving linear equations in one variable

Algebra is often used to solve problems given in words and sentences. To solve such problems,
follow the steps below:

1. Read the information given carefully

2. Choose a letter to represent one unknown quantity you have to find. Sometimes, there is
more than one unknown. Try to use the information to write each unknown in terms of
this letter
3. Use the information given to find two equal expressions. Write these expressions as an
equation
4. Solve the equation you have formed and use the solution to answer the question
5. Use the original information given to check your solution

Note the following:

If x represents an unknown number, then

1. 5 more than the number means (x + 5)

2. 2 less than the number means (x – 2)
3. 7 times the number means 7x
x
4. Half the number means
2
5. 4 times the number is subtracted from 3 and the result is multiplied by 7 means 7(3 – 4x)
6. 2 less than number and the result is five times the number means x – 2 = 5x

34
 x
7. 5 more than half the number and the result is 8 means +5=8
2
8. Three more than five times the number is two less than seven times the number means
5x + 3 = 7x – 2

Exercises

1. When a certain number is subtracted from 10 and the result is multiplied by 2, the final
result is 4. Find the number

1 1
2. If of a number is added to of the same number, the result is 8. Find the number
3 5

3. A certain number was divided by 3 and 3 was added to the result. The final answer is 8.
What is the number

4. If 4 is added to half of a number, the result is equal to 8. What is the number

5. The sum of 42 and a certain number is divided by 4. The result is twice the number. Find
the number

6. When 3 is added to thrice a certain number and the sum is doubled, the result is 13 more
than 5 times the original number. Find the original number

7. I think of a number, multiply it by 3 and add 7. I get the same answer if I multiply the
number by 4 and subtract 12. Find the number

8. Trudy is x years old now

a) How old was she 7 years ago
b) How old will she be in 15 years from now
c) If her age in 15 years time will be three time will be three times her age 7 years ago,
how old is she now
35
LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE
An inequality is a numerical statement which involves one of these signs

1. < less than (x < y reads x is less than y)

2. > more than (x > y reads x is more than y)
3. ≤ less than or equal to (x ≤ y reads x is less than or equal to y)
4. ≥ more than or equal to (x ≥ y reads x is more than or equal to y)

Rules for solving an inequality

1. The same number may be added or subtracted from both sides of an inequality without
changing the inequality
For example
If 5 > -2, then 1 + 5 > -2 + 1
= 6 > -1
If 7 ≤ 4, then 7 – 2 ≤ 4 – 2
=5≤2

2. The sign of inequality is unchanged, if we multiply or divide both sides by a positive

number
For example
If 4 > 3, then 4 × 2 > 3 × 2
=8>6
If 4 < 8, then 4 ÷ 2 < 8 ÷ 2
=2<4

3. The sign of inequality is reversed if we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a

negative number
ie. > changes to <, and ≥ changes to ≤ and vice versa
If 4 > 3, then (-2) × 4 > 3 × (-2)
= -8 < -6

36
General Steps for Solving an Inequality

Step 1

Check if there are fractions. If there are fractions, multiply both sides of the inequality by the
Least Common Multiple (LCM) of the denominators to clear the fractions

Step 2

Check if there are brackets. If there are brackets, expand to remove the brackets

Step 3

Collect or group like terms on one side. Usually, we group all terms containing the variable on
the LHS of the inequality

This step is the same as adding or subtracting the same quantity from both sides of the inequality
to get rid of an unwanted quantity

Note: if a positive term crosses the inequality sign, it becomes negative and if a negative term
crosses the inequality sign, it becomes positive

Step 4

Simplify both sides of the inequality and solve for the variable keeping in mind the above rules
for solving an inequality

Exercises

Find the truth set of the following

1. 3x < 12
2. -5x ≤ 30
3. 3x + 2 ≥ 11
4. 1 – x ≤ 6, where x ⸦ {-10, -9, -8, …, 0}
5. 2x > 3 – x
6. x + 3 > 19 – 3x
7. 5 – 2x > x + 2
8. 3x – 4 ≤ 4(x + 3)
37
 9. 2(x – 2) ≥ 5(x + 1)
1 1
10. (x + 2) ≥ (x – 1)
3 4
3 1
11. (x + 1) + 1 ≤ (x – 2) + 5
4 2
2 1
12. n – > –n
3 3

SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

Simultaneous linear equations involve solving two linear equations in two variables

Simultaneous equations are a number of equations which are true at the same time ie.
simultaneously

To solve a pair of equations in two variables such as x – y = 1 and x + y = 5 simultaneously, you

need to be familiar with the following methods

1. Graphical
2. Elimination
3. Substitution

At this level, only pairs of simultaneous equations in two unknown variables are solved. For
example, in the equations x – y = 1 and x + y = 5, the two variables are x and y

To solve two simultaneous linear equations, you must find values of x and y which make both
equations true simultaneously (ie. at the same time)

The solution of these simultaneous equations are x = 3 and y = 2. These values fit both equations
simultaneously

ie. x – y = 3 – 2 = 1

x+y=3+2=5

Note: Sometimes, the simultaneous equations are mixed up. You need to re-arrange before
solving them. Put the unknown variables on the same side of the equal sign “=”

For example, x – y = 1 and x = 5 – y should be re-arranged to look like x – y = 1 and x + y = 5

38
Elimination method for solving simultaneous equations

To solve simultaneous equations by this method, use the following steps

Step 1

Check whether the coefficients of the variable you want to eliminate are the same in both
equations. If they are not the same, make sure they are the same by multiplying one or both of
the equation(s) by a constant. Note that for 2x, we say 2 is the coefficient of x

Step 2

After making sure that the coefficients are the same, add the two equations if the signs of the
variable you want to eliminate in the two equations are different (ie. one is positive and the other
is negative)

Subtract one equation from the other, if the signs of that variable in both equations are the same
(ie. either both are negative or both are positive). Doing this will eliminate the variable

