Overview of Lecture-2

o Some Additional Advantages of Database Systems

o Costs involved in Database systems
o Levels of data
o Database users
Difference between Data and Information
Data is the collection of raw facts and figures collected from any specific environment for a specific purpose.
Data in itself does not show anything about its environment, so to get desired types of results from the
data we transform it into information by applying certain processing on it. Once we have processed data
using different methods data is converted into meaningful form and that form of the Data is called
information
Example:
Data & Information
Company: Super Soft Dept: Sales
Emp Name Age Salary
Malik Sharif 23 55000
Sh. M. Akmal 24 40000
M. A. Butt 20 20000
Malik Junaid 19 45000

If we consider the data in the above table without the titles or the labels associated with the data (EmpName,
age, salary) then it is not much useful. However, after attaching these labels it brings some meanings to
us, this meaningfulness is further increased when we associate some other labels, like the company name
and the department name etc. So this is a very simple example of processing that we can do on the data to
make it information. Once we have clear idea of what data and information is we proceed with another
term knows as “schema” Schema is a repository or structure to express the format and other different
information about data and database, as we can see from the database definition “Database is a self-
describing collection of interrelated records.” The word self-describing means that the data storage and
retrieval mechanism and its format is described in the database, Actual place where these definitions and
descriptions are performed is database schema.
Database Application:
Database Application is a program or group of programs which is used for performing certain operations on
the data stored in the database. These operations may contain insertion of data into a database or
extracting some data from the database based on a certain condition, updating data in the database,
producing the data as output on any device such as screen, disk or printer.
Database Management Systems:
Database management system is software of collection of small programs to perform certain operation on data
and manage the data.
Two basic operations performed by the DBMS are:

• Management of Data in the Database

• Management of Users associated with the database.

Management of the data means to specify that how data will be stored, structured and accessed in the
database.
Management of database users means to manage the users in such a way that they can perform any desired
operations on the database. DBMS also ensures that a user cannotperform any operation for which he is
not allowed. And also an authorized user is notallowed to perform any action which is restricted to that
user.
In General DBMS is a collection of programs performing all necessary actions associated
to a database.

Further Advantages of Database Systems:

Database systems are very much beneficent to enterprises and businesses, some of theadvantages are listed
below:
 Data consistency
 Better data security
 Faster development of new applications
 Economy of scale
 Better concurrency control
 Better backup and recovery procedures
Data Consistency:
Data consistency means that the changes made to different occurrence of data should be controlled and
managed in such a way that all the occurrences have same value for any specific data item. Data
inconsistency leads to a number of problems, including loss of information and incorrect results. In
database approach it is controlled because data is shared and consistency is controlled and maintained.
Better Data Security:
All application programs access data through DBMS, So DBMS can very efficiently check that which user is
performing which action and accessing which part of data, So A DBMS is the most effectively control
and maintain security of Data stored in a database.
Faster Application Development:
The database environment allows us faster application development because of its many reasons. As we know
that database is designed with the factor of future development in mind so whenever we have to build a
new application to meet the growing needs of the computerized environment, it may be easy due to the
following reason:
• The data needed for the new application already resides in the database.
• The data might not already reside in the database but it could be derived from the data present in the
database thus we can say that, to develop a new application for an existing database system less effort is
required in terms of the system and database design.
Economy of Scale:
Databases and database systems are designed to share data stored in one location for many different purposes,
So it needs not be stored as many number of times in different forms as it is used, for example the data
used by Admission Department of any education institution can be used to maintain the attendance record
of the students as well as the examination records of the students. So it saves us lots of efforts and
finances providing economy of scale.
Better Concurrency Control:
Concurrency means the access of database form as number of points simultaneously.
Concurrency control means to access the database in such a way that all the data accesses are completed
correctly and transparently. One example of controlled concurrency is the use of ATM Machine for
withdrawal of money (cash). All ATM machines of a bank are interconnected to a central database system
worldwide, so that a user can access its account from anywhere in the world and can get cash from any
ATM terminal. As there are thousands of ATM terminal across the world for a specific bank so as a result
thousands of users process and access the bank’s database. All this process is managed concurrently using the
database systems and is done in such an efficient manner that no two user face any delay in the processing
of their requests.
Better Backup and Recovery Facility:
Data is a very important resource and is very much valuable for any organization, loss of such a valuable
resource can result in a huge strategic disasters. As Data is stored on today’s’ storage devices like hard
disks etc., It is necessary to take periodic backups of data so that in case a storage device looses the data
due to any damage we should be able to restore the data a nearest point, Database systems offer excellent
 facilities for taking backup of data and good mechanism of restoring those backups to get back the
backed-up data.
It sometime happens that a database which was in use and very important transactions were made after the
last backup was made, all of a sudden due to any disastrous situation the database crashes (improper
shutdown, invalid disk access, etc.) Now in such a situation the database management system should be
able to recover the database to a consistent state so that the transactions made after the last backup are not
lost.
Disadvantages of Databases
In spite of the advantages of using a DBMS, there are a few situations where unnecessary overhead costs that
would not be incurred in traditional file processing.
Cost Involved:
These charges may also be known as the disadvantages of the database system. Different types of costs
(Financial and Personnel) which an organization using DBMS are as follows:
High Cost:
Database Systems have a number of inherent charges which are to be born by any organization that is going
to adopt it. High Cost is one of these inherent charges, it includes the need for specialized software which
is used to run database systems, Additional and specialized hardware and technically qualified staff are
the requirements for adopting to the database system, all these requirements need an organization to
invest handsome amount of money to have all the requirements of the database systems.
Conversion Cost:
Once an organization has decided to adopt database system for its operations, it is not only the finance and
technical man-power which is required for switching on to database system, it further has some
conversion charges needed for adopting the database system, this is also a very important stage for
making decision about the way the system will be converted to database system.
Difficult Recovery Procedures:
Although the database systems and database management systems provide very efficient ways of data
recovery in case of any disaster, still the process of recovering a crashed database is very much technical
and needs good professional skills to perform a perfect recovery of the database.
Importance of Data
Data as a Resource:
A resource is anything which is valuable for an organization. There can be a number of resources in any
organization, for example, Buildings, Furniture, Vehicle, Technical Staff, Managers, supporting staff and
Machinery etc. As all these are resources for organizations and are consumed very much carefully to get
full benefit out of [Link] in the same way is a very important resource and needs to considered
equally important as other resource are considered.
Why we call data as a resource?
Data is truly considered a resource because for an organization to make proper decisions at proper time it is
only the data which can provide correct information and in-turn cause good utilization of other
organizational resources. Organizations cannot make good and effective decisions if the required data is
not available in time or in the correct and desired format, such bad and miscalculated decisions ultimately
lead to the failure of organizations or business.
Levels of Data
Real World Data
The real-world level of data means that level of data at which entities or objects exist in reality, it means that
any object existing in reality have a name and other identifiable attributes through which we can identify
that specific object or entity.
Example:
Any Student
Meta Data:
For storage of the data related to any entity or object existing at real world level we define the way the data
will be stored in the database. This is called Meta data. Meta data is also known as schema for the real
world data. It tells that what type of data will be stored in the database, what will be size of a certain
attribute of the real world data, how many and what attributes will be used to store the data about the
entity in the database.
Example:
Name , Character Type, 25 character size field,
Age, Date type, 8 bytes size
Class, Alpha Numeric, 8 byte size field
Existence of Data:
Existence of the data level shows the actual data regarding the entities as real world level according to the
rules define at the Meta Data level.
Example:
According to the definition given in the Meta data level the Actual data or Data occurance for the entity at
real world level is shown below:
Name Age Class
Ali 20/8/1979 MCS-I
Amir 22/3/1978 MCS-II etc…

Fig. 2: Levels of Data

Users of Database Systems:

o Application Programmers
o End Users
• Naïve
• Sophisticated

Application Programmers and System Analysts:

This category of database users contains those people who create different types of database application
programs that we have seen earlier. Application programmers design the application according to the
needs of the other users of the database in a certain environment. Application programmers are skilled
people who have clear idea of the structure of the database and know clearly about the needs of the
organizations. System Analysts determine the requirements of end users, especially naïve and
sophisticated users and develop specifications for standard canned transactions that meet these
requirements.
End Users:
Second category of the Database users are the end users, this group of users contains the
people who use the database application programs developed by the Application programmers. This category
further contains two types of users:
Naïve Users, Sophisticated Users

• Naïve Users
This category of users is that category who simply use the application database programs created by the
programmers. This group has no interaction with other parts of their database and only use the programs
meant for them. They have not to worry about the further working of the database.
• Sophisticated Users:
This type of users has some additional rights over the Naïve users, which means that they can access the data
stored in the database any of their desired way. They can access data using the application programs as
well as other ways of accessing data. Although this type of users has more rights to access data, but these
users have to take more responsibility and they need to be aware of the database structure. Moreover such
users should be skilled enough to be able to get data from database with making and damage or
loss to the data in database.
Database Administrators (DBA):
This class of database users is the most technical class of db users. They need to have the knowledge of how
to design and manage the database use as well as to manage the data in the database. DBA is a very
responsible position in an organization. He is responsible for proper working of the database and DBMS,
has the responsibility of making proper database backups and make necessary actions for recovering the
database in case of a database crash. To fulfill the requirements of a DBA position a DBA needs vast
experience and very elegant technical skills.
• Duties of the DBA
A Database administrator has some very precisely defined duties which need be performed by the DBA very
religiously. A short account of these jobs is listed below:
o Schema definition
o Granting data access
o Routine Maintenance
• Backups
• Monitoring disk space
• Monitoring jobs running
Schema Design
DBA in some organization is responsible for designing the database schema, which means that DBA is the
person who creates all the meta data information for the organization on which the database is based.
However in some very large scale organizations this job is performed by the database designer, which is
hired for the purpose of database design and once the database system, is installed and working,it is
handed over to the DBA for further operation.
Granting Access to Users:
DBA is also responsible for grant of access rights to the database users. Along with granting and revoking
(taking back) the rights the DBA continuously monitors and ensure the legal use of these rights.
Monitoring Disk Space:
When a new database is created it takes a limited space but as a result of daily activity the database acquires
more data and grows in size very rapidly. The DBA has to monitor the disk space usage and statistics to
ensure that no data over flow occurs at any stage.
Monitoring Running Jobs:
To ensure the secure and proper functioning of the database system a DBA continuously monitors some
associated activities also and ensure that all users are using their authorities legally and different devices
attached to the database system are functioning properly.

Typical Components of a Database Environment:

Different typical components of a database environment are shown in the figures below; these describe
graphically the role of different types of users.

Fig. 3: DBMS and Database

Database is used to store data and DBMS uses mechanisms to get data from the database
Fig. 4: Application Programs

Application programs talk to DBMS and ask for the data required

Fig. 5: Database Designers

Database designers design (for large organizations) the database and install the DBMS for use by the users of
the database in any specific organization.
Fig. 6: Database Administrator

Once Database has been installed and is functioning properly in a production environment of an organization
the Database Administrator takes over the charge and performs specific DBA related activities including:
o Database maintenance
o Database Backup
o Grant of rights to database users
o Monitoring of Running Jobs
o Managing Print jobs
o Ensuring quality of Service to all users

Fig. 7: Database Administration’s interaction with other users

 o Database administrator can interact with the database designer during database design phase so
that he has a clear idea of the database structure for easy reference in future.
o This helps DBA perform different tasks related to the database structure.
o DBA also interacts with the application programmers during the application development process
and provides his services for better design of applications.
o End users also interact with the system using application programs and other tools as specified in
the description above.
This concludes lecture number 2.
Overview of Lecture
Lecture - 3
o Database Architecture
o External View of the database
o Conceptual view of the database

Database Architecture: Standardization of database systems is a very beneficent in terms of

future growth, because once a system is defined to follow a specific standard, or is built on a
specific standard, it provides us the ease of use in a number of aspects. First if any organization
is going to create a new system of the same usage shall create the system according to the
standards and it will be easier to develop, because the standards which are already define will
be used for developing the system. Secondly if any organization wants to create and application
software that will provide additional support to the system, it will be an easier task for them to
develop such system and integrate them into existing database applications. Users which will be
using the system will be comfortable with the system because a system built on predefined
standards is easy to understand and use, rather than understanding learning and using an
altogether new system which is designed and built without following any standards. Expansion
to systems which are not built on standards is very hard and needs lots of efforts. Technical staff
working on a system built on standard has no problem to learn the use and architecture of the
system and whenever there is a need in change of staff new staff members can be hired and put
to work without any prior training for the use of system. Database standard proposed by ANSI
SPARK in 1975 is being used worldwide and is the only most popular agreed upon standard for
database systems. The Three Level Schema architecture provides us a number of benefits. For
accessing data at different levels we have a number of users because not all users have to
access data in database at all the database levels. The 3 levels architecture allows us to separate
the physical representation of data from the users’ views of data. In the database, same data is
stored in a specific feasible format and is available to different users in different formats as
desired by different users. For example, consider we have stored the DOB (Date of Birth) in the
database in a particular format, like in the form of dd-mm-yyyy (for example, 28-03-1987).
However, the users from different departments may require to view the date of birth in
different forms; the examination department may ask it to be displayed as month-day-yyyy (like
march-28-1987) the Registrar’s office may ask to display date of birth as mm/dd/yyyy, still the
Library may need the in the form of dd/mm/yy. The Three Level Schema allows us to access the
data in different formats at the external level, which is stored in a specific format at the internal
level. The Three levels architecture is useful for hiding the details of internal systems; it in-fact
hides the details of underlying system views from the users at other levels and restricts the
access of data and the system from any unauthorized intervention. It is the mechanism which
allows us to store the data in the system in such a way that it can be provided to all users in
their desired formats and with unveiling other details and information stored in the database.
Moreover if there is a change to be done to the data stored in the database subject to the
requirements of a specific user it needs not be changed for that user specifically, we can create
a change to the specific external view of that user and the internal details remain unchanged.
Also if we want to change the underlying storage mechanism of the data stored on the disk we
 can do it without affecting the internal and conceptual view at the lowest level in the three
levels architecture is the internal view or internal level which is shown below in the diagram and
is illustrated in the coming lines.

Fig. 1: Three level architecture of database

The Architecture: The schemas as it has been defined already; is the repository used for storing
definitions of the structures used in database, it can be anything from any entity to the whole
organization. For this purpose the architecture defines different schemas stored at different
levels for isolating the details one level from the other. Different levels existing at different
levels of the database architecture are expressed below with emphasis on the details of all the
levels individually. Core of the database architecture is the internal level of schema which is
discussed a bit before getting into the details of each level individually. The internal level
implements all the inner details and defines the intentions of the database. Internal schema or
view defines the structures of the data and other data related activities in the database. For
example it defines that for a student what data will be stored in terms of attributes of the
student and it also defines how different values for these attributes will be stored, also it tells
that who is allowed to make changes to the database and what changes he can make, etc.
These details give us the internal schema and are called the intention of the database. Intention
for a database is almost permanent, because while designing the database it is ensured that no
information is left behind which is important enough to be stored in the database and what
information is important to be stored in the database from the future point of view. Once the
intention of the database has been defined then it is undesirable to change the intention for
any reason. Because any small change in the intention of the database may need a lot of
changes to be made to the data stored in the database. Extension of the database is performed
on the bases of a complete intention, i-e once a database has been defined it is populated with
the data of the organization for which the database is created. This population of the database
is also called as the extension of the database. Extension is always done according to the rules
defined in the internal schema design or the intention of the database.
Effects of changes made to different levels of the database architecture: We can make changes to
the different levels of the database but these changes need very serious consideration before
they are made, Changes at different levels of database architecture need different levels of
users attention for example a change to the data made for the extension of data will effect only
a single record whereas when we make a change to the internal level of the database the
change effects all the stored records, similarly an invalid change in the extension of the
database is not that fatal as a change in the intention of the database because a change in the
extension of the database is not very hard to undo; in case of a mishap whereas a change of the
same magnitude to the intention of the database might cause a large number of database
errors (inconsistencies and data loss).
External View (Level, Schema or Model):
This level is explicitly an end user level and presents data as desired by the users of the database. As
it is known that the database users are classified on two grounds
o Section of the organization
o Nature of Job of the users
The external level of the database caters to the needs of all the database users starting from a user
who can view the data only which is of his concern up-to the users who can see all the data in
the database and make all type of actions on that data. External level of the database might
contain a large number of user views, each user view providing the desired features and
fulfilling requirements for the user or user group for which it is intended. The restriction or
liberty a user or user groups get in his rights is the external view of that user groups and is
decided very carefully. External views are also helpful when we want to display the data which
is not place in the database or not stored at all. Example of the first case can be a customer
Phone number stored in the database. But when contacting the person it might appear that the
area code for that specific user is not stored in the database, in that case we can simply pick up
the area or city id of the customer and find the area code for that city from the corresponding
Area Codes table. Another situation may arise when we want to get a student enrolled in an
institution and want to make sure that the student qualifies for the minimum required age limit,
we will look the database, for the students age but if we have stored only the date of birth of
the student then the age of the student needs to be calculated at that very instance; this can be
done very easily in the specific user view and age of the student can be calculated, even the
user-view itself can tell use whether the student qualifies for the admission or not. As the user
view is the only entity or the interface through which a user will operate the database or use it
so it must be designed in such a way that it is easy to use and easy to manage and self-
descriptive, also it is easy to navigate through. Also it should not allow the user to get or
retrieve data which is not allowed to the user, so the user view should both be a facilitator and
also a barrier for proper utilization of the database system. As the system grows it is possible
that a user view may change in structure, design and the access it provides to the users. SO
External views are designed and create in way that they can be modified at a later stage without
making any changes in the logical or internal views. In the diagram below we can see two
different users working as end users having their own external view; we can see that the same
data record is displayed in two entirely different ways.
Fig. 2: Mapping between External layer and lower layers
Conceptual or Logical View:
This is the level of database architecture which contains the definition of all the data to be stored in
the database and also contains rules and information about that structure and type of that data.
The conceptual view is the complete description of the data stored in the database. It stores the
complete data of the organization that is why it is also known as the community view of the
database. The conceptual view shows all the entities existing in the organization, attribute or
characteristics associated with those entities and the relationships which exist among the
entities of the organization. We can take the example of the customers of a company. Now the
conceptual schema will have all the details of the products of the company, retailing stores of
the company, products present in the stock, products which are ready to be delivered,
salespersons of the company, manager of the company and literally every other thing which is
associated with the business of the company in any way. Now after having all the information
we know that the customers buy products from the outlets of the company, thus in such a case
a specific customer has a relationship with that specific outlet of the company, or the customer
may be represented as having association with the sales person which in-turn has association
with the outlet., there may be a number of customers at a certain outlet and also to manage
these salespersons there will be one or more managers. We can see from the above given
scenario that all the entities are logically related to each other in way or the other. The
conceptual schema actually manages all such relationship and maps these relationships among
the member entities. Conceptual schema along-with having all the information which is to be
stored in the database stores the definition of the data to be stored. The definition may contain
types of data, and constraints on data values etc. Conceptual schema is also responsible for
holding the authorization and authentication information, means that only those people can
make use of the database whom we have allowed to make these changes, so therefore it is the
task of the DBMS to ensure be checking the conceptual schema that he is authorized to check
the data or make any changes to the data. Conceptual schema as it describes the intention of
the database; it is not changed often, because to make a change to the conceptual schema of
the database requires lots of consideration and may involve changes to the other views/levels
 of the database also. As in the previous example we saw two database users accessing the
database and we saw that both of them are having totally different user views. Here when we
see in the logical view of the data we can see that the data stored in the database is stored only
once and two users get different data from the same copy of data at the underlying conceptual
level.

