THERMODYNAMICS
Dr. Reham Kadhim Jaafar
CHAPTER 2
PROPERTIES OF PURE
SUBSTANCES
Objectives
• Introduce the concept of a pure substance.
• Discuss the physics of phase-change processes.
• Illustrate the P-v, T-v, and P-T property diagrams and P-v-T
surfaces of pure substances.
• Demonstrate the procedures for determining thermodynamic
properties of pure substances from tables of property data.
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PURE SUBSTANCE
• Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical composition
throughout.
• Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is considered to be a pure
substance.
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PHASES OF A PURE The molecules in a
SUBSTANCE solid are kept at
their positions by
the large
springlike inter-
molecular forces.
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PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF
PURE SUBSTANCES
Compressed liquid (subcooled Saturated liquid: A liquid that is
liquid): A substance that it is not about about to vaporize
to vaporize
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• Saturated Vapor: A Vapor That Is About To Condense.
• Saturated Liquid–vapor Mixture: The State At Which The Liquid
And Vapor Phases Coexist In Equilibrium.
• Superheated Vapor: A Vapor That Is Not About To Condense (I.E.,
Not A Saturated Vapor).
At 1 atm pressure, the As more heat is
As more heat is transferred, part temperature remains constant at transferred, the
of the saturated liquid vaporizes 100°C until the last drop of temperature of the7
(saturated liquid–vapor mixture). liquid is vaporized (saturated vapor starts to rise
vapor). (superheated vapor).
If the entire process between state 1 and 5 is reversed by cooling the water
while maintaining the pressure at the same value, the water will go back to
state 1, retracing the same path, and in so doing, the amount of heat released
will exactly match the amount of heat added during the heating process.
T-v diagram for the
heating process of
water at constant 8
pressure.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE AND SATURATION PRESSURE
The temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the pressure; therefore, if the
pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature.
WATER BOILS AT 100C AT 1 ATM PRESSURE.
Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a
pure substance changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure
substance changes phase at a given temperature.
The liquid–vapor
saturation curve of
a pure substance
(numerical values
are for water). 9
• Latent heat: the amount of energy absorbed or
released during a phase-change process.
• Latent heat of fusion: the amount of energy
absorbed during melting. It is equivalent to the
amount of energy released during freezing.
• Latent heat of vaporization: the amount of
energy absorbed during vaporization and it is
equivalent to the energy released during
condensation.
• The magnitudes of the latent heats depend on
the temperature or pressure at which the phase
change occurs.
• At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of
water is 333.7 kj/kg and the latent heat of
vaporization is 2256.5 kj/kg.
• The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling
temperature of water, decreases with elevation. 10
Some Consequences of Tsat and
Psat Dependence
The variation of the
temperature of
fruits and
vegetables with
pressure during
vacuum cooling
from 25°C to 0°C.
In 1775, ice was made by 11
evacuating the air space in
a water tank.
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASE-
CHANGE PROCESSES
The variations of properties during phase-change processes are best studied and
understood with the help of property diagrams such as the t-v, p-v, and P-T diagrams for
pure substances.
T-v diagram of
constant-pressure
phase-change
processes of a pure
substance at various
pressures (numerical 12
values are for water).
• Saturated liquid line
• Saturated vapor line
• Compressed liquid region
• Superheated vapor region
• Saturated liquid–vapor mixture
region (wet region)
At supercritical pressures (P Critical point: The point at
> Pcr), there is no distinct which the saturated liquid
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phase-change (boiling) and saturated vapor states
process. are identical.
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Extending The Diagrams For water,
To Include Ttp = 0.01°C
Ptp = 0.6117 kPa
The Solid Phase
At triple-point pressure and
temperature, a substance
exists in three phases in
equilibrium.
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Phase Diagram
Sublimation: Passing
from the solid phase
directly into the vapor
phase.
At low pressures (below
the triple-point value),
solids evaporate without
melting first (sublimation).
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P-T diagram of pure substances.
The P-v-T surfaces present a great deal of information at once, but in a thermodynamic
analysis it is more convenient to work with two-dimensional diagrams, such as the P-v
and T-v diagrams.
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PROPERTY TABLES
• For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too
complex to be expressed by simple equations.
• Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
• Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but others cannot and
are calculated by using the relations between them and measurable properties.
• The results of these measurements and calculations are presented in tables in a
convenient format.
Enthalpy—A Combination Property
The combination
u + Pv is
frequently
encountered in
the analysis of
control volumes. 18
The product pressure volume
has energy units.
Saturated liquid and
saturated vapor states
A partial list of Table A–4.
• TABLE A–4: Saturation properties of
water under temperature.
• TABLE A–5: saturation properties of water
under pressure.
Enthalpy of vaporization, hfg (Latent heat
of vaporization): The amount of energy
needed to vaporize a unit mass of
saturated liquid at a given temperature or
pressure. 19
Examples:
Saturated liquid
and saturated
vapor states of
water on T-v and P-
v diagrams.
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SATURATED LIQUID–VAPOR MIXTURE
Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture. Quality is
between 0 and 1 0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.
The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone or in a mixture
with saturated vapor.
Temperature and pressure
are dependent properties
for a mixture.
The relative
amounts of
liquid and
vapor phases
in a saturated
mixture are A two-phase system can be treated
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specified by as a homogeneous mixture for
the quality x. convenience.
y v, u, or h.
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Examples: Saturated liquid-vapor mixture
states on T-v and P-v diagrams.
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In the region to the right of the SUPERHEATED VAPOR
saturated vapor line and at
temperatures above the critical Compared to saturated vapor, superheated
point temperature, a substance vapor is characterized by
exists as superheated vapor.
In this region, temperature and
pressure are independent
properties.
At a specified P,
superheated
vapor exists at a
higher h than the
saturated vapor.
A partial
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listing of
Table A–6.
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The compressed liquid properties COMPRESSED LIQUID
depend on temperature much more Compressed liquid is characterized by
strongly than they do on pressure.
y → v, u, or h
A more accurate relation for h
A compressed liquid may
be approximated as a
saturated liquid at the
given temperature.
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REFERENCE STATE AND REFERENCE VALUES
• The values of u, h, and s cannot be measured directly, and they are calculated from measurable
properties using the relations between properties.
• However, those relations give the changes in properties, not the values of properties at specified
states.
• Therefore, we need to choose a convenient reference state and assign a value of zero for a convenient
property or properties at that state.
• The referance state for water is 0.01°C and for r-134a is -40°C in tables.
• Some properties may have negative values as a result of the reference state chosen.
• Sometimes different tables list different values for some properties at the same state as a result of
using a different reference state.
• However, in thermodynamics we are concerned with the changes in properties, and the reference state
chosen is of no consequence in calculations.
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