Step 3

After eliminating one variable, solve the remaining equation for the other variable and substitute
the values obtained into any of the equations to get the value of the eliminated variable

Note: As a check, substitute the values obtained into both of the original equations to see
whether they satisfy them

Step 4

Check your solutions

Example 1

Solve the equations 2x – y = 1 and x + y = 5

39
Solution

2x – y = 4 ----------(1)

x+y=5 ----------(2)

Add equation (1) and (2)

2x – y = 4

x+y=5

3x + 0 = 9

3x = 9

9
x= =3
3

to find y, substitute x = 3 into equation (2)

3+y=5

y=5–3=2

so the solution of the equations is x =3 and y = 2

There are sometimes equations which do not have equal coefficients

You can make one of the unknowns have equal coefficients by multiplying all the terms in either
one or both equations by appropriate numbers

Example 2

Solve the equations 2x – y = 10 and x + 3y = 5

Solution

Number the equations

2x – y = 10 ------------(1)

x + 3y = 5 ------------(2)

40
Multiply equation (1) by 3 to make the y terms “equal”. Equation (2) remains the same

(1) × 3

6x – 3y = 30 -----(3)

x + 3y = 5 -----(2)

Add equation (3) and (2)

6x – 3y = 30

x + 3y = 5

7x + 0 = 35

7x = 35

35
x= =5
7

2(5) – y = 10

10 – y = 10

-y = 10 – 10

-y = 0

y=0

Note: Sometimes, we have to subtract one equation from the other before we can eliminate a
variable. This occurs when the variable we want to eliminate has the same signs in both
equations

In the previous examples, we added the two equations because the variable had opposite signs

SUBSTITUTION METHOD FOR SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

To solve simultaneous equations by the substitution method, follow the steps below:

Step 1

41
Make one of the variables the subject of the other in one equation

Step 2

Substitute this expression for the unknown into the other equation

Step 3

Solve the resulting equation to find one unknown variable

Step 4

Find the other unknown variable by substituting your solution in the original equation

Step 5

Check your solutions

Example

Solve the equations -2x + 3y = 19 and 2x + y = 1

Solution

Number the equations

-2x + 3y = 19 ---------(1)

2x + y = 1 ---------(2)

Make y the subject in equation (2)

y = 1 – 2x

Substituting (1 – 2x) for y in equation (1)

-2x + 3(1 – 2x) = 19

-2x + 3 – 6x = 19

-8x + 3 = 19

42
-8x = 19 – 3

-8x = 16

16
x= = -2
−8

y = 1 – 2(-2)

y=1+4

y=5

Exercises 1

Using both elimination and substitution methods, solve for the unknown variables

1. 2a – b = -1
a – 2b = 4

2. 2x – y = -8
2x + y = -16

3. 3k + 4h = 1
2k + 5h = 3

4. 2s + 3t = 1
3s + 5t = 3

5. 6y – 5z – 14 = 0
3y + 2z – 16 = 0

6. 2d – 9e = 8
3d – 16e = 19

Exercises 2

43
Given the following simultaneous equations, solve for x and y and find

i) (x + y)
ii) (x – y)
iii) (x – y)2
iv) (x + y)2

a) 3x + y = 7
2x + 5y = 9

b) 7x + 2y = 11
4x + y = 7

c) 2x + 3y = 10
3x – 2y = 2

d) 4x + y = 13
x + 3y = 17

e) 8x + 5y = 9
6x – 4y = -1

Solving word problems involving simultaneous linear equations in two variables

Algebra is often used to solve problems in words which contain two unknown variables

Choose two letters to represent the two unknown quantities and form two simultaneous equations
using two letters

Now, solve the simultaneous equations using any of the methods described so far and use the
solution to solve the problem

Example 1

44
The sum of two numbers is 29. Their difference is 17. Find the two numbers

Solution

Let the two numbers be x and y, then form the equations

x + y = 29 --------(1)

x – y = 17 --------(2)

From equation (2)

x = 17 + y

Insert this definition into equation (1)

(17 + y) + y = 29

17 + y + y = 29

17 + 2y = 29

2y = 29 – 17

2y = 12

12
y= =6
2

x = 17 + 6

x = 23

Example 2

One pencil and 2 erasers cost 14 cedis. 2 pencils and 3 erasers cost 24 cedis. How much does
each pencil and each eraser cost

Solution

Let 1 pencil cost x cedis

Let 1 eraser cost y cedis

45
x + 2y = 14 ----------(1)

2x + 3y = 24 ----------(2)

Make x the subject in equation (1)

x = 14 – 2y

Insert this definition into equation (2)

2(14 – 2y) + 3y = 24

28 – 4y + 3y = 24

28 – y = 24

-y = 24 – 28

-y = -4

−4
y= =4
−1

x = 14 – 2(4)

x = 14 – 8

x=6

Example 3

The sum of the ages of Kofi and Akosua is 29 years. Kofi is 3 years older than Akosua. How old
are they

Solution

Let Kofi’s age be x

and Akosua’s age be y

x + y = 29 ------------(1)

x–y=3 -------------(2)

46
Make x the subject in equation (2)

x=3+y

Insert this definition into equation (1)

(3 + y) + y = 29

3 + y + y = 29

3 + 2y = 29

2y = 29 – 3

2y = 26

26
y= = 13
2

x = 3 + 13

x = 16

Exercises

1. The cost of a packet of sugar is x cedis and the cost of a tin of milk is y cedis. If 4 packets
of sugar and 5 tins of milk cost 78 cedis and 6 packets of sugar and 2 tins of milk cost 84
cedis. Write two equations connecting x and y. Hence, find x and y

2. A family of three adults and two children paid 8 cedis for a journey. Another family of
four adults and three children paid 11 cedis as the fare for the journey. Calculate the fare
a) An adult
b) A child
c) A family of four adults and five children