Fig. 3: External and conceptual layers

By summarizing it all we can say that the external view is the view of database system in which user
get the data as they need and these not to worry about the underlying details of the data, all
these users have to do is to provide correct requirement information to the DBA or the
database designer whoever is designing the database for the system, so that the DBA or the
database designer can create the database in such a way that they can fulfill the users
requirements using the conceptual schema of the database. Conceptual view/schema is that
view of the database which holds all the information of the database system and provides basis
for creating any type of the required user views and can accommodate any user fulfilling his/her
requirements.
o Internal Schema of the Database Architecture

o Data Independence
o Different aspects of the DBMS
Internal or Physical View / Schema
This is the level of the database which is responsible for the storage of data on the storage media
and places the data in such a format that it is only readable by the DBMS. Although the internal
view and the physical view are so close that they are generally referred to a single layer of the
DBMS but there lays thin line which actually separated the internal view from the physical view.
As we know that data when stored onto a magnetic media is stored in binary format, because
this is the only data format which can be represented electronically, No matter what is the
actual format of data, either text, images, audio or video. This binary storage mechanism is
always implemented by the Operating System of the Computer. DBMS to some extent decides
the way data is to be stored on the disk. This decision of the DBMS is based on the
requirements specified by the DBA when implementing the database. Moreover, the DBMS
itself adds information to the data which is to be stored. For example, a DBMS has selected a
specific File organization for the storage of data on disk, to implement that specific file system
the DBMS needs to create specific indexes. Now whenever the DBMS will attempt to retrieve
the data back form the file organization system it will use the same indexes information for data
retrieval. This index information is one example of additional information which DBMS places in
the data when storing i t on the disk. At the same level storage space utilization if performed so
that the data can be stored by consuming minimum space, for this purpose the data
compression can be performed, this space optimization is achieved in such a way that the
performance of retrieval and storage process is not compromised. Another important
consideration for the storage of data at the internal level is that the data should be stored in
such a way that it is secure and does not involve any security risks. For this purpose different
data encryption algorithms may be used. Lines below detail further tidbits of the internal level.
The difference between the internal level and the external level demarcates a boundary
between these two layers, now what is that difference, it in fact is based on the access or
responsibility of the DBMS for the representation of data. At the internal Level the records are
presented in the format that are in match with schema definition of the records, whereas at the
physical level the data is not strictly in record format, rather it is in character format., means the
rules identified by the schema of the record are not enforced at this level. Once the data has
been transported to the physical level it is then managed by the operating system. Operating
system at that level uses its own data storage utilities to place the data on disk. Inter Schema
Mapping: The mechanism through which the records or data at one level is related to the
changed format of the same data at another level is known as mapping. When we associate one
form of data at the external level with the same data in another form is know as the
external/conceptual mapping of the data. (We have seen examples of external/conceptual
mapping in the previous lecture) In the same way when data at the conceptual level is
correlated with the same data at the internal level, this is called the conceptual/Internal
mapping. Now the question arises that how this mapping is performed. Means how is it possible
to have data at one level in date format and at a higher level the same data show us the age.
This hidden mechanism, conversion system or the formula which converts the date of birth of
an employee into age is performed by the mapping function and it is defined in the specific
ext/con mapping, for example, when the data at the conceptual level is presented as the age of
the employee is done by the external schema of that specific user. Now in this scenario the
ext/con mapping is per forming the mapping with the internal view and is retrieving the data in
desire format of the user. In the same way the mapping between an internal view and
conceptual view is performed. The figure below gives a clear picture of this mapping process
and informs where the mapping between different levels of the database is performed.
 Fig:1: Mapping between External/Conceptual and Conceptual/Internal levels

In Figure-1 we can see clearly where the mapping or connectivity is performed between different
levels of the database management system. Figure-1 is showing another very important
concept that the internal layer and the physical layers lie separately the Physical layer is
explicitly used for data storage on disk and is the responsibility of the Operating system.
DBMS has almost no concern with the details of the physical level other than that it passes on the
data along-with necessary instructions required to the store that data to the operating system.
Figure-2 on the next page shows how data appears on different levels of the database
architecture and also at that of physical level. We can clearly see that the data store on the
physical level is in binary format and is separate from the internal view of data in location and
format. Separation of the physical level from the internal level is of great use in terms of
efficiency of storage and data retrieval.
Fig: 2. Representation of data at different levels of data base Architecture and at the physical level
at bottom
At the internal level we can see that data is prefixed with Block Header and Record Header RH, the
Record header is prefixed to every record and the block header is prefixed to a group of
records; because the block size is generally larger than the record size, as a result when an
application is producing data it is not stored record wise on the disk rather block wise which
reduces the number of disk operations and in-turn improves the efficiency of writing process.
Data Independence: Data Independence is a major feature of the database system and one of
the most important advantages of the Three Level Database Architecture. As it has been
discussed already that the file processing system makes the application programs and the data
dependent on each other, i.-e if we want to make a change in the data we will have to make or
reflect the corresponding change in the associated applications also. The Three Level
Architecture facilitates us in such a way that data independence is automatically introduced to
the system. In other words we can say the data independence is major most objective of the
Three Level Architecture. If we do not have data independence then whenever there will be a
change made to the internal or physical level or the data accessing strategy the applications
running at the external level will demand to be changed because they will not be able to
properly access the changed internal or physical levels any more. As a result these applications
will stop working and ultimately the whole system may fail to operate. The Data independence
achieved as a result of the three level architecture proves to be very useful because once we
have the data , database and data applications independent of each other we can easily make
changes to any of the components of the system, without effecting the functionality and
operation of other interrelated components. Data and program independence is on advantage
of the 3-L architecture the other major advantage is that ant change in the lower level of the 3-L
architecture does not affect the structure or the functionality on upper levels. I-e we get
external/conceptual and conceptual/internal independence by the three levels Architecture.
Data independence can be classified into two type based on the level at which the
independence is obtained.
o Logical Data Independence
o Physical Data Independence
Logical data independence
Logical data independence provides the independence in a way that changes in conceptual model
do not affect the external views. Or simply it can be stated at the Immunity of external level
from changes at conceptual level. Although we have data independence at different levels, but
we should be careful before making a change to anything in database because not all changes
are accepted transparently at different levels. There may be some changes which may cause
damage or inconsistency in the database levels. The changes which can be done transparently
may include the following:
o Adding a file to the database
o Adding a new field in a file
o Changing the type of a specific field
But a change which may look similar to that of the changes stated above could cause problems in
the database; for example: Deleting an attribute from the database structure, This could be
serious because any application which is using this attribute may not be able to run any more.
So having data independence available to us we still get problem after a certain change, it
 means that before making a certain change its impact should also be kept in mind and the
changes should be made while remaining in the limits of the data independence.
The levels where the Conceptual and Physical data independence are effective Physical Data
Independence Physical data independence is that type of independence that provides us
changes transparency between the conceptual and internal levels. I-e the changes made to
internal level shall not affect the conceptual level. Although the independence exist but as we
saw in the previous case the changes made should belong to a specific domain and should not
exceed the liberty offered by the physical data independence. For example the changes made to
the file organization by implementing indexed or sequential or random access at a later stage,
changing the storage media, or simply implement a different technique for managing file
indexes or hashes.
Functions of DBMS
o Data Processing
o A user accessible Catalog
o Transaction Support
o Concurrency Control Services
o Recovery Services
o Authorization Services
o Support for Data Communication
o Integrity Services
DBMS lies at the heart of the course; it is the most important component of a database system. To
understand the functionality of DBMS it is necessary that we understand the relation of
database and the DBMS and the dissection of the set of functions the DBMS performs on the
data stored in the database. Two important functions that the DBMS performs are:
User management
Data Management
The detailed description of the above two major activities of DBMS are given below;
o Data Processing
By Data management we mean a number of things it may include certain operations on the data
such as: creation of data, Storing of the data in the database, arrangement of the data in the
databases and data-stores, providing access to the data in the database, and placing of the data
in the appropriate storage devices. These action performed on the data can be classified as data
processing.
o A User Accessible Catalog
DBMS has another very important task known as access provision to catalog. Catalog is an object or
a place in the DBMS which stores almost all of the information of the database, including
schema information, user information right of the users, and many more things about the
database. Modern relational DBMS require that the Administrative users of the database should
have access to the catalog of the database.
o Transaction Support
DBMS is responsible for providing transaction support. Transaction is an action that is used to
perform some manipulation on the data stored in the database. DBMS is responsible for
supporting all the required operations on the database, and also manages the transaction
execution so that only the authorized and allowed actions are performed.
o Concurrency Support
Concurrency support means to support a number of transactions to be executed simultaneously,
Concurrency of transactions is managed in such a way that if two or more transactions is making
certain processing on the same set of data, in that case the result of all the transactions should
be correct and no information should be lost.
o Recovery Services
Recovery services mean that in case a database gets an inconsistent state to get corrupted due to
any invalid action of someone, the DBMS should be able to recover itself to a consistent state,
ensuring that the data loss during the recovery process of the database remains minimum.
o Authorization Services
The database is intended to be used by a number of users, who will perform a number of actions on
the database and data stored in the database, The DBMS is used to allow or restrict different
database users to interact with the database. It is the responsibility of the database to check
whether a user intending to get access to database is authorized to do so or not. If the user is an
authorized one than what actions can he/she perform on the data?
o Support for Data Communication
The DBMS should also have the support for communication of the data indifferent ways. For
example if the system is working for such an organization which is spread across the country
and it is deployed over a number of offices throughout the country, then the DBMS should be
able to communicate to the central database station. Or if the data regarding a product is to be
sent to the customers worldwide it should have the facility of sending the data of the product in
the form of a report or offer to its valued customers.
o Integrity Services
Integrity means to maintain something in its truth or originality. The same concept applies to the
integrity in the DBMS environment. Means the DBMS should allow the operation on the
database which are real for the specific organization and it should not allow the false
information or incorrect facts.
DBMS Environments:
o Single User
o Multi-user
Single User Database Environment
This is the database environment which supports only one user accessing the database at a specific
time. The DBMS might have a number of users but at a certain time only one user can log into
the database system and use it. This type of DBMS systems are also called Desktop Database
systems.
Multi-User Database systems
This is the type of DBMS which can support a number of users simultaneously interacting with the
database in different ways.
A number of environments exist for such DBMS.
• Teleprocessing This type of Multi user database systems processes the user requests at a central
computer, all requests are carried to the central computer where the database is residing,
transactions are carried out and the results transported back to the terminals (literally dumb
terminals). It has become obsolete now.
• File Servers this type of multi-user database environment assumes another approach for sharing
of data for different users. A file server is used to maintain a connection between the users of
the database system. Each client of the network runs its own copy of the DBMS and the
 database resides on the file server. Now whenever a user needs data from the file server it
makes a request the whole file containing the required data was sent to the client. At this stage
it is important to see that the user has requested one or two records from the database but the
server sends a complete file, which might contain hundreds of records. Now if the client after
making the desired operation on the desired data wants to write back the data on the database
he will have to send the whole file back to the server, thus causing a lot of network overhead.
The Good thing about this approach is that the server does not have lots of actions to do rather
it remains idle for lots of the time in contrast with that of the teleprocessing systems approach.
• Client-Server This type of multi-user environment is the best implementation of the network and
DBMS environments. It has a DBMS server machine which runs the DBMS and to this machine
are connected the clients having application programs running for each user. Once a user wants
to perform a certain operation on data in the database it sends its requests to the DBMS
through its machine’s application software; the request is forwarded to the DBMS server which
performs the required operation on data in the database stored in the dame computer and then
passes back the result to the user intending the result. This environment is best suited for large
enterprises where bulk of data is processed and requests are very much frequent. This
concludes the topics discuss in the lecture [Link] the next lecture Database application
development process will be discussed Exercises: - Extend the format of data from the exercise
of previous lecture to include the physical and internal levels. Complete your exercise by
including data at all three levels - Think of different nature of changes at all three levels of
database architecture and see, which ones will have no effect on the existing applications,
which will be adjusted in the inter-schema mapping and which will affect the existing
applications.

Lecture 4

Data base Development Life Cycle: Approach 1

o Database Application Development Processes

o Preliminary Study of Existing System
o Tools used for Database System Designing
o Different types of Data Models/Diagrams

Database Design Models and Database Application Development Processes are two almost similar
concepts; from the course point of view it is worthwhile to mention that the course is mainly concerned
with designing databases and it concentrates on the activities which are performed during the design of
database and the inner working of the database implementation. The process that will be discussed in
this lecture for development of database is although not a very common one, but it specifies all the
major steps of database development process very clearly. There exist many ways of system and
database development process which are not included in the scope of this course. But we will see only
those portions of the other processes which are directly related with the design and development of
database.

Database Application Development Process includes the following stages or steps:

  Database Requirement Analysis
 Database Model E-R Design

o Application Programs/Tools
o Database Implementation
o Database Maintenance

These steps cannot always be considered as independent steps performed in a sequence or one after
another in cyclic process. Rather, they occur in parallel, which means that from a certain point onward
the application programs development may run in parallel with the database design stages, specially,
the last stages of the database design. Similarly, while the design phases of the database are in progress,
certain phases of the application programs can also be initiated, for example, the initial study of the
screens’ format or the reports layout GUI components. The database design process that we are going
to discuss in this course does not take these steps independently and separately, and since the major
concern of this course is the design/implementation stages of the database, it concentrates only on
those steps.

o Database Requirements and Design Analysis:

This part of the database application development process is most important process with respect to
the database application development, because the database is something that will hold the
organizations’ data, in case the design of the database is not correct or is not correctly reflecting the
situations or scenarios of the organization then it will not produce correct result, or even just produce
errors in response to certain queries. So, this portion of the database design is given great attention
when designing a database application.

o Database Development Process

The database development process means the same thing that we have mentioned as
database application development process. Rather than discussing the stages of
database application development separately, the steps given in the database development
process include steps that cover all the phases mentioned for the database application
development process.

o Preliminary Study and Requirement Analysis:

Design of database is carried out in a number of steps; these steps play important role in the design
process and need to be given proper attention. First Phase of the database development process is the
Preliminary Stage, which is based on the proper study of the existing system. It means that all the parts
of the systems, or the section of the subject organization for which we intend to develop the system
must be studied. We should find the relation or interaction of different section of the organization with
each other and should understand the way information flows between different sections of the
organization. Moreover, it should also be made clear that what processing is performed at each stage of
the database development system.
o Requirement Analysis:

Once we have investigated the organization for its different sections and the way data flows between
those sections. Detailed study of the system is started to find out the requirements of each section. This
phase is the detailed study of the existing system and its functionality decisions made at this stage
decide the overall activity of the organization. Requirements of one section of the organization are
fulfilled in such a way that all the sections in the organization are supporting each other, for example we
can say that the results produced by the processing taking place at one section are used as input for
another section. All the users of the systems are interviewed and observed to pinpoint and precisely
define the activities taking place in the different sections of the organization.

Fig: 1. Database Development Process (Approach -1)

o Database Conceptual/logical Design:

Third stage in the database development process is the database design; this is a rather technical phase
of the process and need handsome skill as a Database Administrator. This is the phase where the logical
design of the database is created and different schemas for the database are created logically. Entities
are identified and given attributes, relationships are built and different types of entity mappings logical
to physical design are performed.

o Physical Design Phase:

This is the phase where we transform/map our Logical Design into a Physical Design by implementing
the designed database onto a specific DBMS Tool; The choice of the DBMS is made on the basis of
requirements analysis and the environment in which the system will operate. Implementing a database
on a specific DBMS tool is very important because it involves the major financial investment of the
organization, and cannot be reverted in case a selected DBMS in not capable of providing the desired
efficiency.
o Implementation Phase of SDLC:

This phase is specific to writing the application programs needed to carry out different activities
according to user requirements in GUI. Different users may have different requirements of the data in
the database, so the number of application programs is not known or fixed for all the organizations, it
may vary for different organizations.
o Maintenance of the Database Development Phase:

Maintenance means to fine tune/upgrade the system and check that the designed applications systems
are fulfilling the purpose for which they are meant. Also, this phase may involve designing any new
application features/functions for the enhancement of the system. Or an already working application
may need to be updated or modified to remove any errors/bugs or to add some functionality in the
system. The phases involved in the development of the database application are expressed graphically
in above Figure-1.

All these stages are necessary and must be given the necessary attention at each level to get properly
working and good successful system design and a better working environment.

Database Development Process: Approach 2

There are other development processes also with some of the stages or steps modified as compared to
the previous waterfall model we have just studied. Such and alternatives are given in the Figure-2
below.

In this design process we see some of the design stages which existed in the previous designing steps
but some of the stages are modified or merged with other stages to get more precise result or to
distinguish different separate design phases. In this process of designing; the following steps exist:

o Analyze User Environment

o Develop Conceptual Model
o Map Conceptual Model to Logical Model
o Choose DBMS Tools
o Develop Physical Design
o Implement System
o Unit Test System
o System Operational Maintenance
o System Maintenance Phase

This is same step as we discussed while discussing the previous designing process

o Develop Conceptual Model

Next stage in this process model is the development of conceptual model or schema. Here
we actually transform the studied and analyzed information into the conceptual design of
the database, this stage may also be connected with the requirement analysis phase, as
expressed in the diagram by showing an arrow from this stage back to the first stage.

o Map Conceptual Model to Logical Model

Third stage is the mapping of the developed conceptual model to the logical model of the
database, means at this stage the schema rules are defined and identified for general
database structures.
o Choose DBMS Tool
Once the mapping of the conceptual and logical model is done, the decision for the use of
DBMS tool is made; again we refer to the previous model for selecting of the DBMS and will
take care of all the necessary requirements of the environment before making a decision.

o Develop Physical Design

Once we have selected a DBMS Tool, the Logical design is then transformed into Physical design. This
also includes considering many other decisions, like, data type allocation, indexes to be created, file
organizations, etc. Physical database design is achieved by using the DBMS specific rules for schema
definition and all the facilities provided by the selected DBMS tool.

Fig: 3. Database Development Stages. (Second Approach)

o Implement System
This stage is also similar to the one described earlier, i.e., designing the application for
different users and user groups of the organization.
o System Testing

Testing is very important in the sense that an application may be producing incorrect results, and this
incorrectness may lead to the inconsistency/failure of the system. So, when a system design is complete,
once it is implemented it must be tested for proper operation and all the modules must be checked for
their correctness behaviors. Whether the system modules are important or not because the result of the
system is mostly dependent on the proper the functionality of all database applications and modules.

o Operational Maintenance:

Maintenance means to check that all parts of the system are working and once the testing of the system
is completed the periodic maintenance measure are performed on the system to keep the system in
working order.

Tools Used for Database System Development:

Why tools are used?

Tools are used for describing the design and development process in standard ways. If there is no
standardized tool available for designing a specific system; Then everyone will have to
use its own design notations, and a notation used by one designer may not be
understandable to another designer. This misunderstanding can be more drastic if both the
designers are working for the development of the same system. Tools can also help the
designer and the user to mutually agree on a specific design.

Data Flow Diagrams:

The most common tool used for deigning database systems is Data Flow Diagram. It is used to design
systems graphically and expresses different system detail in different DFD levels.
DFDs show the flow of data between different processes on a specific system.
DFDs are simple, and hide complexities.
DFDs are descriptive and links between processes describe the information flow.

o Limitation of DFDs

They do not provide us a way of expressing decision points.

DFDs are focused on flow of information only.

o Symbols used in DFD:

There are a limited number of symbols which are used for design process in DFDs.

o DATAFLOW:
The purpose of the dataflow in a DFD is to express the flow of information from one entity to another
entity in the system Data flows are pipelines through which packets of information flow. Arrows are
labeled with name of the data that moves through them. Figure-4 below showthe Dataflow diagram
 Fig: 4. Dataflow Symbol

o DATA STORE:

Data store is a repository for the storage of the data. When in a system the data is to be permanently
stored somewhere for future reference or use the DATASTORE is used for this purpose. It is express with
a rectangle open on right width and left width of the rectangle drawn with double lines. Data in the
DATASTORE is held sometimes for processing purposes also i-e it may not be a permanent data store..
Name of the DATASTORE is a noun which tells the storing location in the system. Or identifies the entity
for which data is stored. Figure-5 shows a data store.

Fig: 5. Data store

o Processes:

Processes are expressed with ovals or rounded rectangles. Processes are used to express the
transformation of incoming dataflow into outgoing dataflow. Process symbols are used for whatever is
the action taking place and whatever is the magnitude or complexity of the action. Simply stating when
data is transformed from one form into another the process symbol is used. Figure-6a and Figure-6b
show two different shapes used for presenting process in DFD.

Fig:6a Process Fig-6b Process

o DFD-Process:

In DFD processes are numbered for expressing their existence at a certain level in the system.

121.0 121
.0

Fig: 7. Numbered DFD Processes

o External Entities:
These are the entities interacting with the system in any of two different ways. They may
be either receiving the data from the system, or may be producing the data for the system
to consume. Shape used to express external entities is rectangle. The shape for external entity is
shown in Figure-8.

Fig: 8. External Entity

Types of DFD

o Context Level Diagram

o Level 0 Diagram
o Detailed Diagram

o Context Diagram:
This is the level of DFD which provides the least amount of details about the working of the system.
Context DFDs have the following properties:
They always consist of single process and describe the single system. The only process displayed in the
CDFDs is the process/system being analyzed. Name of the CDFDs is generally a Noun Phrase.

Fig: Example Context DFD Diagram

No System details are shown in the Contexts DFDs just context is shown. Input and
output from and to the process are shown and interactions are shown only with the
external entities. An example DFD at context level is shown in Figure: 13a and 13b.

In the context level DFDs no data stores are created. Ant dataflow from external entities
are only directed toward the purported system and vice versa, no communication is show
between external entities themselves.
 Fig: Example Context DFD Diagram

o Level 0 Data Flow Diagrams:

The level 0 Diagram in the DFD is used to describe the working of the whole system. Once a context DFD
has been created the level zero diagram or level ‘not’ diagram is created. The level zero diagram
contains all the apparent details of the system. It shows the interaction between a numbers of processes
and may include a large number of external entities. At this level it is the duty of the designer to keep a
balance in describing the system using the level 0 diagram. Balance means that he should give proper
depth to the level 0 diagram processes. Because placing too much details and showing all of the
miniature processes in the level 0 diagrams makes it too much complex. On the other hand it is also not
recommended to just ignore even larger processes of the system, because in such a case although the
level 0 DFD will become simple but now we will have to create large number of detail DFDs. So a balance
in describing the system should be kept so that the depth of the Level 0 DFD is manageable.

o Steps in creating the level 0 DFD

1. Identify distinct modules of the system for which to create the DFD

2. Create DFDs for all the modules one by one to show the internal functionality of the system.
3. Once DFD for the distinct modules of the system have been created, establish link between different
DFDs where required by either connecting the entities of the system, processes of the system or the
data stores in different DFDs.
4. Now comes to the stage of placing the numbers on processes. As we know that the level 0 diagram
encompasses a large number of smaller systems, ant is a combination of a number of context DFDs. In
level 0 diagram a process when it has a lot of details, it is not explained further in the level 0, and
rather it is postponed for the detailed diagram.
In the detailed Data Flow and is given a number. Numbering processes is based on a specific notation, in
the level 0 diagrams only left half or the portion before the decimal point is valid but in the detailed
diagram when a complex process is expressed further its sub processes are number like 1.0, 1.1, and 1.2
and so on.
Overview of the Database Models
o Data Models
o Types of Data Models
o Types of Database Designs

Detailed Data Flow Diagram:

This Type of the Data flow diagrams is used when we have to further explain the functionality of the
processes that we showed briefly in the Level 0 Diagram. It means that generally detailed DFDS are
expressed as the successive details of those processes for which we do not or could not provide enough
details. The symbols and other rules regarding the detailed DFD are same as are in other types of
DFDs. The special features associated with this diagram are that, one, it is optional, that is, it is created
for only those processes from the level 0 diagram for which we want to show the details. For a small
sized system we may not need to develop even a single detailed DFD, since the level 0 diagram might be
covering it sufficiently. Second specific characteristic of the detailed DFD is its processes’ numbering.
Numbering of processes in the detailed DFD is done on the basis of numbering of the particular process
in level 0 diagrams whose sub-processes are being included in the detailed DFD. For example, a specific
process which was numbered in the level 0 diagram as 1.0 or 1 may have a number of sub-processes
since we did not represent the process 1.0 in detail in level 0 diagrams. So in the detailed dataflow
diagram we create sub-processes of that process and then number all the sub processes of that specific
process as the sublets of the process.