RATIO

47
A ratio compares things. The hings may be numbers, masses, heights, ages, amounts of money
etc.

For example, if we have five boys and seven girls in a class, then we say that the ratio of boys to
girls is 5 to 7

We write the ratio as 5 : 7. The colon (:) means “to”

a 5
A ration a : b can also be written as a common fraction , so 5 : 7 can also be written as
b 7

To compare two or more ratios, you can rewrite them as common fractions with common
3
denominator. For example, to compare 3 : 7 and 4 : 9, we write each as common fractions and
7
4
respectively
9

27 28
Then we write them with common denominator ie. and
63 63

Therefore, comparing 3 : 7 is smaller than 4 : 9

Note: the “thing” that is given first in the comparison must be written first in the ratio

5
For example, the ratio of boys to girls is 5 : 7 or
7

7
The ratio of girls to boys would now be 7 : 5 or
5

A ratio with a : sign has no units of measure. It just has numbers. For example, the ratio of 4kg to
1kg is written as 4 : 1

Ratios may be simplified by dividing each part by the same number. In some problems, the given
ratio is not in its simplest form first

For example, 12 : 4 is the same as 3 : 1, and 9 : 6 is the same as 3 : 2

Multiplying each part of a ratio by the same number also gives an equivalent ratio. For example,
2 : 3 is equivalent to 4 : 6 or 8 : 12 or 10 : 15 etc.

48
To express two quantities as a ratio, they must have the same units of measure. If they are not the
same, then you must change them to the same unit.

Note the following conversions

1. 1 minute = 60 seconds
2. 1 hour = 3600 seconds
3. 7 days = 1 week
4. 12 months = 1 year
5. 1m = 100cm
6. 1cm = 10mm
7. 1 hour = 60 minutes
8. 1 kg = 1000g
9. 52 weeks = 1 year
10. 1 km = 1000m
11. 1m = 1000mm

Examples

1. Express the ratio 20cm to 15m in the form 1 : n

Solution
Units must be the same, so change 15m to cm
Thus 15m = 1500cm

2. Find the ratio of 24 pesewas to 36 cedis

Solution
Units must be the same so change 36 cedis to pesewas
Thus 36 cedis = 3600 pesewas
24 pesewas = 36 cedis = 24 pesewas = 3600 pesewas
= 24 : 3600
Divide each side by 24
= 1 : 150

Exercises 1

49
 1. 18 hours to 2 days
2. 48 seconds to 5 minutes
3. 25cm to 3m
4. 3kg to 800g
5. 500m to 1km

Exercises 2

Solve for x in the following rations

1. x : 14 = 28 : 196
2. 3x : 5 = 3 : 1
3. 5x : 20 = 50 : 100
4. 14 : 42 = 3x : 63
5. 6 : x = 30 : 25
6. 10x : 15 = 60 : 45

RATES

Rates show how one amount compares or changes with another. It is the ratio between two
quantities that are related. Its unit of measure usually tells you which units are used for the two
amounts. The two amounts are linked by the word “per”. Per means “for every” or “for each”. It
is often shortened to “/”.

Here are common rates

1. Speed compares distance and time. It is often measured in kilometers per hour (km/h)
2. Density compares mass and volume. It is often measured in g/cm3 or kg/m3
3. Rates of pay often compares money and time. They are often measured in cedis per hour
4. Rates of loan compares interest and time. It is often measured in interest per month/year
(annum)
5. Petro consumption compares distance and volume. It is often measured in kilometers per
liter

50
 Using rates is simple, if you remember “per” means for each

Examples

1. If a car uses 2 hours to consume 10 liters of petrol, how many liters of petrol is consumed
in
a) 5 hours
b) 30 minutes

Solution

5 hours = 25 liters

30 minutes = 2.5 liters

2. Efua can type 200 words in 8 minutes. How long does she take to type 800 words
Solution
If 200w = 8 minutes
800
Then 800w = × 8 = 4 × 8 = 32 minutes
200

3. Ben’s computer can print 1800 words in 5 minutes. Working at the same rate, how many
words can it print in 7 minutes
Solution
If 5m = 1800w
7
Then 7m = = × 1800 = 2520 words
5

4. If 15 boys can do a piece of work in 60 days, how many boys will be required to
complete the same work in 20 days
Solution
If 60 days = 15 boys
Then 20 days will require more boys to complete the same work. [If more, less divide]

51
 60
Therefore, × 15 = 45 boys
20

5. Skimmed milk cost 50 pesewas per pint. How much do 21 pints cost
Solution
If 1 pint = 50 pesewas
Then 21 pints = 21 × 50 pesewas = 10.50 cedis

6. A uniform rod of length 8m has mass 20kg. what is the mass per meter
Solution
Mass per meter means that: mass ÷ length
Mass = 20 kg
Length = 8m
Mass per meter = 20kg ÷ 8m = 2.5kg/m

7. A car consumes 120 liters of fuel within a distance of 200km. What is the rate of fuel
consumption in km/l
Solution
Km/l means that distance ÷ volume
Distance = 200km: volume = 120l
Fuel consumed = 200km ÷ 120l = 1.67km/l

PERCENTAGES
The percentage sign % means per hundred or out of 100. It follows that percentage is
really a fraction, and so 18% means 18 out of 100 or 18/100

Expressing percentages as fractions

To express a given percentage as a fraction, divide by 100

Examples
1. 20% = 20/100 = 1/5

52
2. 25% = 25/100 = ¼

Note: divide by 100

Expressing fractions as percentages

To express a given fraction as a percentage, multiply by 100

Examples

1 1 100
1. = × 100 = = 20%
5 5 5
1 1 100
2. = × 100 = = 25%
4 4 4

Note: multiply the fraction by 100

Finding the percentage of a quantity

To find the percentage of a quantity, multiply the quantity by the percentage

Examples

20
1. 20% of 200 cedis = × 200 = 40 cedis
100
5
2. 5% of 500 cedis = × 500 = 25 cedis
100

Exercise

A landlady rented out her house for 240 cedis for one year. During the year, she paid
15% of the rent as income tax. She also paid 25% of the rent as property tax and spent 20
cedis on repairs. Calculate

a) The landlady’s total expenses

b) The remainder of the rent after the landlady’s expenses

53
 c) The percentage of the rent she spent on repairs

COMPARISON BY PERCENTAGES

To express one quantity as a percentage of another

Write the quantity as a fraction of the other first, then change the fraction to a percentage.