Numbering of such sub processes is done as 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3… for first second and third sub-processes
of the process 1.0 respectively. The phenomenon of creating sub-processes does not end at creating a
few sub-processes for a specific process shown at level 0 diagrams. Rather it may continue deeper if
there is requirement for further explanation of the any process or sub-processes. In such a case when
we create sub-process of a sub-process 1.2 then the numbering is done in further extension of that
specific sub processes number and example of such a numbering process is 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3,…
Another point that is worth mentioning here is that we call processes in the detailed DFDs as sub-
processes, but they are sub-processes only in reference to the process whose details they are explaining
otherwise they are just like processes; transforming some input data into some form of output. The sub-
processes may be performing relatively small amount of operations, still they are processes.
Maximum Number of Process in a DFD should not be very huge. Having a moderate number for a
detailed DFD is also recommended because it adds clarity to our detailed data flow diagram. For clarity
propose it is good to have a maximum of 7 or 9 processes in one detailed DFD. Moreover all the
processes, sub processes, data stores, entities data flows and all other components of the DFD must be
named properly, so that anyone who is using this DFD should be able to understand the DFD easily.
In all the levels of DFD it must be considered that all the processes have data inputs as well as data
outputs. Data being sent to one process should be processed so that it changes its form and transforms
from one form to another. When creating a detailed diagram the data inputs and data outputs must be
in coincidence, mean in both the diagrams the data input to a process and data output in the form of
data flows must be same.

Data Dictionary: A database that containing data about all the databases in the database system. Data
dictionaries store all the various schema and file specifications and their locations. They also contain
information about which programs use which data and which users are interested in which reports.
Types of Data Dictionaries:

o Integrated

There are basically two types of data dictionaries which are available for use by a DBMS,
with respect to their existence.

The first type of data dictionary in this context is the integrated data dictionary. Such a data dictionary is
place embedded into the database system, and is created by the DBMS for its usage under the
directions and requirements provided by the DBA As the DBMS needs to talk with the “three level
architecture” of database and mapping information along with all the database design information lies
in the database schema. The DBMS uses the data dictionary to access the database at each layer or
model, for this purpose the data dictionary of any type can be used but the integrated data dictionary is
far more efficient than any free standing data dictionary because an integrated data dictionary is created
by the DBMS itself and uses the same data accessing techniques etc.
o Free Standing
Second type of data dictionary is free standing data dictionary create by any CASE tool and then
attached to the database management systems. A number of case tools are available for this purpose
and help user designing the database and the database applications as well in some modern forms of
the CASE tools.

Cross Reference Matrix:

This is a tool available in the data dictionary and helps us in finding entities of the database and their
associations. Cross Reference Matrix CRM is developed at the designing stage of the database; we can
say that at the time of creation of the user views of reports for certain users we identify the material
required by the users. In the cross reference matrix, on the Y axis we specify the accessible components
of the database such as transitions, reports, or database objects and on the x axis we specify the
attributes that will be accessed in the corresponding accessed object. Now the matrix gets a shape of
two dimensional arrays on which we have accessible objects of the database and on the other hand we
have the elements which are available for access through those objects. Then whichever data item is
accessible through a certain object we place a tick on the intersection of that row and column and thus
we can easily identify the deferent items accessed in different reports.

The cross reference matrix shown in table 1 lists different attributes against different reports required by
different user groups of an exam system. Rows in this matrix contain different attributes and the
columns contain different reports. Now the tick mark in the cells represents the use or presence of
attributes in different reports. This matrix represents, on one side, the relative importance or use of
different attributes. On the other hand it also helps to identify different entity types and their defining
attributes. The attributes that are represented collectively on one or more reports are candidates of
combining into a single entity type. Although it is necessary that attributes appearing together should be
grouped into same entity type, but still they are candidates for combining into the one.
Data Dictionary in not very necessary for using such a cross reference matrix, instead for
relatively small systems it can be created manually.
Outcome of the Analysis Phase

In the preliminary study phase, database designers collect information about the existing system from
the users of the system. For this purpose they may interview different users or concerned persons, or
they may distribute questionnaires among different users and ask them to fill them in and later may use
these questionnaires in the analysis phase.
Designers represent their understanding of the working of existing system in the form of DFDs and
discuss it with the users to make it sure that they have understood all details of the existing system and
the requirements of different users groups.
The DFDs are input to the analysis phase, where designers analyze the requirements of the users and
establish the procedure to meet those requirements. From the database perspective, in the analysis
phase designers have to identify the facts or data that is required to be stored in order to fulfill the
users’ requirements. For this purpose they may use some CASE tools, like cross reference matrix.
Generally, in the analysis phase, designers prepare a draft or initial database design that they ultimately
finalize in the next phase, that is, the database design phase. So, in short we can say, that DFDs are the
output of the preliminary phase and are input to the analysis phase. The initial design or a draft
form of design (generally in entity-relationship data model) is the output of the analysis phase and input
to the design phase. In the design phase, then you finalize the design. The sequence of the activities
mentioned above is not much important, however, the activities mentioned are important and must be
performed in order to have a correct database or database application design.

Database Design Phase

Database design phase follows the analysis phase. Before starting the discussion on the design activity, it
will be wise if we clearly understand some basic concepts that are frequently used in this phase.

o Database Design Models

These terms can be used interchangeably for the logical structure of the database. The database
design/model stores the structure of the data and the links/relationships between data that should be
stored to meet the users’ requirements. Database design is stored in the database schema, which is in
turn stored in the data dictionary.

o Database Modeling

The process of creating the logical structure of the database is called database modeling. It is a very
important process because the designing of the application provides us the basis for running our
database system. If the database is not designed properly the implementation of the system cannot be
done properly. Generally, the design of the database is represented graphically because it provides an
ease in design and adds flexibility for the understanding of the system easily.

o Data Model
Data model is a set or collection of construct used for creating a database and producing
designs for the databases. There are a few components of a data model:

o Structure:
What structures can be used to store the data is identified by the structures provided by the data model
structures.
o Manipulation Language

For using a certain model certain data manipulations are performed using a specific language tool. This
specific language is called data manipulation language.

o Integrity Constraints
These are the rules which ensure the correctness of data in the database and maintain the database in
usable state so that correct information is portrayed in designing the database. Generally, these
components are not explicitly defined in data models, they may be available in some of the modern
DBMSs but in traditional and general model, these may not be available.

o Significance of the Data Model

Data model is very important tool because it is something which is prosecuted for designing the
database for a DBMS and no DBMS can exist independent of any data model, now if we use a specific
DBMS but are not sure about the data model it uses for data a base usage, we cannot create a proper
database.
As a specific DBMS is based on the use of a specific data model so when using a DBMS it is of great use
to know that what structures, manipulation languages and integrity constraints are implemented by a
specific DBMS. As it is the only way to know the facilities and functionalities offered by the DBMS.
This is the reason whenever we get a specific DBMS, it is explicitly mentioned with that DBMS, that
which data model this DBMS uses.

Types of Data Models:

o Semantic Data Model

These are the data models which provide us better flexibility in implementing constraints, better
language utilities and better data structure constructs. As a result, actions performed using proper data
and structure tools gives us better data designing and manipulation facilities. A better data model
provides better opportunities to express multiple situations in the database design and as a result get
better output from the tool or model in the form of a better database design.

This is the first type of data models available to use and has three basic types

• ER- Data Model

• Object oriented data model
• Record Based Data Model

This is the second type of data models available to use and has three basic types

• Hierarchical Data Model

• Network Data model
• Relational Data model

These models are records based and are not in similarity with those of semantic data models. These
models handle the data at almost all the three level of the three layers of the database architecture.
Semantic data models are generally used for designing the logical or conceptual model of the database
system, once very common example of the semantic data model is ER-Data Model and is very much
popular for designing databases. No DBMS is based on ER Data model because it is purely used for
designing whereas a number of DBMS are available based on OO data model, network data model,
relational data model l and hierarchical data model.

Types of Database Design

Conceptual database design

This design is implemented using a semantic data model, for example for creating a design for an
organization database we can use and we do use the ER-Data model. Logical Database design
This design is performed using a data model for which we have a DBMS available and
we are planning to run our database system that DBMS.

Physical Database Design:

The Logical design created using a specific data model and created after the analysis of the organization,
it needs to be implemented in a physical DBMS software so the Physical database design is performed
and the design created so far in the logical form are implemented on that very DBMS.

By separating the three design levels we get the benefit of abstraction on one hand whereas on the
other hand we can create our logical and conceptual designs using better design tools, which would
have not been possible if we are using the same design-tool for all the three levels. Moreover, if in
future there is a need to make a change in the physical implementation of the data we will have to make
no changes in the logical or conceptual level of the database design, rather the change can be achieved
by only using the existing conceptual model and implementing it again on Physical model using a
separate DBMS.
Lecture No. 07

Overview of Lecture

o Entity
o Different types of Entities
o Attribute and its different types

From this lecture we are going to start detailed discussion on a data model, which is the entity
relationship data model also known as E-R data model.

Entity-Relationship Data Model

It is a semantic data model that is used for the graphical representation of the conceptual database
design. We have discussed in the previous lecture that semantic data models provide more constructs
that is why a database design in a semantic data model can contain/represent more details. With a
semantic data model, it becomes easier to design the database, at the first place, and secondly it is
easier to understand later. We also know that conceptual database is our first comprehensive design. It
is independent of any particular implementation of the database, that is, the conceptual database
design expressed in E-R data model can be implemented using any DBMS. For that we will have to
transform the conceptual database design from E-R data model to the data model of the particular
DBMS. There is no DBMS based on the E-R data model, so we have to transform the conceptual
database design anyway.

A question arises from the discussion in the previous paragraph, can we avoid this transformation
process by designing our database directly using the data model of our selected DBMS. The answer is,
yes we can but we do not do it, because most commercial DBMS are based on the record-based data
models, like Hierarchical, Network or Relational. These data models do not provide too much constructs,
so a database design in these data models is not so expressive. Conceptual database design acts as a
reference for many different purposes. Developing it in a semantic data model makes it much more
expressive and easier to understand, that is why we first develop our conceptual database design in E-R
data model and then later transform it into the data model of our DBMS.

Constructs in E-R Data Model

The E-R data model supports following major constructs:

• Entity
• Attribute
• Relationship

We are going to discuss each one of them in detail.

The Entity

Entity is basic building block of the E-R data model. The term entity is used in three different meanings
or for three different terms and that are:
• Entity type
• Entity instance
• Entity set

In this course we will be using the precise term most of the time. However after knowing the meanings
of these three terms it will not be difficult to judge from the context which particular meaning the term
entity is being used in.

Entity Type
The entity type can be defined as a name/label assigned to items/objects that exist in an environment
and that have similar properties. It could be person, place, event or even concept, that is, an entity type
can be defined for physical as well as not-physical things. An entity type is distinguishable from other
entity types on the basis of properties and the same thing provides the basis for the identification of an
entity type. We analyze the things existing in any environment or place. We can identify or associate
certain properties with each of the existing in that environment. Now the things that have common or
similar properties are candidates of belonging to same group, if we assign a name to that group then we
say that we have identified an entity type.

What particular properties of an entity type should be considered or which particular properties jointly
form an entity type? The answer to this question we have discussed in detail in our very first lecture,
where we were discussing the definition of database. That is, the perspective or point of view of the
organization and the system for which we are developing the database is going to guide us about the
properties of interest for a particular group of things. For example, if you have a look around you in your
bedroom, you might see tube light, a bulb, fan, air conditioner, carpet, bed, chair and other things.
Now fan is an item that exists in your room, what properties of the fan we are interest in, because there
could be so many different properties of the fan. If we are developing the database for a manufacturer,
then we may be interested in type of material used for wings, then the thickness of the copper wire in
the coil, is it locally manufactured or bought readymade, what individual item costs, what is the labor
cost, what is the total cost, overhead, profit margin, net price etc. But if we are working for a
shopkeeper he might be interested in the name of the company, dealer price, retail price, weight, color
of fan etc. From the user perspective; company name, color, price, warranty, name of the dealer,
purchase date and alike. So the perspective helps/guides the designer to associate or identify properties
of things in an environment.

The process of identifying entity types, their properties and relationships between them is called
abstraction. The abstraction process is also supported by the requirements gathered during initial study
phase. For example, the external entities that we use in the DFDs provide us a platform to
identify/locate the entity types from. Similarly, if we have created different cross reference matrices,
they help us to identify different properties of the things that are of interest in this particular system and
that we should the data about. Anyway, entity types are identified through abstraction process, then the
items possessing the properties associated with a particular entity type are said to be belonging to that
entity type or instances of that entity type. While designing a system, you will find that most of the
entity types are same as are the external entities that you identified for the DFDs. Sometimes they may
be exactly the same. Technically, there is a minor difference between the two and that is evident from
their definitions. Anything that receives or generates data from or to the system is an external entity,
whereas entity type is name assigned to a collection of properties of different things existing in an
environment. Anything that receives or generates data is considered as external entity and is
represented in the DFD, even if it is a single thing. On the other hand, things with a single instance are
assumed to be on hand in the environment and they are not explicitly identified as entity type, so they
are not represented in the E-R diagram. For example, a librarian is a single instance in a library system,
(s)he plays certain role in the library system and at many places data is generated from or to the
librarian, so it will be represented at relevant places in the DFDs. But the librarian will not be explicitly
represented in the E-R diagram of the library system and its existence or role is assumed to be there and
generally it is hard-coded in the application programs.

Entity Instance

A particular object belonging to a particular entity type and how does an item becomes an instance of or
belongs to an entity type? By possessing the defining properties associated with an entity type. For
example, following table lists the entity types and their defining properties:

Entity Types Properties Instances

EMPLOYEE Human being, has name, has father name, has a registration number, has
qualification, designation M. Sharif, Sh. Akmal and many others
FURNITURE Used to sit or work on, different material, having legs, cost, purchased chair, table etc.
ELECTRIC APPLIANCES Need electricity to work, purchased Bulb, fan, AC

OFFICE EQUIPMENT Used for office work, consumable or non- consumable, Papers, pencil,
paper weight etc.

Each entity instance possesses certain values against the properties with the entity type to which it
belongs. For example, in the above table we have identified that entity type EMPLOYEE has name, father
name, registration number, qualification, designation. Now an instance of this entity type will have
values against each of these properties, like (M. Sajjad, Abdul Rehman, EN-14289, BCS, and
Programmer) may be one instance of entity type EMPLOYEE. There could be many others.

Entity Set
A group of entity instances of a particular entity type is called an entity set. For example,
all employees of an organization form an entity set. Like all students, all courses, all of them form entity
set of different entity types As has been mentioned before that the term entity is used for all of the
three terms mentioned above, and it is not wrong. Most of the time it is used to mention an entity
type, next it is used for an entity instance and least times for entity set. We will be precise
most of the time, but if otherwise you can judge the particular meaning from the context.

Classification of entity types

Entity types (ETs) can be classified into regular ETs or weak ETs. Regular ETs are also called strong or
independent ETs, whereas weak ETs are also called dependent ETs. In the following we discuss them in
detail.

Weak Entity Types

An entity type whose instances cannot exist without being linked with instances of some other entity
type, i.e., they cannot exist independently. For example, in an organization we want to maintain data
about the vehicles owned by the employees. Now a particular vehicle can exist in this organization only
if the owner already exists there as employee. Similarly, if employee leaves the job and the organization
decides to delete the record of the employee then the record of the vehicle will also be deleted since it
cannot exist without being linked to an instance of employee.

Strong Entity Type

An entity type whose instances can exist independently, that is, without being linked to the instances of
any other entity type is called strong entity type. A major property of the strong entity types is that they
have their own identification, which is not always the case with weak entity types. For example,
employee in the previous example is an independent or strong entity type, since its instances can exist
independently.

Naming Entity Types

Following are some recommendations for naming entity types. But they are just recommendations;
practices considered good in general. If one, some or all of them are ignored in a design, the design will
still be valid if it satisfies the requirements otherwise, but good designs usually follow these practices:

• Singular noun recommended, but still plurals can also be used

• Organization specific names, like customer, client, gahak anything will work
• Write in capitals, yes, this is something that is generally followed, otherwise will also work.
• Abbreviations can be used, be consistent. Avoid using confusing abbreviations, if they are confusing
for others today, tomorrow they will confuse you too.

Symbols for Entity Types

A rectangle is used to represent an entity type in E-R data model. For strong entity types rectangle with
a single line is used whereas double lined rectangle is drawn to represent a weak entity type:

We have discussed different types of entity types; in the next section we are going to discuss another
component or E-R data model, that is, the attribute.

Attribute
An attribute of an entity type is a defining property or quality of the instances of that entity type. Entity
instances of same entity type have the same attributes. (E.g. Student Identification, Student Name).
However, values of these attributes may be same or different. For example, all instances of the entity
type STUDENT may have the attributes name, father name, age; but the values against each of these
attributes for each instance may be different. Like, one instance may have the values (M. Hafeez, Noor
Muhammad, other may have others. Remember one thing, that the values of the attributes may be
same among different entity instances. The thing to remember at this stage is that attributes are
associated with an entity type and those attributes then become applicable /valid for all the instances of
that entity type and instances have values against these attributes.

An attribute is identified by a name allocated to it and that has to be unique with respect to that entity
type. It means one entity type cannot have two attributes with the same name. However, different
entity types may have attributes with the same name. The guidelines for naming an attribute are similar
to those of entity types. However, one difference is regarding writing the names of attributes. The
notation that has been adopted in this course is that attribute name generally consists of two parts. The
name is started in lower case, and usually consists of abbreviation of the entity types to which the
attribute belongs. Second part of the attribute name describes the purpose of attribute and only
first letter is capitalized. For example empName means name attribute of entity type EMPLOYEE, stAdrs
means address attribute of the entity type STUDENT and alike. Others follow other notations, there is no
restriction as such, and you can follow anyone that you feel convenient with. BUT be consistent.

Domain of an Attribute

We have discussed in the previous section that every attribute has got a name. Next thing is that a
domain is also associated with an attribute. These two things, name and the domain, are part of the
definitions of an attribute and we must provide them. Domain is the set of possible values that an
attribute can have, that is, we specify a set of values either in the form of a range or some discrete
values, and then attribute can have value out of those values. Domain is a form of a check or a
constraint on attribute that it cannot have a value outside this set.

Associating domain with an attribute helps in maintaining the integrity of the database, since only legal
values could be assigned to an attribute. Legal values mean the values that an attribute can have in an
environment or system. For example, if we define a salary attribute of EMPLOYEE entity type to hold the
salary of employees, the value assigned to this attribute should be numeric, it should not be assigned a
value like ‘Reema’, or ‘10/10/2004’, why, because they are not legal salary values. It should be numeric
Further, even if we have declared it as numeric it will have numeric values, but about a value like
10000000000. This is a numeric value, but is it a legal salary value within an organization? You have to
ask them. It means not only you will specify that the value of salary will be numeric but also associate a
range, a lower and upper limit. It reduces the chances of mistake.

Domain is normally defined in form of data type and some additional constraints like the range
constraint. Data type is defined as a set of values along with the operations that can be performed on
those values. Some common data types are Integer, Float, Varchar, Char, String, etc. So domain
associates certain possible values with an attribute and certain operations that can be performed on the
values of the attribute. Another important thing that needs to be mentioned here is that once we
associate a domain to an attribute, all the attributes in all entity instances of that entity type will have
the values from the same domain. For example, it is not possible that in one entity instance the attribute
salary has a value 15325.45 and in another instance the same attribute has a value ‘Reema’. No. All
attribute will have values from same domain, values may be different or same, whatever,
but the domain will be the same.

Sometimes when some coding has been adopted, then such strange values may be legal but here we are
discussing the general conditions

Symbols for Attributes

Each represented as an oval, linked with an ET symbol

Types of Attributes
Attributes may be of different types. They may be:

• Simple or Composite
• Single valued or multi-valued
• Stored or Derived

Simple or Composite Attributes:

An attribute that is a single whole is a simple attribute. The value of a simple attribute is considered as a
whole, not as comprising of other attributes or components. For example, attributes stName,
stFatherName, stDateOfBorth of an entity type STUDENT are example of simple attributes. On the other
hand if an attribute consists of collection of other simple or composite attributes then it is called a
composite attributes. For example, stAdres attribute may comprise of houseNo, streetNo, areaCode, city
etc. In this case stAddress will be a composite attribute.

Single valued or multi-valued Attributes:

Some attribute have single value at a time, whereas some others may have multiple
values. For example, hobby attribute of STUDENT or skills attribute of EMPLOYEE,
since a student may have multiple hobbies, likewise an employee may have multiple
skills so they are multi-valued attributes. On the other hand, name, father name,
designation are generally single valued attributes.

Stored or Derived Attributes:

Normally attributes are stored attributes, that is, their values are stored and accessed as
such from the database. However, sometimes attributes’ values are not stored as such,
rather they are computed or derived based on some other value. This other value may be
stored in the database or obtained some other way. For example, we may store the name,
father name, address of employees, but age can be computed from date of birth. The
advantage of declaring age as derived attribute is that whenever we will access the age,
we will get the accurate, current age of employee since it will be computed right at the
time when it is being accessed.

How a particular attribute is stored or defined, it is decided first by the environment and
then it has to be designer’s decision; your decision. Because, the organization or system
will not object rather they will not even know the form in which you have defined an
attribute. You have to make sure that the system works properly, it fulfills the
requirement; after that you do it as per your convenience and in an efficient way.
Symbols for Attributes
Simple
Composite
Multi-valued
Derived
Example
EMPLOYEE
(empId, empName, Experience, emp_Qual, street, dateHired, houseNo,address)
Exercises:
• Take a look into the system where you work or study or live, identify different
entity types in that environment. Associate different types of attributes with these
entity types.
• Look at the same environment from different possible perspectives and realize the
difference that the change of perspective makes in the abstraction process that
results in establishing different entity types or/and their different properties.