Note that the two quantities must be measured in the same units

Examples

1. Express $50.00 as a percentage of $200.00

Solution
50
× 100 = 25%
200

2. Express 12cm as a percentage of 60cm

Solution
12
× 100 = 20%
60

3. What percentage of $72 is $1.80

Solution
1.80
× 100 = 2.5%
72

4. A tank contains 250 liters of water. If 95 liters is used, what percentage of the original is
left
Solution
Volume left = 250 – 95 = 155
155
× 100 = 62%
250

5. In a school of 50 students, 35 are girls. Find the percentage of the boys in the school

54
 Solution
Number of boys = 50 – 35 = 15
15
× 100 = 30%
50

Percentage Change (increase or decrease)

A change (increase or decrease) in a quantity is often expressed as a percentage. If you are given
the new value and asked to find the percentage change, then

new quantity −old quantity

Percentage change = × 100
old quantity

The change can be an increase or decrease. So you may be asked to find the percentage increase
or decrease

Note: If the new value is greater than the old value, it is a percentage increase. If the new value is
less than the old value, it is a percentage decrease

Examples

1. If the length of a skirt is decreased from 27cm to 24.84cm, calculate the percentage
decrease
Solution
24.84−27
× 100
27
−2.16
× 100
27
-8%

2. The cost of a dress in 2018 was 50 cedis. In 2020, the cost of the same dress was 75
cedis. Find the percentage change in cost
Solution
75−50
× 100
50

55
 25
× 100
50
50%

To increase or decrease a quantity by a percentage

When asked to increase or decrease a quantity by a certain percentage, take the original quantity
as 100%. For example, if the original quantity (100%) is increased by x%, then the new quantity
is (100 + x)% of the original. Similarly, if the original quantity (100%) is decreased by x%, then
the new quantity is (100 – x)% of the original

Alternatively, work out the actual increase and then add it to the original quantity (in the case of
increase) or work out the actual decrease and then subtract it from the original quantity to give
the new quantity (in the case of decrease)

Examples

1. Increase 200 by 10%

Solution
Original quantity = 200 = 100%
Since we are increasing, we add 10% to 100% to get 110% (ie. the new value)
Therefore, if 100% = 200
110
Then 110% = × 200 = 220
100

Alternatively
Find 10% of 200 and add it 200
10
ie. × 200 = 20
100
New value = 200 + 20 = 220

2. Decrease 150 by 20%

Solution
150 = 100%

56
 Decrease of 20% = 100% – 20% = 80%
If 100% = 150
80
Then 80% = × 150 = 120
100

Alternatively
20% of 150
20
× 150 = 30
100
New value = 150 – 30 = 120

APPLICATION OF PERCENTAGES

Discount

It is the practice in some trade to sell goods at a price less than the marked price to some regular
customers and those who buy large quantities. Such a reduction in marked price is known as a
discount, usually given as a percentage of the marked or original price of the article.

When discount is given to a buyer because he/she makes immediate payment, it is called cash
discount.

On the hand, if a trader gives a fellow trader discount on prices of goods bought, it is called trade
discount

The value of the original or marked price is taken as equivalent to 100%

Therefore, if the discount is x%, then the new price is (100 – x)% of the original price

Note the following carefully

Original price = marked price

= catalogue price

= 100%

57
New Price = Cash price = (100 – x)%

(100−x)
1. New price = × original price
100
100
2. Original price = × new price
(100−x)
Reduction∈ price
3. Discount allowed = × 100
original price
x
4. Amount Saved = × original price
100

Examples

1. If an item costs 300 cedis. What is its new value, if there is a discount of 10%
Solution
Original cost = 300
Discount = 10%
New value = 100% – 10% = 90%
90
New value = × 300 = 270
100

2. Mr. Asiedu was given a discount of 12% of the price of a TV set selling at 400 cedis.
How much did he pay for it
Solution
New price = 100% - 12% = 88%
88
New price = × 400 = 352
100

3. Hawa paid 270 cedis for a TV set after she had been given a discount of 10%. Find the
marked price
Solution
Original price = 100%
Discount = 10%
New value = 100% – 10% = 90%

58
 90% = equivalent to 270 cedis
If 90% = 270
100
Then 100% = × 270 = 300
90

4. The marked price of a bag was 9 cedis. John received 15% discount for a cash purchase
of the bag. How much did he pay for it
Solution
New price = 100% – 15% = 85%
85
New price = × 9 = 7.65
100

Exercises

1. The marked price of a dress is 120 cedis. A discount of 15% is allowed for cash payment.
How much does one save by paying cash for the dress

2. Kojo pays 5,000 cedis for a TV priced at 6,000 cedis. Find the discount allowed

3. A customer pays 18 cedis for an article after a discount of 10% has been allowed. Find
the discount allowed

4. A tailor allows a discount of 10% on a bill. What is the original amount of a bill for
which 184.50 cedis was paid

5. A man buys a TV set at a discount of 20%. What is the original amount of the TV set if
he paid 250 cedis

COMMISSION

Some sales persons are allowed commission of a fixed percentage on their sales made in a year
or month in addition to their salary

59
This serves as a form of incentive. The value of the commission is usually given as percentage of
the sales. The value of the total sales is always taken as equivalent to 100%