Lecture No. 08

Overview of Lecture
o Concept of Key and its importance
o Different types of keys

Attributes
Def 1:
An attribute is any detail that serves to identify, qualify, classify, quantify, or otherwise express the state
of an entity occurrence or a relationship.

Def 2:

Attributes act as differentiating agents among different entity types, that is, the differences between
entity types must be expressed in terms of attributes. An entity type can have many instances; each
instance has got a certain value against each attribute defined as part of that particular entity type. A
key is a set of attributes that can be used to identify or access a particular entity instance of an entity
type (or out of an entity set). The concept of key is beautiful and very useful; why and how. An entity
type may have many instances, from a few to several thousands and even more. Now out of many
instances, when and if we want to pick a particular/single instance, and many times we do need it, then
key is the solution. For example, think of whole population of Pakistan, the data of all Pakistanis lying at
one place, say with NADRA people. Now if at sometime we need to identify a particular person out of all
this data, how can we do that? Can we use name for that, well think of any name, like Mirza Zahir Iman
Afroz, now we may find many people with this name in Pakistan. Another option is the combination of
name and father name, then again, Amjad Malik s/o Mirza Zahir Iman Afroz, there could be so many
such pairs. There could be many such examples. However, if you think about National ID Card number,
then no matter whatever is the population of Pakistan, you will always be able to pick precisely a single
person. That is the key. While defining an entity type we also generally define the key of that entity type.
How do we select the key, from the study of the real-world system; key attribute(s) already exist there,
sometimes they don’t then the designer has to define one. A key can be simple, that is, consisting of
single attribute, or it could be composite which consists of two or more attributes.

Following are the major types of keys:

o Super Key
o Candidate Key
o Primary Key
o Alternate Key
o Secondary Key
o Foreign Key

The last one will be discussed later, remaining 5 are discussed in the following:
o Super key
A super key is a set of one or more attributes which taken collectively, allow us to identify uniquely an
entity instance in the entity. This definition is same as of a key, it means that the super key is the most
general type of key. For example, consider the entity type STUDENT with attributes registration number,
name, father name, address, phone, class, admission date. Now which attribute can we use that can
uniquely identify any instance of STUDENT entity type. Of course, none of the name,
father name, address, phone number, class, admission date can be used for this purpose. Why? Because
if we consider name as super key, and situation arises that we need to contact the parents of a
particular student. Now if we say to our registration department that give us the phone number of the
student whose name is Ilyas Hussain, the registration department conducts a search and comes up with
10 different Ilyas Hussain, could be anyone. So the value of the name attribute cannot be used to pick a
particular instance. Same happens with other attributes. However, if we use the registration number,
then it is 100% sure that with a particular value of registration number we will always find exactly a
single unique entity instance. Once you identified the instance, you have all its attributes available,
name, father name, everything. The entity type STUDENT and its attributes are shown graphically in the
figure 1 below, with its super key “regNo” underlined.
EMPLOYEE
An entity type, its defining attributes
Andsuper key (underlined)
name
regNo
fName
address
phoneNo
Once specific characteristic with super key is that, as per its definition any combination of attributes with
the super key is also a super key. Like, in the example just discussed where we have identified regNo as
super key, now if we consider any combination of regNo with any other attribute of STUDENT entity
type, the combination will also be a super key. For example, “regNo, name”, “regNo, fName, address”,
“name, fName, regNo” and many others, all are super keys.

 Candidate key

A super key for which no subset is a super key is called a candidate key, or the minimal super key is the
candidate key. It means that there are two conditions for the candidate key, one, it identifies the entity
instances uniquely, as is required in case of super key, second, it should be minimum, that is, no proper
subset of candidate key is a key. So if we have a simple super key, that is, that consists of single
attribute, it is definitely a candidate key, 100%. However, if we have a composite super key and if we
take any attribute out of it and remaining part is not a super key anymore then that composite super key
is also a candidate key since it is minimal super key. For example, one of the super keys that we
identified from the entity type STUDENT of figure 1 is “regNo, name”, this super key is not a candidate
key, since if we remove the regNo attribute from this combination, name attribute alone is not able to
identify the entity instances uniquely, so it does not satisfy the first condition of candidate key. On the
other hand if we remove the attribute name from this composite key then the regNo alone is sufficient
to identify the instances uniquely, so “regNo, name” does have a proper subset (regNo) that can act as a
super key; violation of second condition. So the composite key “regNo, name” is a super key but it is not
a candidate key. From here we can also establish a fact that every candidate key is a super key but
not the other way round.

o Primary Key
A candidate key chosen by the database designer to act as key is the primary key. An entity type may
have more than one candidate keys, in that case the database designer has to designate one of them as
primary key, since there is always only a single primary key in an entity type. If there is just one
candidate key then obviously the same will be declared as primary key. The primary key can also be
defined as the successful candidate key. Figure 2 below contains the entity type STUDENT of figure 1 but
with an additional
attribute nIdNumber (national ID card Number).
EMPLOYEE
An entity type, its defining attributes
Andtwo candidate keys
name
regNo
fName
address
phoneNo
nIdNumber
we can identify two different attributes that can individually identify the entity instances of STUDENT
and they are regNo and nIdNumber, both are minimal super keys so both are candidate keys. Now in
this situation we have got two candidate keys. The one that we choose will be declared as primary key,
other will be the alternate key. Any of the candidate keys can be selected as primary key, it mainly
depends on the database designer which choice he/she makes. There are certain things that are
generally considered while making this decision, like the candidate key that is shorter, easier to
remember, to type and is more meaningful is selected as primary key. These are general
recommendations in this regard, but finally it is the decision of the designer and he/she may have
his/her own reasons for a particular selection that may be entirely different from those mentioned
above. The relation that holds between super and candidate keys also holds between candidate and
primary keys, that is, every primary key (PK) is a candidate key and every candidate key is a super key.
A certain value that may be associated with any attribute is NULL, that means “not given” or “not
defined”. A major characteristic of the PK is that it cannot have the NULL value. If PK is a composite,
then none of the attributes included in the PK can have the NULL, for example, if we are using “name,
fName” as PK of entity type STUDENT, then none of the instances may have NULL value in either of the
name or fName or both.

o Alternate Keys

Candidate keys which are not chosen as the primary key are known as alternate keys. For example, we
have two candidate keys of STUDENT in figure 2, regNoand nIdNumber, if we select regNoas PK then
the nIdNumberwill be alternate key.

o Secondary Key

Many times we need to access certain instances of an entity type using the value(s) of one or more
attributes other than the PK. The difference in accessing instances using the value of a key or non-key
attribute is that the search on the value of PK will always return a single instance (if it exists), where as
uniqueness is not guaranteed in case of non-key attribute. Such attributes on which we need to access
the instances of an entity type that may not necessarily return unique instance is called the secondary
key. For example, we want to see how many of our students belong to Multan, in that case we will
access those instances of the STUDENT entity type that contain “Multan” in their address. In this case
address will be called secondary key, since we are accessing instances on the basis of its value, and there
is no compulsion that we will get a single instance. Keep one thing in mind here, that a particular access
on the value of a secondary key MAY return a single instance, but that will be considered as chance or
due to that particular state of entity set. There is not the compulsion or it is not necessary for secondary

key to return unique instance, where as in case of super, candidate, primary and alternate keys it is
compulsion that they will always return unique instance against a particular value.

o Foreign Key

The relationship between 2 tables matches the Primary Key in one of the tables with a Foreign
Key in the second table.
In the context of relational databases, a foreign key is a field (or collection of fields) in one table
that uniquely identifies a row of another table or the same table. In simpler words, the foreign key is
defined in a second table, but it refers to the primary key in the first table.

In SQL Server, there are two keys - primary key and foreign key which seems identical, but
actually both are different in features and behaviours. ... Primary key uniquely identify a record in the
table. Foreign key is a field in one table that is primary key in another table.

o Relationships in E-R Data Model

o Types of Relationships

Relationships
After two or more entities are identified and defined with attributes, the participants determine if a
relationship exists between the entities. A relationship is any association, linkage, or connection
between the entities of interest to the business; it is a two-directional, significant association between
two entities, or between an entity and itself. Each relationship has a name, an optionality (optional or
mandatory), and a degree (how many). A relationship is described in real terms. Assigning a name,
optionality, and a degree to a relationship helps confirm the validity of that relationship. If you cannot
give a relationship all these things, then perhaps there really is no relationship at all.
Relationship represents an association between two or more entities.
An example of a relationship would be:

• Employees are assigned to projects

• Projects have subtasks
• Departments manage one or more projects

Relationships are the connections and interactions between the entities instances e.g. DEPT_EMP
associates Department and Employee.
• A relationship types an abstraction of a relationship i.e. a set of relationships instances sharing
common attributes.

• Entities enrolled in a relationship are called its participants.

The participation of an entity in a relationship is total when all entities of that set might be participant in
the relationship otherwise it is partial e.g. if every Parties supplied by a Supplier then the SUPP_PART
relationship is total. If certain parts are available without a supplier than it is partial.

Naming Relationships:
If there is no proper name of the association in the system then participants’ names of abbreviations are
used. STUDENT and CLASS have ENROLL relationship. However, it can also be named as STD_CLS.

Roles:

Entity set of a relationship need not be distinct. For example

The labels “manager” and “worker” are called “roles”. They specify how employee entities interact via
the “works-for” relationship set. Roles are indicated in ER diagrams by labeling the lines that connect
diamonds to rectangles. Roles are optional. They clarify semantics of a relationship.

Symbol for Relationships:

• Shown as a Diamond
• Diamond is doubled if one of the participant is dependent on the other
• Participants are connected by continuous lines, labeled to indicate cardinality.
• In partial relationships roles (if identifiable) are written on the line connecting the
partially participating entity rectangle to the relationship diamond.
• Total participation is indicated by double lines
employee
SSN
name
phone
city
works-for
manager
worker

Types of Relationships

o Unary Relationship
An ENTITY TYPE linked with itself, also called recursive relationship. Example Roommate, where
STUDENT is linked with STUDENT

Example 1:
1:1
Roommate
Student

Example 2:
o Binary relationship
A Binaryrelationship is the one that links two entities sets e.g. [Link] can be
formally described in an ordered pair form.
Enroll = {(S1001, ART103A), (S1020, CS201A), (S1002, CSC201A)}
Entire set is relationship set and each ordered pair is an instance of the relationship.
o Ternary Relationship
A Ternaryrelationship is the one that involves three entities e.g.
STUDENT-CLASS-FACULTY.
1:1
Sponsored
Person
M:N
Class Student

o N-ary Relationship
Most relationships in data model are binary or at most ternary but we could define a relationship set

be distinct. E.g. Roommate = {(Student1, Student2) | Student1 ∈Student Entity Set, Student2 ∈Student
linking any number of entity sets i.e. n-ary relationship Entity sets involved in a relationship set need not

Entity Set and Student 1 is the Roommate of Student2}

Relationship Cardinalities :

The cardinality of a relationship is the number of entities to which another entity can map under that
relationship. Symbols for maximum and minimum cardinalities are:

o One-to-One mapping:
A mapping R from X to Y is one-to-one if each entity in X is associated with at most one entity in Y and
vice versa.

o Many-to-One mapping:
A mapping R from X to Y is many-to-one if each entity in X is associated with at most one entity in Y but
each entity in Y is associated with many entities in X.
Minimum
Outside
Entity Type
Maximum
inside

o One-to-Many mapping:
A mapping R from X to Y is one-to-many if each entity in X is associated with many entities in Y but each
entity in Y is associated with one entity in X.

o Many-to-Many mapping:
A mapping R from X to Y is many-to-many if each entity from X is associated with
many entities in Y and one entity in Y is associated with many entities in X.
Lecture No. 10

Overview of Lecture

o Cardinality Types
o Roles in ER Data Model
o Expression of Relationship in ER Data Model
o Dependency
o Existence Dependency
o Referential Dependency
o Enhancements in the ER-Data Model
o Subtype and Supertype entities

Recalling from the previous lecture we can say that that cardinality is just an expression which tells us
about the number of instances of one entity which can be present in the second relation. Maximum
cardinality tells us that how many instance of an entity can be placed in the second relation at most.
Now we move onto discuss that what the minimum cardinality is.

Minimum Cardinality:

As the name suggests that the minimum cardinality is the inverse of the maximum cardinality so we can
say that the minimum cardinality show us that how many instance of one entity can be placed in
another relation at least. In simple words it can be said that the minimum cardinality tells that whether
the link between two relations is optional or compulsory. It is very important to determine the minimum
cardinality when designing a database because it defines the way a database system will be
implemented.
 Maximum cardinalities are the modifier that appears on the link and is adjacent to the entity rectangle.
The other modifier which is next to the maximum cardinality modifier tells the minimum cardinality. The
minimum cardinality modifier lies at more distance from the entity as compared to the maximum
cardinality modifier.
Determination of the cardinalities is done by interviewing the users of the system and by the analysis of
the organization.
The cardinality shown in First Part of the Figure-1 is shown using a relationship between a student and
book; this can be a library scenario where students are borrowing books from the library. We can see in
the diagram the shape adjacent to the student entity it shows that the minimum cardinality for the
student relationship is zero and maximum cardinality is one. Where as on the other side of the diagram
the shape adjacent to
HOBBY - STD
BOOK - STD
COURSE - STD
PROJ - EMP
One to Many(Optional)
Many to One (Mandatory)
Many to Many (Optional)
Many to One (optional)

the book entity show that at most there can be many instances of the book associated with a single
instance of student entity, and that there can be at-least no instance associated with the student entity.
In general library scenario we can say that one student can borrow at least no and at most many books.
Hence the minimum and maximum cardinality is shown.

In the second part of the Figure-1 we see a relationship between the Employee and
project entities, the relationship describes one to many association between the project
and the employees, It shows that there can be one project having a number of employees,
but for the existence of one employee at one project is necessary. So the minimum and
maximum cardinality on the project side of the relationship is one, and employees
associated with each project can be many at most and none at-least.
Third part of the Figure-1 shows the association between the student and the course
entities. Here we can see that the relationship between the student and the course is zero
at least and many at most on both the sides of the relationship. The minimum cardinality
with zero minimum is also called the optional cardinality. It also shows that one student
can have registered more that one subjects and one subject can also be taken by many
students. Also it is not necessary for a student to get registered one subject.
In the fourth part of the Figure-1 we can see the one to many cardinality between the
student and hobby entities the cardinality descriptors show that a student may have no or
at most one hobby, but it is worthwhile to notice that the cardinality of the hobby with the
student in many but optional, now we can say that one hobby can be associated to nay
student but there is a chance that no hobby is associated to one student at a certain time.
Other Notations:
The notation mentioned above is known as crow’s foot notation for the expression of ER-Diagrams,
there can be other notation as well which can be used for creating ER-Diagrams; one of these notations
is shown in the Figure-2. We can see that the one to many cardinality shown in the first part of the
diagram is expresses with single and double arrows. The Single arrow in this case shows the one and
double arrow show the
many cardinality.
 Fig. 2: Arrow-head notation

So the First part of the figure-2 show One to many cardinality, second part of the Figure
shows many to one and the third part of the cardinality shows many to many cardinality
between the entities involved.

Fig. 3: Alphabetical notation

The above Figure shows another notation for creating ER-Diagrams which show that to
show the one cardinality we have used 1 and for many cardinality M or N is used.

Fig. 4: Dot-based notation

Notations shown in the Figure-4 above as also used for creating ER-Diagrams where 1 is
used for showing the single cardinality and the black filled Dot is used for showing many
cardinality.
Roles in Relationships
The way an entity is involved in a relationship is called the role of the entity in the
relationship. These details provide more semantics of the database. The role is generally
clear from the relationship, but in some cases it is necessary to mention the role explicitly.
Two situations to mention the role explicitly
Recursive Relationship:
This is the situation when any attribute of one entity is associated with another attribute
of the same entity. Such a link initiates from one entity and terminates on the same entity.

Fig-5: Roles in a unary relationship

Figure-5 above shows the recursive relationship which tells that in the faculty of a certain
institute we can have one faculty member from among the same faculty as the head of the
faculty. Now the role mentioned on the relationship tell that many Faculty instance are
headed by one of the entity instance from the same faculty relation.
Multiple Relationships:
This is the second situation which needs the role to be mentioned on the relationship link
when there is more than one relationship.

As an example we can have a relationship of Faculty members and students as one

faculty member may teach a number of students and at the same time one student may
have been taught by a number of faculty members. This is one side of the picture. Now
on the other side we can say that a faculty member may be supervising a number of
students for their final projects. It shows two types of associations between the faculty
and the students. So in this type of situation it is necessary to mention the role of the
entities involved in the relationship.

Dependencies
Dependency is a type of constraint, for example once we define the cardinality or
relationship among two entities it also is a constraint or check that tells that cardinality
should be followed while populating data in relations. Similarly the dependency is a
constraint. There are a number of dependency types which are expressed below:
The Existence dependency:
This is the type of dependency which exists when one entity instance needs instance of
another entity for its existence. As we have seen earlier in case of employee of and
organization and the projects associated with the employees there we see that employees
are dependent on projects, it means that if no project is assigned to an employee it can not
exist. In other words we can say that at a certain time an employee must be working on at
least one project.
Identifier Dependency:
It means that the dependent entity in case of existence dependency does not have its own
identifier and any external identifier is used to pick data for that entity. And to define a
key in this entity the key of the parent entity is to be used in the key for this entity may be
used as composite keys.
Referential Dependency:
This is the situation when the dependent entity has it own key for unique identification
but the key used to show the reference with the parent entity is shown with the help of an
attribute of the parent entity. Means to show the link of the parent entity with this entity
there will be an attribute and a record in this entity will not exist without having a record
in the parent entity. Despite of having its own identifier attribute.
This type of identifier or attribute in the weak entity is known as foreign key.

In the Figure-7 above the relation shown is expression the existence dependency where it
is necessary for a book instance to exist if there exist the copies of the book with the same
bkId.
Enhancements in E-R Data Model:
The topics that we have discussed so for constitute the basics of ER-Model. The model is
further extended and strengthened with addition of some new concepts and modeling
constructs, which are discussed below.
Super-type and Subtypes
These are also relationships existing between entities, also referred to as generalized and
specialized respectively let us examine the figure below to grasp the idea of super-type
and subtype.

Fig-8 (Super-types and Subtypes)

In the Figure:8 show above there are different levels of existence of entities, at the top
level we have general entity type, which are described as having a number of Subtype
entities, these sub entities are in-turn acting as supertypes entities for a number of other
entities. As we see in case of person supertype we can have further classify the person
entity as Student (STD) and Teacher of Faculty member (FAC). Subtype entities are
expressed with a link to the supertypes having an arc on the link—the arms of which
point to the supertype entity. As we move downward the distributed entities are known as
specialized entities.
Overview of Database Current Lecture
o Inheritance
o Super type
o Subtypes
o Constraints
o Completeness
o Disjointness
o Subtype Discrimination
Inheritance:
It is the transfer of the characteristics of a class in object-oriented programming to other classes derived
from it. For example, if “vegetable” is a class, the classes “bean” and “root” can be derived from it, and
each will inherit the properties of the “vegetable” class: name, growing season, and so on. Transfer of
certain properties such as open files, from a parent program or process to another program or process
that the parent causes to run. Inheritance in the paradigm of database systems we mean the transfer of
properties of one entity to some derived entities, which have been derived from the same entities.
Super types and Subtypes
Subtypes hold all the properties of their corresponding super-types. Means all those subtypes which are
connected to a specific supertype will have all the properties of their supertype.
Fig-1 b
The second example is that of student and the Faculty Members who are at the super level same type of
entities. Both the entities at the super level belong to the same entity of type Person. The distinct
attributes of the student and faculty members are added later to the sub entities student and faculty.

Supertype / Subtype Relationship:

The use of supertype and subtype for the entities is very useful because it allows us to create hierarchy
of the entities according to the attributes they have and we need not to write all the attributes again
and again. We can group similar types of entities and the attributes associated with those entities at
certain levels.
This also adds clarity to the definitions of the entities as it is not necessary to write the attribute again
and again for all the entities.
Moreover, it also eases the operation of removing or adding attributes from the entities, here it is worth
noting that adding an attribute at the super entity level will add the attribute to the below listed or
derived sub entities and removing the attribute will remove the attribute from the entities at sublevels
in the same way.
The process of identifying supertype and creating different type of sub entities is supported by the
general knowledge of the designer about the organization and also based of the attributes of the entities
which are entities existing in the system..
Specifying Constraints
Once there has been established a super/sub entity relationship there are a number of constraints
which can be specified for this relationship for specifying further restrictions on the relationship.
Completeness Constraint
There are two types of completeness constraints, partial completeness constraints and total
completeness constraints.
Total Completeness:
Total Completeness constraint exist only if we have a super type and some subtypes associated with
that supertype, and the following situation exists between the super type and subtype.

All the instances of the supertype entity must be present in at one of the subtype entities, i.e.—there
should be not instance of the supertype entity which does not belong to any of the subtype entity.
This is a specific situation when the supertype entities are very carefully analyzed for their associated
subtype entities and no sub type entity is ignored when deriving sub entities from the supertype entity.

Partial Completeness Constraint:

This type of completeness constraint exists when it is not necessary for any supertype entity to have its
entire instance set to be associated with any of the subtype entity.

This type of situation exists when we do not identify all subtype entities associated with a supertype
entity, or ignore any subtype entity due to less importance of least usage in a specific scenario.
Disjointness Constraint:
This rule or constraint defines the existence of a supertype entity in a subtype entity. There exist type
types of disjoint rules.

o Disjointness rule
o Overlap rule

Disjoint Constraint:
This constraint restricts the existence of one instance of any supertype entity to exactly one instance of
any of the subtype entities. Considering the example given in Fig 1a it is seen that there can be two
types of employees, one which are fixed salary employees and the others are hourly paid employees.
Now the disjoint rule tells that at a certain type an employee will be either hourly paid employee or
salaried employee, he cannot be placed in both the categories in parallel.

Overlap Rule:
This rule is in contrast with the disjoint rule, and tells that for one instance of any supertype entity there
can be multiple instances existences of the instance for more then one subtype entities. Again taking the
same example of the employee in an organization we can say that one employee who is working in an
organization can be allowed to work for the company at hourly rates also once he has completed his
duty as a salaried employee. In such a situation the employee instance record for this employee will be
stored in both the sub entity types.
 Fig 2-a

In the example the completeness of the relation is shown between the supertype entity and the subtype
entity, it shows that for the data of patients we can have only two type of patients and one patient can
be either an outdoor patient or indoor patient. In it we can see that we have identified all possible
subtypes of the supertype patient. This implies a completeness constraint. One more thing to note here
is the linked entity physician to the patient entity. And all the relationships associated with the
supertype entity are inherited to subtype entities of the concerned supertype.
 Fig 2-b

The Figure 2b shows the supertype and subtype relationship among different type of vehicles. Here we
can see that the Vehicle has only two subtypes, known as Truck and Car, As it is normal to have a
number of other vehicles in the company of a certain type but when we have noted just a limited
number of vehicles then it means that we are not interested in storing information for all the vehicles as
separate entities. They may be stored in the vehicle entity type itself and distinct vehicle may be stored
in the sub-types car and truck of the Vehicle.

This is a scenario where we have the freedom to store several entities and neglect others, and it is called
as partial completeness constraint rule.
After the discussion of the Total Completeness and Partial completeness let us move to the next
constraint that is disjointness and check for its examples.
Again in the Figure 2-a. we have the environment where patient entity type has two subtypes indoor
and outdoor patient. To represent disjointness we place the letter “D” in the circle which is splitting the
super entity type into two sub entity types. Suppose that
the hospital has placed a restriction on the patient to be either an indoor patient or

outdoor patient, in such a case there exists disjointness which specifies that the patients data can not be
place in the database in both the subtype entities. It will be wither indoor or outdoor.
 Fig- 3

The figure-3 above shows the second type of disjoint constraint which tells that the entity subtype
instance can be repeated for any single entity supertype instance. We can see the relationship of a
certain hardware company for the parts provided by the company to its clients. Now there may exist an
overlapping situation for a certain part which is to be provided to a certain firm, but the manufactured
quantity of that part is not enough to meet the specific order, In this situation the company purchases
the remaining the deficient number of parts form the other suppliers. We can easily say that the data for
that specific part is to be placed in both the entity subtypes. Because it belongs to both the subtype
entities, this is an overlapping situation and expresses disjointness with overlapping. Another important
thing which is to be noted here that the purchased part subtype entity has a relationship with another
entity where the data for the suppliers is stored from whom the parts are bought. Now this relation
does not have any interaction with the manufactured parts relation as it is not connected with its
supertype.

Considering the above discussed we can have four different types of combination existing for the
supertype and subtype entities.

• Complete Disjoint
• Complete Overlapping
• Partial Disjoint
• Partial overlapping

Subtype Discriminator (make another type of object):

This is a tool or a technique which provides us a methodology to determine that to which subtype one
instance of a supertype belongs.
To determine the relation we place an attribute in the entity supertype which can specify through its
value, that to which entity subtype it belongs.
For example we consider the example
There can be two different situations which specify the placement or relationship of a supertype entity
instance in a subtype entity instance. First situation is that of disjoint situation where one supertype
entity instance can be placed only in one subtype of that supertype. Let us consider the example of
vehicles above in Figure-2-b it show that there can be two different vehicles car and truck associated
with the supertype vehicle now if we place an attribute named Vehicle_type in the supertype we can
easily determine the type of the associated subtype by placing a C for car and a T for truck instance of
the vehicle.

The other situation where the Subtype discriminator is required the overlapping constraint; it is the
situation where one supertype attribute can be placed in more than one subtype entities. Considering
again the part example shown in Figure 3, which has an overlapping constraint; In this situation we can
have many solution one common solution is to place two attribute in the supertype one for
manufactured and other one for purchased. We can combine them as a composite attribute, when we
place Y for manufacture and N for Purchased then it means the part is manufactured by the company,
and similarly the following situation will give us further information.

Significance of Subtype Discriminator:

Existence of subtype discriminator helps us a lot in finding the corresponding subtype entities, although
we can find a subtype entity instance without having a subtype discriminator in the supertype but that
involves lots of efforts and might consume a huge time in worst case situations.
This concludes out discussion of The ER Model.
Overview of Lecture
The system discusses is an examination section of an educational institute with the implementation of
semester system.

Steps in the Study of System

Preliminary study of the system:

o Students are enrolled in programs.
o The programs are based on courses
o Different courses are offered at the start of the semester
o Students enroll themselves for these courses at the start of semesters
o Enrolled courses by students and offered courses must not be same.
o The difference is due to the individual situation of every student, because if one student has not pass
a certain course ‘A’ in the previous semester he will not be able to register for a course ‘B’ offered in this
semester as the course ‘A’ is the prerequisite for course ‘B’.
o After valid registration classes start.
o A Course which is offered is assigned to a teacher also
o There can be any mid-term exams and in this system we have only one mid-term
o All the students are given assignments and quizzes and are awarded marks against their performance.
o Result of the student is prepared on the basis of assignment marks, sessional and mid-term marks and
the final exam.
o GP (Grade point) for students is calculated in each subject.
o Average grade point is calculated on the basis of GPs in individual subjects
o And the Cumulative GPA is calculated for all the passed semesters.
Outputs Required
o Teachers and controller need class list or attendance sheet, class result; subject and overall
o Students need transcripts, semester result card, subject result
Entities associated with the system
o Students
o Teachers
o Controllers
Once the analysis of the system is done it is important to make a draft of the system using a standard
tool which specifies the component and design of the system. This design is useful because anyone using
the design can work on the existing system and clearly understand the working without working on the
system from the scratch.
Tool used for such graphical design is Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
In the Figure -1 of the system we have a context diagram of the system which shows integration of
different entities with the examination system, these include Registration system, controller, student
and teacher entities.
 Fig-1
o From the diagram we can understand basic functionality of the system and can find how the data is
flowing in the system and how different external entities are communicating or interacting with the
system.

o First of all we have registration system, which provides the data of students to the systems once the
registration process has been completed, this data is now free of errors in terms of validity of a certain
student for a certain course or a semester.
o Second external entity interacting with the system is the teacher, a Teacher is given a list of students
who are enrolled in a class and the registration system has declared them as valid students for that very
course. Then the teacher allows those students in the class and continues the process of teaching the
class, during this process the teacher takes test of the students and prepares papers for the students
and also prepares quizzes to be submitted by students. All the data of students’ attendance quizzes and
assignments along-with different sessional results is then submitted by the teacher to the examination
system which is responsible for preparation of results of the students.
o Third interacting entity with the system is the controller’s office it is provided with the semester
overall result, subject results and also the result of each class for performance evaluation and many
other aspects.
o Fourth entity is student which externally interacts with the system for getting its result, the result is
submitted to the student and may be in one of different forms such as, transcript and result card etc.
Level 0 Diagram:
The three major modules which have been identified are given below our level 0 diagram will be based
on these three modules and will elaborate and describe each of the modules in details.
o Subject registration
o Result submission
o Result calculation
 Fig 2 DFD level1.0
The first module identified in the system is the Registration of the students for the system As the DFD
show a student applies for registration along-with certain registration information which is required by
the system, Process 1.0 of the system checks the validity of information in the form if the Registration
form is found to be valid the information in the form is passed onto the second process where the
validity of registration is determined by checking certain prerequisites for the courses to which student
wishes to be enrolled. After the prerequisite checking the data of the student is stored in a registration
database for use by other processes in the system.

During this process the result of the students is also checked for the previous semester or previously
studied subject to confirm whether the student has passed a certain pre-requisite subject before he can
attempt to enroll for a second course which is based on that prerequisite.
 Fig-3 Detailed DFL
The Second DFD is in fact combination of the last diagram and some new details to the DFD this portion
adds the result submission to the whole process of the system the teacher is the external entity here
which is submitting the result, the result collection process is numbered 3.0, result is submitted by the
teacher in parts, i.e. –separately for assignments, quizzes, tests, sessional and final result. The Collection
process then forward the collected result to the Calculate GP Process, this process calculates the Grade
point for the subject, the result with GP calculated is then moved forward to the update result process
which then makes a change in the result data store by updating the result data for that specific student.
 Fig-4
After the process of result submission the result for all the subjects is taken and the GPA is calculated,
once the GPA is calculated then it is used for further calculation of CGPA and is forwarded to another
process which is numbered 7.0 this process will calculate the CGPA by taking all the results of the
current and previous semesters.
Further detailed diagram i.e.—Detailed DFD can be created using the given level 0 DFD and by
expanding all the processes further.

Overview of Lecture

o Database and Math Relations

o Degree and Cardinality of Relation
o Integrity Constraints
o Transforming conceptual database design into logical database design
o Composite and multi-valued Attributes
o Identifier Dependency

In the previous lecture we discussed relational data model, its components and
properties of a table. We also discussed mathematical and database relations. Now we
will discuss the difference in between database and mathematical relations.
Database and Math Relations
We studied six basic properties of tables or database relations. If we compare these
properties with those of mathematical relations then we find out that properties of
both are the same except the one related to order of the columns. The order of
columns in mathematical relations does matter, whereas in database relations it does
not matter. There will not be any change in either math or database relations if we
change the rows or tuples of any relation. It means that the only difference in between
these two is of order of columns or attributes. A math relation is a Cartesian product
of two sets. So if we change the order of theses two sets then the outcome of both will
not be same. Therefore, the math relation changes by changing the order of columns.
For Example , if there is a set A and a set B if we take Cartesian product of A and B
then we take Cartesian product of B and A they will not be equal , so
AxB=BxA
Rests of the properties between them are same.

Degree of a Relation
We will now discuss the degree of a relation not to be confused with the degree of a
relationship. You would be definitely remembering that the relationship is a link or
association between one or more entity types and we discussed it in E-R data model.
However, the degree of a relation is the number of columns in that relation. For
Example consider the table given below:

Now in this example the relation STUDENT has four columns, so this relation has
degree four.
Cardinality of a Relation
The number of rows present in a relation is called as cardinality of that relation. For
example, in STUDENT table above, the number of rows is five, so the cardinality of
the relation is five.
Relation Keys
The concept of key and all different types of keys is applicable to relations as well.
We will now discuss the concept of foreign key in detail, which will be used quite
frequently in the RDM.
Foreign Key
An attribute of a table B that is primary key in another table A is called as foreign key.
For Example, consider the following two tables EMP and DEPT:
EMP (empId, empName, qual, depId)
DEPT (depId, depName, numEmp)
In this example there are two relations; EMP is having record of employees, whereas
DEPT is having record of different departments of an organization. Now in EMP the
primary key is empId, whereas in DEPT the primary key is depId. The depId which is
primary key of DEPT is also present in EMP so this is a foreign key.
Requirements/Constraints of Foreign Key
Following are some requirements / constraints of foreign key:
There can be more than zero, one or multiple foreign keys in a table, depending on
how many tables a particular table is related with. For example in the above example
the EMP table is related with the DEPT table, so there is one foreign key depId,

whereas DEPT table does not contain any foreign key. Similarly, the EMP table may
also be linked with DESIG table storing designations, in that case EMP will have
another foreign key and alike.

The foreign key attribute, which is present as a primary key in another relation is
called as home relation of foreign key attribute, so in EMP table the depId is foreign
key and its home relation is DEPT.

The foreign key attribute and the one present in another relation as primary key can
have different names, but both must have same domains. In DEPT, EMP example,
both the PK and FK have the same name; they could have been different, it would not
have made any difference however they must have the same domain.

The primary key is represented by underlining with a solid line, whereas foreign key
is underlined by dashed or dotted line.
Primary Key : ___________
Foreign Key : ………………….
Integrity Constraints
Integrity constraints are very important and they play a vital role in relational data
model. They are one of the three components of relational data model. These
constraints are basic form of constraints, so basic that they are a part of the data model,
due to this fact every DBMS that is based on the RDM must support them.
Entity Integrity Constraint:
It states that in a relation no attribute of a primary key (PK) can have null value. If a
PK consists of single attribute, this constraint obviously applies on this attribute, so it
cannot have the Null value. However, if a PK consists of multiple attributes, then
none of the attributes of this PK can have the Null value in any of the instances.
Referential Integrity Constraint:
This constraint is applied to foreign keys. Foreign key is an attribute or attribute
combination of a relation that is the primary key of another relation. This constraint
states that if a foreign key exists in a relation, either the foreign key value must match
the primary key value of some tuple in its home relation or the foreign key value must
be completely null.
Significance of Constraints:
By definition a PK is a minimal identifier that is used to identify tuples uniquely. This
means that no subset of the primary key is sufficient to provide unique identification
of tuples. If we were to allow a null value for any part of the primary key, we would
be demonstrating that not all of the attributes are needed to distinguish between tuples,
which would contradict the definition.
Referential integrity constraint plays a vital role in maintaining the correctness,
validity or integrity of the database. This means that when we have to ensure the
proper enforcement of the referential integrity constraint to ensure the consistency and
correctness of database. How? In the DEPT, EMP example above deptId in EMP is
foreign key; this is being used as a link between the two tables. Now in every instance
of EMP table the attribute deptId will have a value, this value will be used to get the
name and other details of the department in which a particular employee works. If the
value of deptId in EMP is Null in a row or tuple, it means this particular row is not
related with any instance of the DEPT. From real-world scenario it means that this
particular employee (whose is being represented by this row/tuple) has not been
assigned any department or his/her department has not been specified. These were
two possible conditions that are being reflected by a legal value or Null value of the
foreign key attribute. Now consider the situation when referential integrity constrains
is being violated, that is, [Link] contains a value that does not match with any of
the value of [Link]. In this situation, if we want to know the department of an
employee, then ooops, there is no department with this Id, that means, an employee
has been assigned a department that does not exist in the organization or an illegal
department. A wrong situation, not wanted. This is the significance of the integrity
constraints.
Null Constraints:
A Null value of an attribute means that the value of attribute is not yet given, not
defined yet. It can be assigned or defined later however. Through Null constraint we
can monitor whether an attribute can have Null value or not. This is important and we
have to make careful use of this constraint. This constraint is included in the
definition of a table (or an attribute more precisely). By default a non-key attribute
can have Null value, however, if we declare an attribute as Not Null, then this
attribute must be assigned value while entering a record/tuple into the table containing
that attribute. The question is, how do we apply or when do we apply this constraint,
or why and when, on what basis we declare an attribute Null or Not Null. The answer
is, from the system for which we are developing the database; it is generally an
organizational constraint. For example, in a bank, a potential customer has to fill in a
form that may comprise of many entries, but some of them would be necessary to fill
in, like, the residential address, or the national Id card number. There may be some
entries that may be optional, like fax number. When defining a database system for
such a bank, if we create a CLIENT table then we will declare the must attributes as
Not Null, so that a record cannot be successfully entered into the table until at least
those attributes are not specified.
Default Value:
This constraint means that if we do not give any value to any particular attribute, it
will be given a certain (default) value. This constraint is generally used for the
efficiency purpose in the data entry process. Sometimes an attribute has a certain
value that is assigned to it in most of the cases. For example, while entering data for
the students, one attribute holds the current semester of the student. The value of this
attribute is changed as a students passes through different exams or semesters during
its degree. However, when a student is registered for the first time, it is generally
registered in the first semesters. So in the new records the value of current semester
attribute is generally 1. Rather than expecting the person entering the data to enter 1 in
every record, we can place a default value of 1 for this attribute. So the person can
simply skip the attribute and the attribute will automatically assume its default value.
Domain Constraint:
This is an essential constraint that is applied on every attribute, that is, every attribute
has got a domain. Domain means the possible set of values that an attribute can have.
For example, some attributes may have numeric values, like salary, age, marks etc.
Some attributes may possess text or character values, like, name and address. Yet
some others may have the date type value, like date of birth, joining date. Domain
specification limits an attribute the nature of values that it can have. Domain is
specified by associating a data type to an attribute while defining it. Exact data type
name or specification depends on the particular tool that is being used. Domain helps
to maintain the integrity of the data by allowing only legal type of values to an
attribute. For example, if the age attribute has been assigned a numeric data type then
it will not be possible to assign a text or date value to it. As a database designer, this is
your job to assign an appropriate data type to an attribute. Another perspective that
needs to be considered is that the value assigned to attributes should be stored
efficiently. That is, domain should not allocate unnecessary large space for the
attribute. For example, age has to be numeric, but then there are different types of
numeric data types supported by different tools that permit different range of values
and hence require different storage space. Some of more frequently supported
numeric data types include Byte, Integer, and Long Integer. Each of these types
supports different range of numeric values and takes 1, 4 or 8 bytes to store. Now, if
we declare the age attribute as Long Integer, it will definitely serve the purpose, but
we will be allocating unnecessarily large space for each attribute. A Byte type would
have been sufficient for this purpose since you won’t find students or employees of
age more than 255, the upper limit supported by Byte data type. Rather we can further
restrict the domain of an attribute by applying a check constraint on the attribute. For
example, the age attribute although assigned type Byte, still if a person by mistake
enters the age of a student as 200, if this is year then it is not a legal age from today’s
age, yet it is legal from the domain constraint perspective. So we can limit the range
supported by a domain by applying the check constraint by limiting it up to say 30 or
40, whatever is the rule of the organization. At the same time, don’t be too sensitive
about storage efficiency, since attribute domains should be large enough to cater the
future enhancement in the possible set of values. So domain should be a bit larger
than that is required today. In short, domain is also a very useful constraint and we
should use it carefully as per the situation and requirements in the organization.
RDM Components
We have up till now studied following two components of the RDM, which are the
Structure and Entity Integrity Constraints. The third part, that is, the Manipulation
Language will be discussed in length in the coming lectures.
Designing Logical Database
Logical data base design is obtained from conceptual database design. We have seen
that initially we studied the whole system through different means. Then we identified
different entities, their attributes and relationship in between them. Then with the help
of E-R data model we achieved an E-R diagram through different tools available in
this model. This model is semantically rich. This is our conceptual database design.
Then as we had to use relational data model so then we came to implementation phase
for designing logical database through relational data model.
The process of converting conceptual database into logical database involves
transformation of E-R data model into relational data model. We have studied both
the data models, now we will see how to perform this transformation.
Transforming Rules
Following are the transforming rules for converting conceptual database into logical
database design:
The rules are straightforward , which means that we just have to follow the rules
mentioned and the required logical database design would be achieved
There are two ways of transforming first one is manually that is we analyze and
evaluate and then transform. Second is that we have CASE tools available with us
which can automatically convert conceptual database into required logical database
design
If we are using CASE tools for transforming then we must evaluate it as there are
multiple options available and we must make necessary changes if required.
Mapping Entity Types
Following are the rules for mapping entity types:
Each regular entity type (ET) is transformed straightaway into a relation. It means that
whatever entities we had identified they would simply be converted into a relation and
will have the same name of relation as kept earlier.
Primary key of the entity is declared as Primary key of relation and underlined.
Simple attributes of ET are included into the relation
For Example, figure 1 below shows the conversion of a strong entity type into
equivalent relation:

Fig. 1: An example strong entity type

Composite Attributes:
These are those attributes which are a combination of two or more than two attributes.
For address can be a composite attribute as it can have house no, street no, city code
and country , similarly name can be a combination of first and last names. Now in
relational data model composite attributes are treated differently. Since tables can
contain only atomic values composite attributes need to be represented as a separate
relation
For Example in student entity type there is a composite attribute Address, now in E-R
model it can be represented with simple attributes but here in relational data model,
there is a requirement of another relation like following:
 Fig. 2: Transformation of composite attribute
Figure 2 above presents an example of transforming a composite attribute into RDM,
where it is transformed into a table that is linked with the STUDENT table with the
primary key
Multi-valued Attributes
These are those attributes which can have more than one value against an attribute.
For Example a student can have more than one hobby like riding, reading listening to
music etc. So these attributes are treated differently in relational data model.
Following are the rules for multi-valued attributes:-
An Entity type with a multi-valued attribute is transformed into two relations
One contains the entity type and other simple attributes whereas the second one has
the multi-valued attribute. In this way only single atomic value is stored against every
attribute
The Primary key of the second relation is the primary key of first relation and the
attribute value itself. So in the second relation the primary key is the combination of
two attributes.

All values are accessed through reference of the primary key that also serves as
foreign key.
Fig. 3: Transformation of multi-valued attribute
stHobby
Conclusion
In this lecture we have studied the difference between mathematical and database
relations. The concepts of foreign key and especially the integrity constraints are very
important and are basic for every database. Then how a conceptual database is
transformed into logical database and in our case it is relational data model as it is the
most widely used. We have also studied certain transforming rules for converting E-R
data model into relational data model. Some other rule for this transformation will be
studied in the coming lectures
Reading Material

“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation”

Overview of Next Topics:

o Mapping Relationships
o Binary Relationships
o Unary Relationships
o Data Manipulation Languages

In the previous lecture we discussed the integrity constraints. How conceptual

database is converted into logical database design, composite and multi-valued
attributes. In this lecture we will discuss different mapping relationships.
Mapping Relationships
We have up till now converted an entity type and its attributes into RDM. Before
establishing any relationship in between different relations, it is must to study the
cardinality and degree of the relationship. There is a difference in between relation
and relationship. Relation is a structure, which is obtained by converting an entity
type in E-R model into a relation, whereas a relationship is in between two relations
of relational data model. Relationships in relational data model are mapped according
to their degree and cardinalities. It means before establishing a relationship there
cardinality and degree is important.

Binary Relationships
Binary relationships are those, which are established between two entity type.
Following are the three types of cardinalities for binary relationships:

o One to One
o One to Many
o Many to Many

In the following treatment in each of these situations is discussed.