Examples

1. A sales girl is given a commission of 3% of sales made in a month. If she made sales of
500 cedis in a month, what is her commission
Solution
3% of sales made
3
× 500 = 15
100

2. A bottle of soft drink cost 20 cedis. The commission paid on one bottle is 10% of the cost
price. Find the commission on 24 bottles of the soft drink
Solution
Commission on a bottle = 10% of cost price
10
× 20 = 2
100
Commission on 24 bottles = 24 × 2 = 48 cedis

3. Ama earns a salary of 100 cedis per month as a sales girl. In addition to the salary, she is
given a commission of 1.5% of whatever sales she makes in a month. In January this
year, she made sales of 7,500 cedis. What was the total amount Ama earned at the end of
January
Solution
Monthly salary = 100 cedis
1.5
Commission = × 7500 = 112.50
100
Amount earned = Monthly salary + commission
= 100 + 112.50 = 212.50

4. A trader received a commission of 12.5% 0n sales made in a month. His commission was
35. Find his total sales for the month

60
 Solution
Commission = 35 = 12.5%
His total sales is equivalent to 100%
If 12.5% = 35
100
Then 100% = × 35 = 280
12.5

INTEREST

Interest is the rent paid for the use of money. As investors, people rent their savings for use by
banks, credit unions and other financial institutions. As borrowers, people and businesses rent
money from these same banks, credit unions etc. to purchase houses, cars and furniture. The
amount charged for the use of money is called interest

Just as a bank gives us interest on the money we deposit with them, we are also made to pay an
interest on the money we borrow from a bank or from someone else

The money you deposit in a bank is called the principal. The total of the principal and interest is
the amount

The interest is calculated at a certain rate per annum. There are two basic types of interest,
Simple and Compound interest

SIMPLE INTEREST

This is the interest on the amount invested or borrowed at a given rate and for a given time.
Simple interest is calculated as follows

Simple Interest (I) = Principal (P) × Time (T) × Rate (R) = PRT

Time is in years and rate is in percentage

The principal is the initial amount saved or borrowed

From I = PRT

P, R or T can be made the subject ie.

61
 I
T=
PR

I
R=
PT

I
P=
RT

The amount (A) at the end of the period = Principal + Interest = P + I

Example

1. If P = 200, R = 5% and T = 3 years. Find the interest and the amount at the end of the
period
Solution

5
I = PRT = 200 × × 3 = 30
100

I = 30

P = 200

Amount = P + I = 200 + 30 = 230

2. A girl deposited 300 cedis at the bank at the rate of 5% per annum for 3 years. Find the
simple interest. What is the amount at the end of the third year
Solution
P = 300, R = 5%, T = 3 years
Simple Interest = PRT
5
I = 300 × × 3 = 45
100
Amount = P + I = 45 + 300 = 345

3. Find the simple interest on 280 cedis at 3.5% per annum for 6 months
Solution

62
 6 1
P = 280, R = 3.5%, T = 6 months = = = 0.5 years
12 2
Note; change the time from months to years
I = PRT
3.5
I = 280 × × 0.5 = 4.90
100

4. The simple interest on 450 cedis for 4 years is 45 cedis. What is the rate of interest per
annum for 4 years
Solution
P = 450, I = 45, T = 4, R = ?
45
I
R= = 4 = 2.5%
PT 450 ×
100

5. Find the time on which the principal of 600 cedis invested generated an interest of 90
cedis at 5% per annum
Solution
P = 600, I = 90, R = 5%, T = ?
90
I
T= = 5 = 3 years
PR 600 ×
100

6. Find the principal (amount saved) on which the interest for 3 years at 5% per annum is 90
cedis
Solution
I = 90, R = 5%, T = 3 years
90
I
P= = 4 = 600 cedis
RT ×3
100

7. Mansa invested 100,000 cedis at 5% simple interest per annum for 5 years. How much
was her investment worth by the end of the period

63
 Solution
I = PRT
5
I = 100000 × × 5 = 25000
100
Amount paid = P + I = 100000 + 25000 = 125000

8. A man invests 50 cedis at 20% simple interest for 4 years. How much will his investment
amount to at the end of this period
Solution
P = 50, R = 20%, T = 4 years
20
I = 50 × × 4 = 40
100
Amount = I + P = 50 + 40 = 90

9. In how many years will 10 cedis amount to 20 cedis at 5% per annum simple interest
Solution
Amount = 20
Interest = Amount – Principal = 20 – 10 = 10
10
I
T= = 5 = 20 years
PR 10×
100

10. In how many years would 50 cedis amount to 75 cedis at 12.5% per annum simple
interest
Solution
Amount = 75
Interest = Amount – Principal = 75 – 50 = 25
25
I
T= = 12.5 = 4 years
PR 50×
100

PROFIT AND LOSS

64
A trader may buy goods from a wholesaler or direct from the manufacturer or a third party. If the
trader sells or retails the goods at a price higher than he bought them, then he has made a profit.

However, if he sells the goods at a price lower than he bought them, then he has made a loss

Profit and loss are often given as percentages of the cost price

Note the following formulae very carefully

1. Profit = Selling Price (SP) – Cost Price (CP)

2. Selling Price = Profit + Cost Price

Profit
3. Profit percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)

SP−CP
= × 100
CP
From 3, we can write the following two formulae

4. Loss = Cost Price – Selling Price

5. Selling Price = Cost Price – Loss

Loss
6. Loss percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)

CP−SP
= × 100
CP

Examples

1. A woman sells rice at 5 cups for 2 cedis and makes a profit of 8 pesewas per cup. What is
her profit percent
Solution

65
 SP = 2
Profit = 5 × 8 pesewas = 40 pesewas = 0.40 cedis
CP = SP – Profit
CP = 2 – 0.40 = 1.60
Profit
Profit percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)
0.40
= × 100 = 25%
1.60

2. Nana Ama buys 480 pineapples for 2.40 cedis. She sells all the pineapples for 2.80 cedis.
Find her
a) Profit
b) Profit percent

Solution

CP = 2.40

SP = 2.80

a) Profit = SP – CP = 2.80 – 2.40 = 0.40

Profit
b) Profit percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)
0.40
= × 100 = 16.67%
2.40

3. A table which costs 24 cedis to manufacture was sold for 30 cedis. Find the profit percent
Solution
CP = 24
SP = 30
Profit = SP – CP = 30 – 24 = 6

Profit
Profit percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)

66
 6
= × 100 = 25%
24

4. The cost of a book is 20 cedis. It was sold for 18 cedis. Find the loss percent
Solution
CP = 20 cedis
SP = 18 cedis
Loss = CP – SP = 20 – 18 = 2

Loss
Loss percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)

2
= × 100 = 10%
20

5. Yao bought 200 eggs at 30 cedis and sold them at 40 cedis. Find his profit percent
Solution
CP = 30
SP = 40
Profit = SP – CP = 40 – 30 = 10

Profit
Profit percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)

10
= × 100 = 33.33%
30

6. Kofi Manu buys a laptop at 1,500 cedis. After using it for three months, decided to get an
upgraded version, so sells the laptop at 1,200 cedis. What is Kofi Manu’s profit/loss
percent
Solution
Loss = CP – SP = 1500 – 1200 = 300

Loss
Loss percent = × 100
Cost Price(CP)

67
 300
= × 100 = 20%
1500

INDICES

Index Notation

The index form or index notation is a simple way for writing numbers. That is indices provide a
compact algebraic notation for repeated multiplication.

It is much easier to write 35 than 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3

Also, the number 24 is the index form of 2 × 2 × 2 × 2. The small 4 is the index and 2 is called
the base. An index tells you how many of the base number to multiply together

In general:

a3 means a × a × a {3 factors}

a6 means a × a × a × a × a × a {6 factors}

a7 means a × a × a × a × a × a × a {7 factors}

when 3, 6, and 7 are the index (plural is indices) and a is the base

the index is also called the exponent. An index can be positive or negative or a fraction

Exercises

Write the following in an index form

1. 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7
2. y × y × y × y × y
3. 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
1
4.
2× 2× 2× 2× 2
5. 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5

68
LAWS OF INDICES

Product Law

m n m+n
a ×a =a

3 2 3+2 5
a × a = (a × a × a) × (a × a) = a = a

Examples

1. 22 × 23 = 22+3 = 25
2. 53 × 54 = 53 +4 = 57
3. y 2 × y 3 = y 2+3 = y 5

Quotient Law

m n m−n
a ÷a =a

4
a a ×a × a × a
2 = = a 4−2 = a 2
a a × a

Examples

1. 24 ÷ 22 = 24 −2 = 22 = 4
2. 36 ÷ 33 = 36−3 = 33 = 27
5
y 5 2 5−2
3. 2 = y ÷ y = y = y3
y

Index Law

( a m )n = a m ×n = a mn

( a 3 )2 = a 3× 2 = a 6

( a 2 )4 = a 2× 4 = a 8

Examples

1. ( 2 4 )5 = 24 × 5 = 220

69
 2. ( 32 ) 3 = 32 ×3 = 36
3. ( y 2 )4 = y 2 × 4 = y 8

Zero Index Law

0
a =1

ie. any non-zero number raised to the index zero is equal to 1

Examples

1. 6 0 = 1
2. 1000 = 1
3. 1000000 = 1

Index of Product of Two Numbers

( ab )n = a n b n

n
( a x b y ) = a xn b yn

Examples

1. ( 2 ×3 )2 = 22 ×32 = 4 × 9 = 36
2
2. ( 23 ×3 4 ) = 26 ×38

Negative Index Law

−n
1
a = n , provided a ≠ 0
a

ie. any number raised to a negative index is equal to the reciprocal of that number raised to the
same but positive index

Note 1

1 n
−n = a
a

70
 −2
1 1
2 = 2 =
2 4

−4
1 1
3 = 4 =
3 81

Note 2

Any number raised to the index -1 is equal to the reciprocal of that number

1
ie. a−1 =
a

−1 1
4 =
4

−1 1
2 =
2

Examples

Simplify the following

1. ( 27 × 3−2 ) ( 8 ×2−3)
( 33 ×3−2 )( 23 × 2−3 )
( 33 +(−2 ) )( 23+(−3) )
( 31 ) ( 20 )

3×1=3

6 −3 6+(−3) 3
7 ×7 7 7 1
2. = = 4 = 7
3− 4
= 7−1 =
7
4
7
4
7 7

3. If 2−n = x, find 2n

Solution
1
n = x
2

71
 1 = x × 2n

n 1
2 =
x

Exercises

1. 2 b3 × 10 b7
2. 3 × 53 × 3 × 5
3. 2 k 10 ÷ k 5
4. ( 28 y 7 × y 3 ) ÷ 14 y 5
5. a 4 b7 × a 7 b 3

Solving Equations Involving Indices

There are equations which have the variable or unknown quantity as an index or exponent. Such
equations are called exponential equations

To solve such equations, we always use the fact that

If a x = a y

Then x = y provided a is not -1, 0 or 1

Equations involving indices may be reduced to linear equations, quadratic equations or

simultaneous equations as shown in the following examples

1. If 3 x = 9, find the value of x

We write the equation in such a way that the LHS and RHS have a common base so that
we can equate the exponents
For 3 x, 3 is said to be the base and x is the power or index or exponent. That is, since the
bases are equal, we equate the exponents
ie. x = 2