One to Many:
In this type of cardinality one instance of a relation or entity type is mapped with
many instances of second entity type, and inversely one instance of second entity type
is mapped with one instance of first entity type. The participating entity types will be
transformed into relations as has been already discussed. The relationship in this
particular case will be implemented by placing the PK of the entity type (or
corresponding relation) against one side of relationship will be included in the entity
type (or corresponding relation) on the many side of the relationship as foreign key
(FK). By declaring the PK-FK link between the two relations the referential integrity
constraint is implemented automatically, which means that value of foreign key is
either null or matches with its value in the home relation.
For Example, consider the binary relationship given in the figure 1 involving two
entity types PROJET and EMPLOYEE. Now there is a one to many relationships
between these two. On any one project many employees can work and one employee
can work on only one project.
Fig. 1: A one to many relationship

The two participating entity types are transformed into relations and the relationship is
implemented by including the PK of PROJECT (prId) into the EMPLOYEE as FK.
So the transformation will be:
PROJECT (prId, prDura, prCost)
EMPLOYEE (empId, empName, empSal, prId)
The PK of the PROJECT has been included in EMPLOYEE as FK; both keys do not
need to have same name, but they must have the same domain.

Minimum Cardinality:

This is a very important point, as minimum cardinality on one side needs special
attention. Like in previous example an employee cannot exist if project is not assigned.
So, in that case the minimum cardinality has to be one. On the other hand if an
instance of EMPLOYEE can exist without being linked with an instance of the
PROJECT then the minimum cardinality has to be zero. If the minimum cardinality is
zero, then the FK is defined as normal and it can have the Null value, on the other
hand if it is one then we have to declare the FK attribute(s) as Not Null. The Not Null
constraint makes it a must to enter the value in the attribute(s) whereas the FK
constraint will enforce the value to be a legal one. So you have to see the minimum
cardinality while implementing a one to many relationship.

Many to Many Relationship:

In this type of relationship one instance of first entity can be mapped with many
instances of second entity. Similarly one instance of second entity can be mapped
with many instances of first entity type. In many to many relationship a third table is
created for the relationship, which is also called as associative entity type. Generally,
PROJECT(
prDuration, prCost, prId)
EMPLOYEE(
empNameme
empSal
empId )

the primary keys of the participating entity types are used as primary key of the third
table.
For Example, there are two entity types BOOK and STD (student). Now many
students can borrow a book and similarly many books can be issued to a student, so in
this manner there is a many to many relationship. Now there would be a third relation
as well which will have its primary key after combining primary keys of BOOK and
STD. We have named that as transaction TRANS. Following are the attributes of
these relations: -
o STD (stId, sName, sFname)
o BOOK (bkId, bkTitle, bkAuth)
o TRANS (stId,bkId, isDate,rtDate)
Now here the third relation TRANS has four attributes first two are the primary keys
of two entities whereas the last two are issue date and return date.

One to One Relationship:

This is a special form of one to many relationship, in which one instance of first entity
type is mapped with one instance of second entity type and also the other way round.
In this relationship primary key of one entity type has to be included on other as
foreign key. Normally primary key of compulsory side is included in the optional side.
For example, there are two entities STD and STAPPLE (student application for
scholarship). Now the relationship from STD to STAPPLE is optional whereas
STAPPLE to STD is compulsory. That means every instance of STAPPLE must be
related with one instance of STD, whereas it is not a must for an instance of STD to
be related to an instance of STAPPLE, however, if it is related then it will be related
to one instance of STAPPLE, that is, one student can give just one scholarship
application. This relationship is shown in the figure below:

Fig. 2: A one to one relationship

While transforming, two relations will be created, one for STD and HOBBY each. For
relationship PK of either one can be included in the other, it will work. But preferably,
we should include the PK of STD in HOBBY as FK with Not Null constraint imposed
on it.
STD (stId, stName)
STAPPLE (scId, scAmount, stId)
The advantage of including the PK of STD in STAPPLE as FK is that any instance of
STAPPLE will definitely have a value in the FK attribute, that is, stId. Whereas if we
do other way round; we include the PK of STAPPLE in STD as FK, then since the
relationship is optional from STD side, the instances of STD may have Null value in
the FK attribute (scId), causing the wastage of storage. More the number records with
Null value more wastage.
Unary Relationship:
These are the relationships, which involve a single entity. These are also called
recursive relationships. Unary relationships may have one to one, one to many and
many to many cardinalities. In unary one to one and one to may relationships, the PK
of same entity type is used as foreign key in the same relation and obviously with the
different name since same attribute name cannot be used in the same table. The

In many to many relationships another relation is created with composite key. For
example there is an entity type PART may have many to many recursive relationships,
meaning one part consists of many parts and one part may be used in many parts. So
in this case this is a many to many relationship. The treatment of such a relationship is
shown in the figure below:
PART
MANAGES
partName partId
PART (partId, partName)
SUB-PART (partId, component)
Fig. 4: Recursive many to many relationship
and transformation
Super / Subtype Relationship:
Separate relations are created for each super type and subtypes. It means if there is
one super type and there are three subtypes, so then four relations are to be created.
After creating these relations then attributes are assigned. Common attributes are
assigned to super type and specialized attributes are assigned to concerned subtypes.
Primary key of super type is included in all relations that work for both link and
identity. Now to link the super type with concerned subtype there is a requirement of
descriptive attribute, which is called as discriminator. It is used to identify which
subtype is to be linked.
For Example, there is an entity type EMP which is a super type,
now there are three subtypes, which are salaried, hourly and consultants. So now there
is a requirement of a determinant, which can identify that which subtypes to be
consulted, so with empId a special character can be added which can be used to
identify the concerned subtype.
Summary of Mapping E-R Diagram to Relational DM:
We have up till now studied that how conceptual database design is converted into
logical database. E-R data model is semantically rich and it has number of constructs
for representing the whole system. Conceptual database is free of any data model,
whereas logical database the required data model is chosen; in our case it is relational
data model. First we identified the entity types, weak and strong entity types. Then we
converted those entities into relations. After converting entities into relations then
attributes are identified, different types of attributes are identified. Then relationships
were made, in which cardinality and degree was identified. In ternary relationship,
where three entities are involved, in this as well another relation is created to establish
relationship among them. Then finally we had studied the super and sub types in
which primary key of super type was used for both identity and link.
Data Manipulation Languages
Thisis the third component of relational data model. We have studied structure,
which is the relation, integrity constraints both referential and entity integrity
constraint. Data manipulation languages are used to carry out different operations like
insertion, deletion and updationof data in database. Following are the two types of languages:

147
Procedural Languages:
These are those languages in which what to do and how to do on the database is
required. It means whatever operation is to be done on the database that has to be told
that how to perform.
Non -Procedural Languages:
These are those languages in which only what to do is required, rest how to do is done
by the manipulation language itself.
Structured query language (SQL) is the most widely language used for manipulation
of data. But we will first study Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus, which are
procedural and non – procedural respectively.
Relational Algebra
Following are few major properties of relational algebra:
o Relational algebra operations work on one or more relations to define
another relation leaving the original intact. It means that the input for
relational algebra can be one or more relations and the output would be
another relation, but the original participating relations will remain
unchanged and intact. Both operands and results are relations, so output from
one operation can become input to another operation. It means that the input
and output both are relations so they can be used iteratively in different
requirements.
o Allows expressions to be nested, just as in arithmetic. This property is called
closure.
o There are five basic operations in relational algebra: Selection, Projection,
Cartesian product, Union, and Set Difference.
o These perform most of the data retrieval operations needed.
o It also has Join, Intersection, and Division operations, which can be expressed
in terms of 5 basic operations.
Exercise:
- Consider the example given in Ricardo book on page 216 and transform it into
relational data model. Make any necessary assumptions if required.

148
Lecture No. 17
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation”
written by Catherine Ricardo, Maxwell Macmillan.
Chapter 6
Overview of Lecture:
o Five Basic Operators of Relational Algebra
o Join Operation
In the previous lecture we discussed about the transformation of conceptual database
design into relational database. In E-R data model we had number of constructs but in
relational data model it was only a relation or a table. We started discussion on data
manipulation languages (DML) of relational data model (SDM). We will now study
in detail the different operators being used in relational algebra.
The relational algebra is a procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations
that take one or two relations as input and produce a new relation as their result. There
are five basic operations of relational algebra. They are broadly divided into two
categories:
Unary Operations:
These are those operations, which involve only one relation or table. These are Select
and Project
Binary Operations:
These are those operations, which involve pairs of relations and are, therefore called
as binary operations. The input for these operations is two relations and they produce
a new relation without changing the original relations. These operations are:
o Union

149
o Set Difference
o Cartesian Product
The Select Operation:
The select operation is performed to select certain rows or tuples of a table, so it
performs its action on the table horizontally. The tuples are selected through this
operation using a predicate or condition. This command works on a single table and
takes rows that meet a specified condition, copying them into a new table. Lower
Greek letter sigma (σ σσ σ) is used to denote the selection. The predicate appears as
subscript to σ. The argument relation is given in parenthesis following theσ. As a
result of this operation a new table is formed, without changing the original table. As
a result of this operation all the attributes of the resulting table are same, which means
that degree of the new and old tables are same. Only selected rows / tuples are picked
up by the given condition. While processing a selection all the tuples of a table are
looked up and those tuples, which match a particular condition, are picked up for the
new table. The degree of the resulting relation will be the same as of the relation itself.
| σ | = | r(R) |
The select operation is commutative, which is as under: -
σ
c1
(σ
c2
(R)) = σ
c2
(σ
c1
(R))
If a condition 2 (c2) is applied on a relation R and then c1 is applied, the resulting
table would be equivalent even if this condition is reversed that is first c1 is applied
and then c2 is applied.
For example there is a table STUDENT with five attributes.
STUDENT
stId stName stAdr prName curSem
S1020 Sohail Dar H#14, F/8-4,Islamabad. MCS 4
S1038 Shoaib Ali H#23, G/9-1,Islamabad BCS 3
S1015 Tahira Ejaz H#99, Lala Rukh Wah. MCS 5
S1018 Arif Zia H#10, E-8, Islamabad. BIT 5

150
Fig. 1: An example STDUDENT table
The following is an example of select operation on the table STUDENT:
σ
Curr_Sem > 3
(STUDENT)
The components of the select operations are clear from the above example; σ is the
symbol being used (operato), “curr_sem > 3” written in the subscript is the predicate
and STUDENT given in parentheses is the table name. The resulting relation of this
command would contain record of those students whose semester is greater than three
as under:
σ
Curr_Sem > 3
(STUDENT)
stId stName stAdr prName curSem
S1020 Sohail Dar H#14, F/8-4,Islamabad. MCS 4
S1015 Tahira Ejaz H#99, Lala Rukh Wah. MCS 5
S1018 Arif Zia H#10, E-8, Islamabad. BIT 5
Fig. 2: Output relation of a select operation
In selection operation the comparison operators like <, >, =, <=, >=, <> can be used in
the predicate. Similarly, we can also combine several simple predicates into a larger
predicate using the connectives and(∧) and or (∨). Some other examples of select
operation on the STUDENT table are given below:
σ
stId = ‘S1015’
(STUDENT)
σ
prName <> ‘MCS’
(STUDENT)
The Project Operator
The Select operation works horizontally on the table on the other hand the Project
operator operates on a single table vertically, that is, it produces a vertical subset of
the table, extracting the values of specified columns, eliminating duplicates, and
placing the values in a new table. It is unary operation that returns its argument
relation, with certain attributes left out. Since relation is a set any duplicate rows are
eliminated. Projection is denoted by a Greek letter (∏). While using this operator all
the rows of selected attributes of a relation are part of new relation. For example
consider a relation FACULTY with five attributes and certain number of rows.

151
FACULTY
FacId facName Dept Salary Rank
F2345 Usman CSE 21000 lecturer
F3456 Tahir CSE 23000 Asst Prof
F4567 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asst Prof
F5678 Samad MATH 32000 Professor
Fig. 3: An example FACULY table
If we apply the projection operator on the table for the following commands all the
rows of selected attributes will be shown, for example:
∏ ∏∏ ∏
FacId, Salary
(FACULTY)
FacId Salary
F2345 21000
F3456 23000
F4567 27000
F5678 32000
Fig. 4: Output relation of a project operation on table of figure 3
Some other examples of project operation on the same table can be:
∏Fname, Rank (Faculty)
∏Facid, Salary,Rank (Faculty)

152
Composition of Relational Operators:
The relational operators like select and project can also be used in nested forms
iteratively. As the result of an operation is a relation so this result can be used as an
input for other operation. For Example if we want the names of faculty members
along with departments, who are assistant professors then we have to perform both the
select and project operations on the FACULTY table of figure 3. First selection
operator is applied for selecting the associate professors, the operation outputs a
relation that is given as input to the projection operation for the required attributes.
∏ ∏∏ ∏
facName, dept
(σ
rank=’Asst Prof’
(FACULTY))
The output of this command will be
facName Dept
Tahir CSE
Ayesha ENG
Fig. 5: Output relation of nested operations’ command
We have to be careful about the nested command sequence. For example in the above
nested operations example, if we change the sequence of operations and bring the
projection first then the relation provided to select operation as input will not have the
attribute of rank and so then selection operator can’t be applied, so there would be an
error. So although the sequence can be changed, but the required attributes should be
there either for selection or projection.
The Union Operation:
We will now study the binary operations, which are also called as set operations. The
first requirement for union operator is that the both the relations should be union
compatible. It means that relations must meet the following two conditions:
• Both the relations should be of same degree, which means that the number of
attributes in both relations should be exactly same
• The domains of corresponding attributes in both the relations should be same.
Corresponding attributes means first attributes of both relations, then second and so
on.
It is denoted by U. If R and S are two relations, which are union compatible, if we
take union of these two relations then the resulting relation would be the set of tuples
either in R or S or both. Since it is set so there are no duplicate tuples. The union
operator is commutative which means: -

153
RUS=SUR
For Example there are two relations COURSE1 and COURSE2 denoting the two
tables storing the courses being offered at different campuses of an institute? Now if
we want to know exactly what courses are being offered at both the campuses then we
will take the union of two tables:
COURSE1
crId progId credHrs courseTitle
C2345 P1245 3 Operating Sytems
C3456 P1245 4 Database Systems
C4567 P9873 4 Financial Management
C5678 P9873 3 Money & Capital Market
COURSE2
crId progId credHrs courseTitle
C4567 P9873 4 Financial Management
C8944 P4567 4 Electronics
COURSE1 U COURSE2
crId progId credHrs courseTitle
C2345 P1245 3 Operating Sytems
C3456 P1245 4 Database Systems
C4567 P9873 4 Financial Management
C5678 P9873 3 Money & Capital Market
C8944 P4567 4 Electronics
Fig. 5: Two tables and output of union operation on those tables
So in the union of above two courses there are no repeated tuples and they are union
compatible as well.

154
The Intersection Operation:
The intersection operation also has the requirement that both the relations should be
union compatible, which means they are of same degree and same domains. It is
represented by∩. If R and S are two relations and we take intersection of these two
relations then the resulting relation would be the set of tuples, which are in both R and
S. Just like union intersection is also commutative.
R ∩ ∩∩ ∩S = S ∩ ∩∩ ∩R
For Example, if we take intersection of COURSE1 and COURSE2 of figure 5 then
the resulting relation would be set of tuples, which are common in both.
COURSE1 ∩ ∩∩ ∩COURSE2
crId progId credHrs courseTitle
C4567 P9873 4 Financial
Management
Fig. 6: Output of intersection operation on COURSE1 and COURSE 2 tables of figure
5
The union and intersection operators are used less as compared to selection and
projection operators.
The Set Difference Operator:
If R and S are two relations which are union compatible then difference of these two
relations will be set of tuples that appear in R but do not appear in S. It is denoted by
(-) for example if we apply difference operator on Course1 and Course2 then the
resulting relation would be as under:
COURSE1 – COURSE2
CID ProgID Cred_Hrs CourseTitle
C2345 P1245 3 Operating Sytems
C3456 P1245 4 Database Systems
C5678 P9873 3 Money & Capital Market
Fig. 7: Output of difference operation on COURSE1 and COURSE 2 tables of figure
5
Cartesian product:

155
The Cartesian product needs not to be union compatible. It means they can be of
different degree. It is denoted by X. suppose there is a relation R with attributes (A1,
A2,...An) and S with attributes (B1, B2……Bn). The Cartesian product will be:
RXS
The resulting relation will be containing all the attributes of R and all of S. Moreover,
all the rows of R will be merged with all the rows of S. So if there are m attributes and
C rows in R and n attributes and D rows in S then the relations R x S will contain m +
n columns and C * D rows. It is also called as cross product. The Cartesian product is
also commutative and associative. For Example there are two relations COURSE and
STUEDNT
COURSE STUDENT
crId courseTitle stId
stName
C3456 Database Systems S101 Ali Tahir
C4567 Financial Management S103 Farah Hasan
C5678 Money & Capital Market
COURSE X STUDENT
crId courseTitle stId stName
C3456 Database Systems S101 Ali Tahir
C4567 Financial Management S101 AliTahr
C5678 Money & Capital Market S101 Ali Tahir
C3456 Database Systems S103 Farah Hasan
C4567 Financial Management S103 Farah Hasan
C5678 Money & Capital Market S103 Farah Hasan
Fig. 7: Input tables and output of Cartesian product
Join Operation:
Join is a special form of cross product of two tables. In Cartesian product we join a
tuple of one table with the tuples of the second table. But in join there is a special
requirement of relationship between tuples. For example if there is a relation
STUDENT and a relation BOOK then it may be required to know that how many
books have been issued to any particular student. Now in this case the primary key of
STUDENT that is stId is a foreign key in BOOK table through which the join can be
made. We will discuss in detail the different types of joins in our next lecture.

156
In this lecture we discussed different types of relational algebra operations. We will
continue our discussion in the next lecture.

157
Overview of Lecture:
o Types of Joins

From this lecture we will study the different types of joins,

which are very important and are used extensively in relational calculus.
Types of Joins
Join is a special form of cross product of two tables. It is a binary operation that
allows combining certain selections and a Cartesian product into one operation. The
join operation forms a Cartesian product of its two arguments, performs a selection
forcing equality on those attributes that appear in both relation schemas, and finally
removes duplicate attributes. Following are the different types of joins:-
1. Theta Join
2. Equi Join
3. Semi Join
4. Natural Join
5. Outer Joins
We will now discuss them one by one
Theta Join:
In theta join we apply the condition on input relation(s) and then only those selected
rows are used in the cross product to be merged and included in the output. It means
that in normal cross product all the rows of one relation are mapped/merged with all
the rows of second relation, but here only selected rows of a relation are made cross
product with second relation. It is denoted as under: -
RXӨS

If R and S are two relations then Ө is the condition, which is applied for select
operation on one relation and then only selected rows are cross product with all the
rows of second relation. For Example there are two relations of FACULTY and
COURSE, now we will first apply select operation on the FACULTY relation for
selection certain specific rows then these rows will have across product with
COURSE relation, so this is the difference in between cross product and theta join.
We will now see first both the relation their different attributes and then finally the
cross product after carrying out select operation on relation.
From this example the difference in between cross product and theta join becomes
clear.
FACULTY
facId facName dept salary rank
F234 Usman CSE 21000 lecturer
F235 Tahir CSE 23000 Asso Prof
F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso Prof
F237 Samad ENG 32000 Professor
COURSE
crCode crTitle fId
C3456 Database Systems F234
C3457 Financial Management
C3458 Money & Capital Market F236
C3459 Introduction to Accounting F237
(σ
rank = ‘Asso Prof’
(FACULTY)) X COURSE
facId facName dept salary rank crCode crTitle fId
F235 Tahir CSE 23000 Asso
Prof
C3456 Database Systems F234
F235 Tahir CSE 23000 Asso
Prof
C3457 Financial Management
F235 Tahir CSE 23000 Asso
Prof
C3458 Money & Capital Market F236
F235 Tahir CSE 23000 Asso
Prof
C3459 Introduction to
Accounting
F237
F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso
Prof
C3456 Database Systems F234
F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso
Prof
C3457 Financial Management
F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso
Prof
C3458 Money & Capital Market F236

F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso

Prof
C3459 Introduction to
Accounting
F237
Fig. 1: Two tables with an example of theta join
In this example after fulfilling the select condition of Associate professor on faculty relation
thenit is cross product with course relation
Equi–Join:
This is the most used type of join. In equi–join rows are joined on the basis of values
of acommon attribute between the two relations. It means relations are joined on the
basis of common attributes between them; which are meaningful. This means on the
basis of primary key, which is a foreign key in another relation. Rows having the
same value in the common attributes are joined. Common attributes appear twice in
the output. It means that the attributes, which are common in both relations, appear
twice, but only those rows, which are selected. Common attribute with the same name
is qualified with the relation name in the output. It means that if primary and foreign
keys of two relations are having the same names and if we take the equi – join of both
then in the output relation the relation name will precede the attribute name. For
Example, if we take the equi – join of faculty and course relations then the output
would be as under: -
FACULTY
FACULTY..facId=[Link]
COURSE
facId facName dept salary rank crCode crTitle fID
F234 Usman CSE 21000 lecturer C3456 Database Systems F234
F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso Prof C3458 Money & Capital Market F236
F237 Samad ENG 32000 Professor C3459 Introduction to Accounting F237
Fig. 2: Equi-join on tables of figure 1
In the above example the name of common attribute between the two tables is
different, that is, it is facId in FACULTY and fId in COURSE, so it is not required to
qualify; however there is no harm doing it still. Now in this example after taking
equi–join only those tuples are selected in the output whose values are common in
both the relations.
Natural Join:
This is the most common and general form of join. If we simply say join, it means the
natural join. It is same as equi–join but the difference is that in natural join, the
common attribute appears only once. Now, it does not matter which common attribute
should be part of the output relation as the values in both are same. For Example if we
take the natural join of faculty and course the output would be as under: -

160
FACULTY facId, fId COURSE
facId facName dept salary rank crCode crTitle
F234 Usman CSE 21000 Lecturer C3456 Database Systems
F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso Prof C3458 Money & Capital Market
F237 Samad ENG 32000 Professor C3459 Introduction to Accounting
Fig. 4: Natural join of FACULTY and COURSE tables of figure 1
In this example the common attribute appears only once, rest the behavior is same.
Following are the different types of natural join:-
Left Outer Join:
In left outer join all the tuples of left relation remain part of the output. The tuples that
have a matching tuple in the second relation do have the corresponding tuple from the
second relation. However, for the tuples of the left relation, which do not have a
matching record in the right tuple have Null values against the attributes of the right
relation. The example is given in figure 5 below. It can be described in another way.
Left outer join is the equi-join plus the non matching rows of the left side relation
having Null against the attributes of right side relation.
Right Outer Join:
In right outer join all the tuples of right relation remain part of the output relation,
whereas on the left side the tuples, which do not match with the right relation, are left
as null. It means that right outer join will always have all the tuples of right relation
and those tuples of left relation which are not matched are left as Null.
COURSE STUDENT
bkId bkTitile stId stId
stName
B10001 Intro to Database Systems S104 S101 Ali Tahir
B10002 Programming Fundamentals S101 S103 Farah Hasan
B10003 Intro Data Structures S101 S104 Farah Naz
B10004 Modern Operating Systems S103 S106 Asmat Dar
B10005 Computer Architecture S107 Liaqat Ali
B10006 Advanced Networks S104
COURSE left outer join STUDENT
bkId bkTitile [Link] [Link]
stName
B10001 Intro to Database Systems S104 S104 Farah Naz
B10002 Programming
Fundamentals
S101 S101 Ali Tahir
B10003 Intro Data Structures S101 S101 Ali Tahir
B10004 Modern Operating
Systems
S103 S103 Farah Hasan
B10006 Advanced Networks S104 S104 Farah Naz
B10005 Computer Architecture Null Null Null

COURSE right outer join STUDENT

bkId bkTitile [Link] [Link]
stName
B10001 Intro to Database Systems S104 S104 Farah Naz
B10002 Programming
Fundamentals
S101 S101 Ali Tahir
B10003 Intro Data Structures S101 S101 Ali Tahir
B10004 Modern Operating Systems S103 S103 Farah Hasan
B10006 Advanced Networks S104 S104 Farah Naz
Null Null Null S106 Asmat Dar
Null Null Null S107 Liaqat Ali
Fig. 5: Input tables and left outer join and right outer join
Full Outer Join:
In outer join all the tuples of left and right relations are part of the output. It means
that all those tuples of left relation which are not matched with right relation are left
as Null. Similarly, all those tuples of right relation which are not matched with left
relation are left as Null.
COURSE outer join STUDENT
bkId bkTitile [Link] [Link]
stName
B10001 Intro to Database Systems S104 S104 Farah Naz
B10002 Programming
Fundamentals
S101 S101 Ali Tahir
B10003 Intro Data Structures S101 S101 Ali Tahir
B10004 Modern Operating Systems S103 S103 Farah Hasan
B10006 Advanced Networks S104 S104 Farah Naz
B10005 Computer Architecture Null Null Null
Null Null Null S106 Asmat Dar
Null Null Null S107 Liaqat Ali
Fig. 6: outer join operation on tables of figure 5
Semi Join:
In semi join, first we take the natural join of two relations then we project the
attributes of first table only. So after join and matching the common attribute of both
relations only attributes of first relation are projected. For Example if we take the
semi join of two relations faculty and course then the resulting relation would be as
under:-
FACULTY COURSE

162
facId facName Dept Salary Rank
F234 Usman CSE 21000 lecturer
F236 Ayesha ENG 27000 Asso Prof
F237 Samad ENG 32000 Professor
Fig. 7: Semi-join operation on tables of figure 1
Now the resulting relation has attributes of first relation only after taking the natural
join of both relations.
Relational Calculus
Relational Calculus is a nonprocedural formal relational data manipulation language
in which the user simply specifies what data should be retrieved, but not how to
retrieve it. It is an alternative standard for relational data manipulation languages. The
relational calculus is not related to the familiar differential and integral calculus in
mathematics, but takes its name from a branch of symbolic logic called the predicate
calculus. It has two following forms: -
• Tuple Oriented Relational Calculus
• Domain Oriented Relational Calculus
Tuple Oriented Relational Calculus:
In tuple oriented relational calculus we are interested primarily in finding relation
tuples for which a predicate is true. To do so we need tuple variables. A tuple variable
is a variable that takes on only the tuples of some relation or relations as its range of
values. It actually corresponds to a mathematical domain. We specify the range of a
tuple variable by a statement such as: -
RANGE OF S IS STUDENT
Here, S is the tuple variable and STUDENT is the range, so that S always represents a
tuple of STUDENT. It is expressed as
{S | P (S)}
We will read it as find the set of all tuples S such that P(S) is true, where P implies the
predicate condition now suppose range of R is STUDENT
{R | [Link] > 50}
We will say like find the stuId, stuName, majors etc of all students having more than
50 credits.
Domain Oriented Relational Calculus:
Database Normalization:
Normalization is basically; a process of efficiently and correctly organizing data in databases. It
eliminates data redundancy, ensures consistency and data dependency in databases. Normalization is
recommended in all database design process, because normalized design makes the maintenance of
database much easier. While carrying out the process of normalization, it should be applied on each
table of database. It is performed after the logical database design. This process is also being followed
informally during conceptual database design as well. There are four types of anomalies, which are of
concerned, redundancy, insertion, deletion and updation.

Normalization Process:

There are different forms or levels of normalization. They are called as first, second
third and higher forms so on. Each normalized form has certain requirements or conditions,
which must be fulfilled. If a table or relation fulfills any particular form then it is said to be in that
normal form. The process is applied on each relation of the database. The minimum
form in which all the tables are in is called the normal form of entire database. The
main objective of normalization is to place the database in highest form of normalization.
Functional Dependency (FD)
Normalization is based on the concept of functional dependency. A functional
dependency is a type of relationship between attributes/key.

Definition of Functional Dependency:

If A and B are attributes or sets of attributes of relation/table R, we say that B is
functionally dependent on A if each value of A in R has associated with it exactly one
value of B in R.
We write this as A  B, read as “A functionally determines B” or “ A determines B”.
This does not mean that A causes B or that the value of B can be calculated from the
value of A by a formula, although sometimes that is the case. It simply means that if
we know the value of A and we examine the table of relation R, we will find only one
value of B in all the rows that have the given value of A at any one time. Thus then
the two rows have the same A value, they must also have the same B value. However,
for a given B value, there may be several different A values. When a functional
dependency exits, Attribute of set of attributes on left side are called determinant
and on right are called dependents. If there is a relation R with attributes (a,b,c,d,e)
a  b,c,d..
d  e..
For Example, there is a relation of student with following attributes. We will establish
the functional dependency of different attributes: -
STD (stId,stName,stAdr,proName,credits)
stId  stName,stAdr,prName,credits
proName  credits
Now in this example if we know the stID we can tell the complete information about
that student. Similarly, if we know the prName, we can tell the credit hours for any
particular subject.
Functional Dependencies and Some Keys:
We can determine the keys of a relation after seeing its functional dependencies. The
determinant of functional dependency that determines all attributes of that table is the
super key. Super key is an attribute or a set of attributes that identifies an entity
uniquely. In a table, a super key is any column or set of columns whose values can be
used to distinguish one row from another row. A minimal super key is the candidate key,
so, if a determinant of functional dependency determines all attributes of that relation
then it is definitely a super key and if there is no other functional dependency whereas
a subset of this determinant is a super key then it is a candidate key. So, the functional
dependencies help to identify key attributes. We have an example as under: -
EMP (EId,eName,eAdr,eDept,projId,projSal….)
EId  (eName,eAdr,eDept)
EId,proId  projSal
Now in this example in the employee relation eId is the key from which we can
uniquely determine the employee’s name address and department. Similarly, if we
know the employee ID and project ID we can find the project salary as well. So, FDs
help in finding out the keys and their relation as well.

Inference Rules:
Rules of Inference for functional dependencies, called inference axioms or Armstrong
axioms, after their developer, can be used to find all the FDs logically implied by a set
of FDs. These rules are sound, meaning that they are an immediate consequence of
the definition of Functional Dependency and that any FD that can be derived from a
given set of FDs using them is true. They are also complete, meaning they can be used
to derive every valid reference about dependencies. Let A, B, C and D be subsets of
attributes of a relation R then following are the different inference rules that exists: -

Reflexivity Property:
If B is a subset of A, then A  B. This also implies that A  A always holds.
Functional dependencies of this type are called trivial dependencies. For Example,
StName, stAdr  stName
stName  stName

Augmentation Property:
If we have A  B then AC  BC For Example,
If stId  stName then
StId, stAdr  stName, stadr

Transitivity Property:

If A  B and B  C, then A  C.
If stId  proName and proName  credits then
stId  credits as wel.

Additivity or Union:

If A  B and A  C, then A  BC
If empId  eName and empId  qualification Then we can rewrite it as
empId  qualification as well.

Projectivity or Decomposition Property

If A  BC then A  B and A  C
If empId  eName, qual Then we can re-write it as
empId  eName and empID  qual

Pseudo Transitivity:

If A  B and CB  D, then AC  D
If stID  stName and stName, fName  stAdr Then we can write it as
StId,fName  stAdr

Different Normal Forms: (1st , 2ND, 3rd , BCN, 4th and 5th Normal Form)

Normalization is basically; a process of efficiently organizing data in a database.

There are two goals of the normalization process: eliminate redundant data (for
example, storing the same data in more than one table duplication) and ensure data dependencies
make sense (only storing related data in a table). Both of these are worthy goals as
they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and ensure that data is logically
stored in databases. We will now study the first normal form

First Normal Form: (1NF)

A relation/table is in first normal form if and only if every attribute is single valued for each row or
tuple. This means that each attribute in each row, or each cell of the table, contains
only one value atomic value. No repeating fields or groups are allowed. An alternative way of
describing first normal form is to say that the domains of attributes of a relation are
atomic, that is they consist of single units that cannot be broken down further. There
is no multivalued (repeating group) in the relation multiple values create problems in
performing operations like selection or join operations. For Example, there is a relation of Student.

Now in this table there is no unique value for every tuple, like for S1015 there are two
values for bookId. So, to bring it in the first normal form.

Now this table is in first normal form and for every tuple there is a unique value in each cell.

Second Normal Form: (2NF)

A relation is in second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in first normal form and
all the non-key attributes are Fully Functionally Dependent on the key attributes (Super key, Pk). Clearly,
if a relation is in 1NF and the key consists of a single attribute, the relation is
automatically in 2NF. The only time we have to be concerned about 2NF is when the
key is composite. Second Normal Form (2NF) addresses the concept of removing
duplicative data. It removes subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and
place them in separate tables. It creates relationships between these new tables and
their predecessors through the use of foreign keys.

Normalization is the process of Structuring Relational Database schema such that most
ambiguity is removed. The stages of normalization are referred to as normal forms
and progress from the least restrictive (First Normal Form) through the most
restrictive (Fifth Normal Form). Generally, most database designers do not attempt to
implement anything higher than Third Normal Form or Boyce-Codd Normal Form.
In the previous section we have discussed functional dependency, the inference rules
and the different normal forms. From this lecture we will study in length the second
and third normal forms.
Second Normal Form
A relation is in second normal form if and only if it is in first normal form and all
Nonkey attributes are fully functionally dependent on the key attribute. Clearly, if a relation is
in 1NF and the key consists of a single attribute; the relation is automatically in 2NF.
The only time we have to be concerned 2NF is when the key is composite. A relation
that is not in 2NF exhibits the update, insertion and deletion anomalies we will now
see it with an example. Consider the following relation for understanding of 2 nd NF.
CLASS (crId, stId, stName, facId, room, grade, credits)

crId, stId  stName, facId, room, grade

stId  stName
crId  facId, room, credits

Now in this relation the key is course ID and student ID. The requirement of 2NF is
that all non-key attributes should be fully dependent on the key attribute there should be no
partial dependency of the attributes. But in this relation student ID is dependent on
student name and similarly course ID is partially dependent on faculty ID and room,
so, it is not in second normal form. At this level of normalization, each column in a
table that is not a determiner of the contents of another column must itself be a
function of the other columns in the table. For example, in a table with three columns
containing customer ID, product sold, and price of the product when sold, the price
would be a function of the customer ID (entitled to a discount) and the specific
product.

If a relation is not in 2NF then there are some anomalies, which are as under:

• Redundancy Anomaly
• Insertion Anomaly
• Deletion Anomaly
• Updation Anomaly

The general requirements of 2NF are:-

• Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them
in separate rows and tables.
• Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through
the use of foreign keys.
Consider the following table which has the Anomalies:-

Now the first thing is that the table is in 1NF because there are no duplicate values in
any tuple and all cells contain atomic value. The first thing is the redundancy/duplicate values. Like in
this table of CLASS the course ID C3456 is being repeated for Faculty ID F2345 and
similarly, the room no 104 is being repeated twice. Second is the insertion anomaly.
Suppose we want to insert a course in the table, but this course has not been registered
to any student. But we cannot enter the student ID, because no student has registered
this course yet. So we can also not insert this course into database. This is called as insertion
anomaly which is wrong state of database. Next is the deletion anomaly. Suppose
there is a course which has been enrolled by one student only. Now due to some
reason, we want to delete the record of student. But here the information about the
course will also be deleted, so in this way this is the incorrect state of database in
which we want to delete the information about the student record but along with
this the course information, faculty information has also been deleted. So, it is not reflecting the actual
system. Now the next is updation anomaly. Suppose a course has been registered by
50 students and now we want to change the class rooms of all the students. So, in this
case we will have to change the records of all the 50 students. So, this is again a
deletion/updation anomaly. The process for transforming a 1NF table to 2NF is:
• Identify any determinants other than the composite key, and the columns they
determine.
• Create and name a new table for each determinant and the unique columns it
determines.
• Move the determined columns from the original table to the new table. The
determinate becomes the primary key of the new table.
• Delete the columns you just moved from the original table except for the
determinant which will serve as a foreign key.
• The original table may be renamed to maintain semantic meaning of the relation.
Now to remove all these anomalies from the table we will have to decompose this
table, into different tables as under:
CLASS (crId, stId, stName, fId, room, grade, credits)
crId, stId  stName, fId, room, grade
stId stName crId fId, room, credits
Now this table has been decomposed into three tables as under:-
STD (stId, stName….)
COURSE (crId, fId, room, credits….)
CLASS (crId, stId, grade….)
So now these three tables are in second normal form. There are no anomalies
available now in this form and we say this as 2NF.

Third Normal Form:

A relational table is in third normal form (3NF) if it is already in 2NF and

every non-key column is non-transitive dependent upon its primary key. In
other words, all non-key attributes are functionally dependent only upon the
primary key.

Transitive Dependency:

Transitive dependency is one that carries over another attribute. Transitive

dependency occurs when one non-key attribute determines another non-key
attribute. For third normal form we concentrate on relations with one
candidate key, and we eliminate transitive dependencies. Transitive
dependencies cause insertion, deletion, and update anomalies. We will now
see it with an example:-
STD(stId, stName, stAdr, proName, proCrdts)
stId  stName, stAdr, prName, prCrdts
proName  proCrdts
Now here the table is in second normal form. As there is no partial dependency of any
attributes here. The key is student ID. The problem is of transitive dependency in
which a non-key attribute can be determined by another non-key attribute. Like here the
program credits can be determined by program name, which is not in 3NF. It also
causes same four anomalies as well, which are due to transitive dependencies. For Example: -

STUDENT

Now in this table all the four anomalies are exists in the table. So we will have to
remove these anomalies by decomposing this table after removing the transitive
dependency. We will see it as under: -

STD (stId, stName, stAdr, prName, prCrdts)

stId  stName, stAdr, prName, prCrdts
prName prCrdts

The process of transforming a table into 3NF is:

• Identify any determinants, other the primary key, and the columns they
determine.
• Create and name a new table for each determinant and the unique columns it
determines.
• Move the determined columns from the original table to the new table. The
determinate becomes the primary key of the new table.
• Delete the columns you just moved from the original table except for the
determinate which will serve as a foreign key.
• The original table may be renamed to maintain semantic meaning.

STD (stId, stName, stAdr, prName)

PROGRAM (prName, prCrdts)
We have now decomposed the relation into two relations of student and program. So
the relations are in third normal form and are free of all the anomalies.

Boyce - Codd Normal Form

A relation is in Boyce-Codd normal form if and only if every determinant is a
candidate key. A relation R is said to be in BCNF if whenever X  A holds in R, and
A is not in X, then X is a candidate key for R. It should be noted that most relations
that are in 3NF are also in BCNF. Infrequently, a 3NF relation is not in BCNF and
this happens only if
(a) the candidate keys in the relation are composite keys (that is, they are not single
attributes),
(b) there are more than one candidate keys in the relation, and
(c) the keys are not disjoint, that is, some attributes in the keys are common.

The BCNF differs from the 3NF only when there are more than one candidate keys
and the keys are composite and overlapping. Consider for example, the relationship:
enrol (sno, sname, cno, cname, date-enrolled)
Let us assume that the relation has the following candidate keys:

(sno,cno)
(sno,cname)
(sname,cno)
(sname, cname)
(we have assumed sname and cname are unique identifiers). The relation is in 3NF
but not in BCNF because there are dependencies
sno -> sname
cno -> cname
Where attributes are part of a candidate key are dependent on part of another
candidate key. Such dependencies indicate that although the relation is about some
entity or association that is identified by the candidate keys e.g. (sno, cno), there are
attributes that are not about the whole thing that the keys identify. For example, the
above relation is about an association (enrolment) between students and subjects and
therefore, the relation needs to include only one identifier to identify students and one
identifier to identify subjects. Provided that two identifiers about the students (sno,
sname) and two keys about subjects (cno, cname) means that some information about
the students and subjects which is not needed is being provided. This provision of
information will result in repetition of information and the anomalies that we
discussed at the beginning of this chapter. If we wish to include further information
about students and courses in the database, it should not be done by putting the
information in the present relation but by creating new relations that represent
information about entities student and subject.
These difficulties may be overcome by decomposing the above relation in the
following three relations:
(sno, sname)
(cno, cname)
(sno, cno, date-of-enrolment)
We now have a relation that only has information about students, another only about
subjects and the third only about enrolments. All the anomalies and repetition of
information have been removed.
Higher Normal Forms
After BCNF are the fourth, a fifth and domain key normal form exists. Although till
BCNF normal form tables are in required form, but if we want we can move on to
fourth and fifth normal forms as well. 4NF deals with multivalued dependency, fifth
deals with possible loss less decompositions; DKNF reduces further chances of any
possible inconsistency.

Summary

Normalization is a step-by-step process to make DB design more efficient and

accurate. A normalized database helps the DBA to maintain the consistency of the
database. However, the normalization process is not a must, rather it is a strongly
recommended activity performed after the logical DB design phase. Not a must means,
that the consistency of the database can be maintained even with an un-normalized
database design, however, it will make it difficult for the designer. Un-normalized
relations are more prone to errors or inconsistencies.
The normalization is based on the FDs. The FDs are not created by the designer,
rather they exist in the system being developed and the designer identifies them.
Normalization forms exist up to 6NF starting from 1NF, however, for most of the
situations 3NF is sufficient. Normalization is performed through Analysis or
Synthesis process. The input to the process is the logical database design and the FDs
that exist in the system. Each individual table is checked for the normalization
considering the relevant FDs; if any normalization requirement for a particular normal
form is being violated, then it is sorted out generally by splitting the table. The
process is applied on all the tables of the design hence the database is called to be in a
particular normal form.
The goal of normalization is to create a set of relational tables that are free of
redundant data and that can be consistently and correctly modified. This means that
all tables in a relational database should be in the third normal form (3NF). A
relational table is in 3NF if and only if all non-key columns are (a) mutually
independent and (b) fully dependent upon the primary key. Mutual independence
means that no non-key column is dependent upon any combination of the other
columns. The first two normal forms are intermediate steps to achieve the goal of
having all tables in 3NF. In order to better understand the 2NF and higher forms, it is
necessary to understand the concepts of functional dependencies and loss less
decomposition.
Normalization Summary
Normalization is a step-by-step process to make DB design more efficient and
accurate. A normalized database helps the DBA to maintain the consistency of the
database. However, the normalization process is not a must, rather it is a strongly
recommended activity performed after the logical DB design phase. Not a must means,
that the consistency of the database can be maintained even with an un-normalized
database design, however, it will make it difficult for the designer. Un-normalized
relations are more prone to errors or inconsistencies.
The normalization is based on the FDs. The FDs are not created by the designer,
rather they exist in the system being developed and the designer identifies them.
Normalization forms exist up to 6NF starting from 1NF, however, for most of the
situations 3NF is sufficient. Normalization is performed through Analysis or
Synthesis process. The input to the process is the logical database design and the FDs
that exist in the system. Each individual table is checked for the normalization
considering the relevant FDs; if any normalization requirement for a particular normal
form is being violated, then it is sorted out generally by splitting the table. The
process is applied on all the tables of the design hence the database is called to be in a
particular normal form.
Normalization Example
In the following an example of normalization process has been discussed. This
example is taken from Ricardo book, page 238. The example comprehensively
explains the stages of the normalization process. The approach adopted for the
normalization is analysis approach, whereby a single large table is assumed involving
all the attributes required in the system. Later, the table is decomposed into smaller
tables by considering the FDs existing in the system. As has been discussed before,
the FDs have to be identified by the designer they are not described as regular from by the users.
So, the example also explains the transforming of real-world scenarios into
FDs.
An example table is given containing all the attributes that are used in different
applications in the system under study. The table named WORK consists of the
attributes:
WORK (projName, projMgr, empId, hours, empName, budget, startDate, salary,
empMgr, empDept, rating)
The purpose of most of the attributes is clear from the name, however, they are
explained in the following facts about the system. The facts mentioned in the book are
italicized and numbered followed by the explanation.

1- Each project has a unique name, but names of employees and managers are not
unique.
This fact simply illustrates that values in the projName attribute will be unique so this
attribute can be used as identifier if required however the attributes empName,
empMgr and projMgr are not unique so they cannot be used as identifiers.