2. If 3 x+1 = 9 4, find the value of x

Solution

72
 4
3
x+1
= ( 32 )
x+1
3 = 38
x +1=8
x=8–1=7

3. If 64 x = 16, find the value of x

Solution
x
64 = 16
x
( 43 ) = 4 2
3 x=2
2
x=
3

4. Find the truth set of the equation 8 x−2 = 2 x−8 , where x is a real number
Solution
x−2
8 = 2 x−8
x−2
( 23 ) = 2 x−8
3 x−6
2 = 2 x−8
3 x−6=x−8
3x – x = -8 + 6
2x = -2
−2
x=
2
x = -1
{x : x = -1}

1
5. 3 x−2 = , find x
81
Solution
3
x−2
= ( 81 )−1
−1
3
x−2
= (34)

73
 3
x−2
= 3−4
x−2=−4
x = -4 + 2
x = -2

Exercises

Find x in the following:

1
1. 32 x+1 =
27
2. 23 x−1 = 4 x+3
1
3. 4 2 x−1 =
16
4. 10 x+2 = 100
1
5. 2 x =
128
1
6. 5 x =
125

STATISTICS

Statistics is the branch of Mathematics which deals with the collection, presentation and analysis
of numerical data and drawing conclusion on the basis of the same data. In particular, statistics
deals with how data is:

a) Collected
b) Grouped together in a suitable way for graphical presentation and
c) Interpreted mathematically

Frequency

Defined as the number of times an item or event occurs

74
Frequency Distribution Table

This is the tabular arrangement of data by grouping them into classes together with
corresponding class frequencies.

When repeated observations are made on a variable (which can be marks, heights, ages etc.), the
result is a frequency distribution.

A frequency distribution is recorded in a frequency table. The values of the variable are often
grouped in classes.

The frequency table gives the possible values or class intervals of the variable and the
corresponding frequency (f).

An example of a frequency distribution table is shown in the table below:

Ages Number of
Students/Frequency
25 – 29
30 – 34
35 – 39
40 – 44
45 – 49
50 – 54
55 – 59

Tally Table
A tally table is a simple frequency distribution table. When making a tally table, you must work
carefully through the data item by item, putting a tally mark (l) for each item at correct place in
the table. For example, llll shows four tallies.

Ages Tally Number of

75
 Students/Frequency
25 – 29
30 – 34
35 – 39
40 – 44
45 – 49
50 – 54
55 – 59

KEY CONCEPTS

Class Interval

A symbol defining a class such as 25 – 29 in the table above is called a class interval. The end
numbers 25 and 29 are class limits. The smaller number is the lower class limit and the larger
number is the upper class limit. Here, for the class interval 25 – 29, 25 is the lower class limit
and 29 is the upper class limit

Class Boundaries

Class Boundaries separate one class from another. For each class, they are the smallest and
largest values an item in that class can have. The smallest value is the lower class boundary and
the largest value is called the upper class boundary.

For a frequency distribution, each class boundary is usually half-way between the upper limit of
1
one class and the lower limit of the next class ie. (upper class limit of one class + lower class
2
limit of the next class).

Ages Tally Number of Class Boundaries

Students/Frequency
25 – 29 24.5 – 29.5
30 – 34 29.5 – 34.5
35 – 39 34.5 – 39.5

76
 40 – 44 39.5 – 44.5
45 – 49 44.5 – 49.5
50 – 54 49.5 – 54.5
55 – 59 54.5 – 59.5

Note that it is not always that you subtract 0.5 from the lower class limit and add 0.5 to the upper
class limit. For the frequency table below, we subtract 10 from the lower class limit and add 10
to the upper class limit.

Scores Tally Frequency Class Boundaries

10 – 20 0 – 30
40 – 50 30 – 60
70 – 80 60 – 90
100 – 110 90 – 120
130 – 140 120 – 150

Class Size or Width

The class size or width is the difference between the lower and upper class boundaries of a class
interval. ie. class size or width = upper class boundary – lower class boundary

For earlier examples

Class size = 29.5 – 24.5 = 5

2nd example

Class size = 30 – 0 = 30

Class Mid-Value or Midpoint

The class mid-value or midpoint is the middle value of a class. It is obtained by adding the lower
and the upper class limits and dividing the result by 2 or it is the average of the lower and the
upper class boundaries

77
 1
[Link] Mid-Value = (lower class limit + upper class limit) OR
2

1
Class Mid-Value = (lower class boundary + upper class boundary)
2

1
For a class interval of 35 – 39, the Mid-Value = (35 + 39) = 37
2

The class mid-value or midpoint is often used in calculating the mean of a frequency distribution
table

Example

Marks Frequency Class Mid-

Value/Midpoint
5–9 3 7
10 – 14 5 12
15 – 19 2 17

Example

Construct a frequency table for the following data regarding annual profits in thousands of
Ghana cedis of 50 firms taking 25 – 34, 35 – 44 etc. as class intervals

42 28 48 31 37 38 35 40 32 45

44 61 47 35 42 45 29 40 38 45

36 41 38 61 47 48 37 37 59 38

57 51 60 58 44 67 62 51 44 47

69 63 54 39 47 50 33 56 35 64

Find the class boundaries, class tally and class width of each class interval

Solution

Class Tally Frequency Class Boundaries Class Size/Width

78
 Interval
25 – 34 llll 5 24.5 – 34.5 10
35 – 44 llll llll llll llll 20 34.5 – 44.5 10
45 – 54 llll llll lll 13 44.5 – 54.5 10
55 – 64 llll llll 10 54.5 – 64.5 10
65 – 74 ll 2 64.5 – 74.5 10

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

It is observed that most of the values in data seem to be crowded in its central part when data are
arranged in increasing order. A number around which there is concentration of terms of the data
is called a measure of central tendency.

The tendency of the observations to cluster in the central part of the data is called a central
tendency of the data. The measures of central tendency are the averages of the frequency
distribution. These averages are the mean, mode and median.

MEAN

The mean of a set of number or values x 1, x 2, x 3, x 4 , …., x nis the average of the numbers. The
x1 + x 2 + x 3 , , … . , x n Ʃx
mean is denoted by x = =
n n

Where Ʃx is the sum of all the numbers or values of x and n is the number of observations

Example 1

Find the mean for the following set of numbers

a) 0, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 4
b) 3, 9, 11, 28, 37, 20, 31

Solution

0+2+3+ 4+5+ 4 18
a) x = = =3
6 6

79
 3+9+11+ 28+27+20+31 129
b) x = = = 18.43
7 7

Example 2

The average of five numbers 4, 10, 24, x and 16 is 13. Find the value of x

Solution

4+ 10+24+ x +16
x=
5

54+ x
13 =
5

13 × 5 = 54 + x

65 = 54 + x

x = 65 – 54 = 11

Example 3

The ages (in years) of 5 men are 48, y, 52, 50 and (2y – 5). If the average age is 47 years, find
the age of the oldest man

Solution

48+ y +52+50+(2 y−5)

x=
5

150+ y +2 y−5
47 =
5

47 × 5 = 150 + y + 2y – 5

235 = 145 + 3y

3y = 235 – 145

3y = 90

80
 90
y= = 30
3

2y – 5 = 2(30) – 5 = 60 – 5 = 55

Calculating the mean from a frequency distribution table

If the values x 1, x 2, x 3, x 4 , …., x n occur with frequencies x 1, x 2, x 3, x 4 , …., x n respectively, then

the mean is given by:

Ʃfx
x=
Ʃf

Where Ʃf means sum of the frequencies, Ʃfx means sum of the products of f and x (ie. fx)

Example 1

The frequency table below gives the age of pupils in a kindergarten class

Ages 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 12 8 6 11 13
a) How many pupils are in the class
b) Calculate the mean age

Solution

a) Number of pupils = Ʃf = 12 + 8 + 6 + 11 + 13 = 50
b)

Ages (x) Frequency (f) fx

1 12 12
2 8 16
3 6 18
4 11 44
5 13 65
Ʃf = 50 Ʃfx = 155

81
 Ʃfx 155
x= = = 3.1
Ʃf 50

Exercise

In a workshop, the times taken by some trainees to identify a fault in a machine are shown in the
table below. If the mean of the distribution is 6.275, find the value of y

Number of Times Number of Trainees

(x) (f)
1 2
2 3
3 5
4 Y
5 15
6 30
7 25
8 15
9 10
10 5

MODE

The mode (or the modal value) of a set of numbers is the number which occurs most frequently.
It is the observation that has the maximum frequency in the given data. Mode may or may not be
unique or may not exist.

Examples

Find the mode of the following numbers

a) 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 3, 5
Solution
Mode = 3 since it is the most frequent

82
 b) 3, 2, 2, 4, 3, 5, 4, 2, 4, 2, 3
Solution
Mode = 2
c) 15, 14, 19, 15, 14, 15, 16, 14, 15, 18, 14, 15, 14, 19, 17
Solution
Mode = 14 and 15
d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Solution
No mode since no observation occur more than 1, so mode does not exist

Mode from a Frequency Table

The mode is the value with the highest frequency. The mode can be read directly from the
frequency table. Remember that the mode is the value, not the frequency.

Examples

a) What is the mode of the data

Number of Children 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of Families 3 9 11 4 2 1

Solution

The highest frequency is 11. 11 families each had 2 children. Therefore, the mode of the data is 2
children

b) The following shows the distribution of weekly wages earned by some construction
workers in Ghana. Find the modal class of the distribution

Wages (x) Number of Employees (f)

40 – 49 4
50 – 59 12
60 – 69 18

83
 70 – 79 11
80 – 89 7
90 – 99 5
100 – 109 2
110 - 119 1

Class interval 60 – 69 has the maximum frequency of 18. Therefore, the modal class is 60
– 69

MEDIAN

The median of a set of numbers is the middle value or the arithmetic mean of the two middle
values, if they are arranged in increasing order of magnitude.

To find the median of a set of “n” numbers x 1, x 2, x 3, x 4 , …., x n

Steps involved in determining the median

1. Arrange the numbers in order of magnitude

1
2. If n is odd, then the median is the middle item ie. the (n + 1)th item or observation.
2
1
3. If n is even, then the median is the arithmetic mean of the two middle items ie. the (n)th
2
1 1
and (n + 1)th items or (n)th item and the item after it.
2 2

Example 1

Find the median of the following set of numbers

a) 2, 1, 2, 3, 5
b) 3, 7, 2, 9, 8, 11, 12
c) 3, 7, 4, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 8

Solution

a) Rearranging

84
 1, 2, 2, 3, 5
n = 5, which is odd
1
Median = (5 + 1)th = 3rd item
2
Hence, median is 2

b) Rearranging
2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12
n = 7, which is odd
1
Median = (7 + 1)th = 4th item
2
Hence, median is 8

c) Rearranging
1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9
n = 9, which is odd
1
Median = (9 + 1)th = 5th item
2
Hence, median is 4

Example 2

Find the median of the following numbers

a) 2, 1, 3, 5, 4, 4
b) 9, 3, 1, 5, 8, 5, 7, 4, 8, 4, 7, 6

Solution

a) Rearranging
1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5
n = 6, which is even
1 1
Median is the mean of (6)th and [ (6) + 1]th, which is the 3rd and 4th items respectively
2 2
The 3rd and 4th items are 3 and 4 respectively

85
 1
Hence, median is (3 + 4) = 3.5
2

b) Rearranging
1, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9
n = 12, which is even
1 1
Median is the mean of (12)th and [ (12) + 1]th, which is the 6th and 7th items
2 2
respectively
The 6th and 7th items are 5 and 6 respectively
1
Hence, median is (5 + 6) = 5.5
2

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