2- Each project has one manager, whose name is stored in projMgr

The projMgr is not unique as mentioned in 1, however, since there is only one
manager for a project and project name is unique, so we can say that if we know the
project name we can determine a single project manager, hence the FD
projName  projMgr

3- Many employees may be assigned to work on each project, and an employee may
be assigned to more than one project. The attribute ‘hours’ tells the number of
hours per week that a particular employee is assigned to work on a particular
project.
Since there are many employees working on each project so the projName attribute
cannot determine the employee working on a project, same is the case with empId that
it cannot determine the particular project an employee is working since one employee
is working on many projects. However, if we combine both the empId and projName
then we can determine the number of hours that an employee worked on a particular
project within a week, so the FD
empId, projName - hours

4- Budget stores the budget allocated for a project and startDate stores the starting
date of a project

Since the project name is unique, so if we know the project name we can determine
the budget allocated for it and also the starting date of the project
projName  budget, startDate
5- Salary gives the annual salary of the employee
empId  salary, empName
Although empId has not been mentioned as unique, however, it is generally assumed
that attribute describing Id of something are unique, so we can define the above FD.
6- empMgr gives the name of the employee’s manager, who is not the same as
project manager.

Project name is determined by project name, however one employee may work on
many projects, so we cannot determine the project manager of an employee thourgh
the Id of employee. However, empMgr is the manager of employee and can be known
from employee Id, so FD in 5 can be extended
empId  salary, empName, empMgr

7- empDept give the employee’s department. Department names are unique. The
employee’s manager is the manager of the employee’s department.
empDept  empMgr
Because empDept is unique and there is one manager for each department. At the
same time, because each employee works in one department, we can also say that
empId  empDept so the FD in 6 is further extended
empId  salary, empName, empMgr, empDept

8- Rating give the employee’s rating for a particular project. The project manager
assigns the rating at the end of employee’s work on that project
Like ‘hours’ attribute, the attribute ‘rating’ is also determined by two attributes, the
projName and empId, because many employees work on one project and one
employee may work on many projects. So to know the rating of an employee on a
particular project we need to know the both, so the FD
projName, empId  rating
In all we have the following four FDs:
1) empId  salary, empName, empMgr, empDept
2) projName, empId  rating, hours
3) projName  projMgr, budget, startDate
4) empDept  empMgr

Normalization
So, we identified the FDs in our example scenario, now to perform the normalization
process. For this we have to apply the conditions of the normal forms on our tables.
Since we have got just one table to begin with so we start our process on this table:

WORK(projName, projMgr, empId, hours, empName, budget, startDate, salary,

empMgr, empDept, rating)
First Normal Form:
Seeing the data in the example in the book or assuming otherwise that all attributes
contain the atomic value, we find out the table is in the 1NF.
Second Normal Form:
Seeing the FDs, we find out that the PK for the table is a composite one, comprising of
empId, projName. We did not include the determinant of fourth FD, that is, the
empDept, in the PK because empDept is dependent on empId and empID is included
in our proposed PK. However, with this PK (empID, projName) we have got partial
dependencies in the table through FDs 1 and 3 where we see that some attributes are
being determined by subset of our PK which is the violation of the requirement for the
2NF. So we split our table based on the FDs 1 and 3 as follows:
PROJECT (projName, projMgr, startDate)
EMPLOYEE (empId, empName, salary, empMgr, empDept)
WORK (projName, empId, hours, rating)
All the above three tables are in 2NF since they are in 1NF and there is no partial
dependency in them.
Third Normal Form
Seeing the four FDs, we find out that the tables are in 2NF and there is no transitive
dependency in PROJECT and WORK tables, so these two tables are in 3NF. However,
there is a transitive dependency in EMNPLOYEE table since FD 1 say empId
empDept and FD 4 say empDept empMgr. To remove this transitive dependency
we further split the EMPLOYEE table into following two:
EMPLOYEE (empId, empName, salary, empDept)
DEPT (empDept, empMgr)
Hence finally we got four tables

PROJECT (projName, projMgr, startDate)

EMPLOYEE (empId, empName, salary, empDept)
WORK (projName, empId, hours, rating)
DEPT (empDept, empMgr)
These four tables are in 3NF based on the given FD, hence the database has been
normalized up to 3NF.
Physical Database Design
After completing the logical database design and then normalizing it, we have to
establish the physical database design. Throughout the processes of conceptual and
logical database designs and the normalization, the primary objective has been the
storage efficiency and the consistency of the database. So we have been following
good design principles. In the physical database design, however, the focus shifts
from storage efficiency to the efficiency in execution. So we deliberately violate some
of the rules that we studied earlier, however, this shift in focus should never ever lead
to incorrect state of the database. The correctness of the database we have to maintain
in any case. When we do not follow the good design principles then it makes it
difficult to maintain the consistency or correctness of the database. Since the violation
is deliberate, that is, we are aware of the dangers due to violations and we know the
reasons for these violations so we have to take care of the possible threats and adopt
appropriate measures. Finally, there are different possibilities and we as designers
have to adopt particular ones based on certain reasons or objectives. We have to be
clear about our objectives.
The physical DB design involves:
• Transforms logical DB design into technical specifications for storing and
retrieving data
• Does not include practically implementing the design however tool specific
decisions are involved
It requires the following input:
• Normalized relations (the process performed just before)

182
• Definitions of each attribute (means the purpose or objective of the attributes.
Normally stored in some form of data dictionary or a case tool or may be on
paper)
• Descriptions of data usage (how and by whom data will be used)
• Requirements for response time, data security, backup etc.
• Tool to be used
Decisions that are made during this process are:
• Choosing data types (precise data types depend on the tool to be used)
• Grouping attributes (although normalized)
• Deciding file organizations
• Selecting structures
• Preparing strategies for efficient access
That is all about today’s lecture, the discussion continues in the next lecture.
Summary
In today’s lecture we summarized the normalization process and also saw an example
to practically implement the process. We have introduced our next topic that is the
physical DB design. We will discuss this topic in the lectures to be followed.

183
Lecture No. 22
Overview of Lecture
o Data Volume and Usage Analysis
o Designing Fields
o Choosing Data Type
o Coding Techniques
o Coding Example
o Controlling Data Integrity
The Physical Database Design Considerations and Implementation
The physical design of the database is one of the most important phases in the
computerization of any organization. There are a number of important steps involved
in the physical design of the database. Steps are carried out in sequence and need to
be performed precisely so that the result of the first step is properly used as input to
the next step.
Before moving onto the Physical database design the design of the database should
have undergone the following steps,
Normalization of relations
Volume estimate
Definition of each attribute
Description of where and when data is used (with frequencies)
Expectation or requirements of response time and data security.
Description of the technologies.
For the physical database design we need to check the usage of the data in term of its
size and the frequency. This critical decision is to be made to ensure that proper
structures are used and the database is optimized for maximum performance and
efficiency.
The following steps are necessary once we have the prerequisite complete:
Select the appropriate attribute and a corresponding data type for the attribute.
The process of selecting the attribute to be placed in a specific relation in the physical
design. Need considerable care as it is one of the most important and basic aspects for
the creation of the database.
Grouping of attributes in the logical order so that the relation is created in such a way
that no information is missing from the relation and also no redundant or unnecessary
information is placed in the relation.
Looking at the logical design at the time of transformation into physical design there
may be stages when the information combined logically in the logical design looks
odd when transforming the design into a physical one.
Arrangement of Similar records into the secondary memory (hard disk)

184
The scheme of storage on hard disk is important as it leads to the efficiency and
management of the data on disk. Different types of data access mechanism are
available and are useful for rapid access, storage, and modification of data.
Different types of database structures can be used for placement of data on disks,
management of data in the forms of indexes and different database architecture is vital
and leads to better retrieval and recovery of records.
Preparing queries and handling strategies for the proper usage of the database, so that
any type of input or output operation performed on the database is executed in an
optimized and efficient way.
DESIGNING FIELDS
Field is the smallest unit of application data recognized by system software, such as a
programming language or any database management system.
Designing fields in the databases’ physical design as discussed earlier is a major issue
and needs to be dealt with great care and accuracy. Data types are the structure
defined for placing data in the attributes. Each data type is appropriate for use with
certain type of data.
4 major objectives for using data types when specifying attributes in a database are
given as under:
Minimized usage of storage space
Represent all possible values
Improve data integrity
Support all data manipulation
The correct data type selection and decision for proper domain of the attribute is very
necessary as it provides a number of benefits.
Most common data types used in the available DBMS of the day have the following
set of common attributes.
Data type Description
Max Size:
PL/SQL
VARCHAR2(size)
Variable length character string having maximum
length sizebytes.
You must specify size
32767 bytes
minimum is 1
VARCHAR
Now deprecated -VARCHAR is a synonym for
VARCHAR2 but this usage may change in future
versions.
CHAR(size)
Fixed length character data of length size bytes.
This should be used for fixed length data. Such as
codes A100, B102...
32767 bytes
Default and
minimum size is 1
byte.
NUMBER(p,s)
Magnitude 1E-130 .. 10E125
maximum precision of 126 binary digits, whichis roughly equivalent to
38 decimal digits
The scale s can range from -84 to 127.
For floating point don't specify p,s
REAL has a maximum precision of 63 binary digits, which is roughly
equivalent to 18 decimal digits
185
LONG
Character data of variable length (A bigger
version the VARCHAR2 data type)
32760 bytes
Note this is smaller
than the maximum
width of a LONG
column
DATE Valid date range
from January 1, 4712
BC to December 31,
9999 AD.
(in Oracle7 = 4712
AD)
RAW(size)
Raw binary data of length size bytes.
You must specify size for a RAW value.
32767 bytes
LONG RAW
Raw binary data of variable length. (not
interpreted by PL/SQL)
32760 bytes
Note this is smaller
than the maximum
width of a LONG
RAW column
BLOB Binary Large Object 4Gigabytes
CODING AND COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES:
There a re some attributes which have some sparse set of values, these values when
theyare represented in any data type are hard to express, for this purpose some codes
are used. As the codes defined by the database administrator or the programmer
consume less space so they are better for use in situations where we have large
number of records and wastage of small amount of space in each record can lead to
loss of huge amount of data storage space. Thus causing lowered database efficiency.
STID STNAME HOBBY
S1020 Sohail Dar Reading
S1038 Shoaib Ali Gardening
S1015 Tahira Ejaz Reading
S1015 Tahira Ejaz Movie
S1018 Arif Zia Reading
Coding techniques are also useful for compression of data values appearing the data,
by replacing those data values with the smaller sized codes we can further reduce the
space needed by the data for storage in the database.
Following tables give the use of codes and their utilization in the database
environment
Coding Example:
Student
STID STNAME HOBBY
S1020 Sohail Dar R
S1038 Shoaib Ali G
S1015 Tahira Ejaz R
S1015 Tahira Ejaz M
S1018 Arif Zia R

186
Hobby Table
CODE HOBBY
R Reading
G Gardening
M Movies
In the above example we have seen the implementation of the codes as replacement to
the data in the actual table, here we actually allocated codes to different hobbies and
then replace the codes instead of writing the codes in the table.
We get a number of benefits by the use of data types and the benefit can be in a
number of dimensions.
Default value
Default values are the values which are associated with a specific attribute and
can help us to reduce the chances of inserting incorrect values in the attribute
space. And also it can help us preventing the attribute value be left empty.
Range Control
Range control implemented over the data can be very easily achieved by using
any data type. As the data type enforces the entry of data in the field according
to the limitations of the data type.
Null Value Control
As we already know that a null value is an empty value and is distinct from
zero and spaces, Databases can implement the null value control by using the
different data types or their build in mechanisms.
Referential Integrity
Referential Integrity means to keep the input values for a specific attribute in
specific limits in comparison to any other attribute of the same or any other
relation.

187
Lecture No. 23
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
Overview of Lecture
Physical Record and De-normalization
Partitioning
In the previous lecture, we have studied different data types and the coding techniques.
We have reached now on implementing our database in which relations are now
normalized. Now we will make this database efficient form implementation point of
view.
Physical Record and Denormalization
Denormalization is a technique to move from higher to lower normal forms of
database modeling in order to speed up database access. Denormalization process is
applied for deriving a physical data model from a logical form. In logical data base
design we group things logically related through same primary key. In physical
database design fields are grouped, as they are stored physically and accessed by
DBMS. In general it may decompose one logical relation into separate physical
records, combine some or do both. There is a valid reason for denormalization that is
to enhance the performance. However, there are several indicators, which will help to
identify systems, and tables, which are potential denormalization candidates. These
are:
Many critical queries and reports exist which rely upon data from more than one table.
Often times these requests need to be processed in an on-line environment.
Repeating groups exist which need to be processed in a group instead of individually.
Many calculations need to be applied to one or many columns before queries can be
successfully answered.
Tables need to be accessed in different ways by different users during the same
timeframe.
Certain columns are queried a large percentage of the time. Consider 60% or greater
to be a cautionary number flagging denormalization as an option.

188
We should be aware that each new RDBMS release usually bring enhanced
performance and improved access options that may reduce the need for
denormalization. However, most of the popular RDBMS products on occasion will
require denormalized data structures. There are many different types of denormalized
tables, which can resolve the performance problems caused when accessing fully
normalized data. Denormalization must balance the need for good system response
time with the need to maintain data, while avoiding the various anomalies or problems
associated with denormalized table structures. Denormalization goes hand-in-hand
with the detailed analysis of critical transactions through view analysis. View
analysis must include the specification of primary and secondary access paths for
tables that comprise end-user views of the database. A fully normalized database
schema can fail to provide adequate system response time due to excessive table join
operations
Denormalization Situation 1:
Merge two Entity types into one with one to one relationship. Even if one of the entity
type is optional, so joining can lead to wastage of storage, however if two accessed
together very frequently their merging might be a wise decision. So those two
relations must be merged for better performance, which have one to one relationship.
Denormalization Situation 2:
Many to many binary relationships mapped to three relations. Queries needing data
from two participating ETs need joining of three relations that is expensive. Join is an
expensive operation from execution point of view. It takes time and lot of resources.
Now suppose there are two relations STUDENT and COURSE and there exits a many
to many relationship in between them. So there are three relations STUDENT,
COURSE and ENROLLED in between them. Now if we want to see that a student
has enrolled how many courses. So to get this we will have to join three relations, first
the STUDENT and ENROLLED and then joining it with COURSE, which is quite
expensive. The relation created against relationship is merged with one of the relation
created against participating ETs. Now the join operation will be performed only once.
Consider the following many to many relationship:-
EMP (empID, eName,pjId,Sal)
PROJ (pjId,pjName)
WORK ([Link],dtHired,Sal)
This is a many to many relationship in between EMP and PROJ with a relationship of
WORK. So now if we by de-normalizing these relations and merge the WORK
relation with PROJ relation, which is comparatively smaller one. But in this case it is
violating 2NF and anomalies of 2NF would be there. But there would be only one join
operation involved by joining two tables, which increases the efficiency.
EMP (empID, eName,pjId,Sal)
PROJ (pjId,pjName, empId,dtHired,Sal)
So now it is up to you that you want to weigh the drawbacks and advantages of
denormalization.
Denormalization Situation 3:
Reference Data: One to many situation when the ET on side does not participate in
any other relationship, then many side ET is appended with reference data rather than
the foreign key. In this case the reference table should be merged with the main table.

189
We can see it with STUDENT and HOBBY relations. One student can have one
hobby and one hobby can be adopted by many students. Now in this case the hobby
can be merged with the student relation. So in this case although redundancy of data
would be there, but there would not be any joining of two relations, which will have a
better performance.
Partitioning
De-normalization leads to merging different relations, whereas partitioning splits
same relation into two. The general aims of data partitioning and placement in
database are to
1. Reduce workload (e.g. data access, communication costs, search space)
2. Balance workload
3. Speed up the rate of useful work (e.g. frequently accessed objects in main
memory)
There are two types of partitioning:-
Horizontal Partitioning
Vertical Partitioning
Horizontal Partitioning:
Table is split on the basis of rows, which means a larger table is split into smaller
tables. Now the advantage of this is that time in accessing the records of a larger table
is much more than a smaller table. It also helps in the maintenance of tables, security,
authorization and backup. These smaller partitions can also be placed on different
disks to reduce disk contention. Some of the types of horizontal partitioning are as
under:-
Range Partitioning:
In this type of partitioning range is imposed on any particular attribute. So in this
way different partitions are made on the basis of those ranges with the help of select
statement. For Example for those students whose ID is from 1-1000 are in partition 1
and so on. This will improve the overall efficiency of the database. In range partition
the partitions may become unbalanced. So in this way few partitions may be
overloaded.
Hash Partitioning:
It is a type of horizontal partitioning. In this type particular algorithm is applied and
DBMS knows that algorithm. So hash partitioning reduces the chances of unbalanced
partitions to a large extent.
List Partitioning:
In this type of partitioning the values are specified for every partition. So there is a
specified list for all the partitions. So there is no range involved in this rather there is a
list of values.
Summary:
De-normalization can lead to improved processing efficiency. The objective is to
improve system response time without incurring a prohibitive amount of additional

190
data maintenance requirements. This is especially important for client-server
systems. Denormalization requires thorough system testing to prove the effect that
denormalized table structures have on processing efficiency. Furthermore, unseen ad
hoc data queries may be adversely affected by denormalized table
structures. Denormalization must be accomplished in conjunction with a detailed
analysis of the tables required to support various end-user views of the database. This
analysis must include the identification of primary and secondary access paths to data.
Similarly before carrying out partitioning of the table thorough analysis of the
relations is must.
Exercise:
Critically examine the tables drawn for Examination system and see if there is a
requirement of denormalization and partitioning and then carry out the process.
191
Lecture No. 24
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
Overview of Lecture
o Vertical Partitioning
o Replication
o Structured Query Language (SQL)
In the previous lecture we were discussing physical data base design, in which we
studied denormalization and its different aspects. We also studied the horizontal
partitioning. In this lecture we will study vertical partitioning.
Vertical Partitioning
Vertical partitioning is done on the basis of attributes. Same table is split into different
physical records depending on the nature of accesses. Primary key is repeated in all
vertical partitions of a table to get the original table. In contrast to horizontal
partitioning, vertical partitioning lets you restrict which columns you send to other
destinations, so you can replicate a limited subset of a table's columns to other
machines. We will now see it with the example of a student relation as under: -
STD (stId, sName, sAdr, sPhone, cgpa, prName, school, mtMrks, mtSubs, clgName,
intMarks, intSubs, dClg, bMarks, bSubs)
Now in this relation the student relation has number of attributes. It is in 3NF . But the
nature of accesses in this relation is different. So now we will partition this relation
vertically as under.
STD (stId, sName, sAdr, sPhone, cgpa, prName)

192
STDACD(sId, school, mtMrks, mtSubs, clgName, intMarks, intSubs, dClg, bMarks,
bSubs)
Replication
The process of copying a portion of the database from one environment to another and
keeping subsequent copies of the data in synchronization with the original source
Changes made to the original source are propagated to the copies of the data in other
environments. It is the final form of denormalization. It increases the access speed and
decreases failure damage of the database. In replication entire table or part of ta-ble can be replicated.
Replication is normally adopted in those applications, where
updation is not very frequent, because if updation is frequent so then it will have
problems of updation in all the copies of database relations. This will also slow down
the speed of database.
Clustering Files
Clustering is a process, which means to place records from different tables to place in
adjacent physical locations, called clusters. It increases the efficiency since related
records are placed close to each other. Clustering is also suitable to relatively static
situations. The advantage of clustering is that while accessing the records it is easy to
access. Define cluster, define the key of the cluster, and include the tables into the
cluster while creating associating the key with it.
Summary of Physical Database Design
Database design is the process of transforming a logical data model into an actual
physical database. A logical data model is required before you can even begin to
design a physical database. The first step is to create an initial physical data model by
transforming the logical data model into a physical implementation based on an
understanding of the DBMS to be used for deployment. To successfully create a
physical database design you will need to have a good working knowledge of the
features of the DBMS including:
• In-depth knowledge of the database objects supported by the DBMS and the
physical structures and files required to support those objects.
• Details regarding the manner in which the DBMS supports indexing,
referential integrity, constraints, data types, and other features that augment
the functionality of database objects.

193
• Detailed knowledge of new and obsolete features for particular versions or
releases of the DBMS to be used.
• Knowledge of the DBMS configuration parameters that are in place.
• Data definition language (DDL) skills to translate the physical design into
actual database objects.
Armed with the correct information, you can create an effective and efficient database
from a logical data model. The first step in transforming a logical data model into a
physical model is to perform a simple translation from logical terms to physical
objects. Of course, this simple transformation will not result in a complete and correct
physical database design – it is simply the first step. The transformation consists of
the following things:
• Transforming entities into tables
• Transforming attributes into columns
• Transforming domains into data types and constraints
There are many decisions that must be made during the transition from logical to
physical. For example, each of the following must be addressed:
• The nullability of each column in each table
• For character columns, should fixed length or variable length be used
• Should the DBMS be used to assign values to sequences or identity columns?
• Implementing logical relationships by assigning referential constraints
• Building indexes on columns to improve query performance
• Choosing the type of index to create: b-tree, bit map, reverse key, hash,
partitioning, etc.
• Deciding on the clustering sequence for the data
• Other physical aspects such as column ordering, buffer pool specification, data
files, denormalization, and so on.
Structured Query Language
SQL is an ANSI standard computer language for accessing and manipulating
databases. SQL is standardized, and the current version is referred to as SQL-92. Any
SQL-compliant database should conform to the standards of SQL at the time. If not,
194
they should state which flavor of SQL (SQL-89 for example) so that you can quickly
figure out what features are and are not available. The standardization of SQL makes
it an excellent tool for use in Web site design. Most Web application development
toolkits, most notably Allaire's Cold Fusion and Microsoft's Visual InterDev, rely on
SQL or SQL-like statements to connect to and extract information from databases. A
solid foundation in SQL makes hooking databases to Web sites all the simpler. SQL is
used to communicate with a database. According to ANSI (American National
Standards Institute), it is the standard language for relational database management
systems. SQL statements are used to perform tasks such as update data on a database,
or retrieve data from a database. Some common relational database management
systems that use SQL are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc.
Although most database systems use SQL, most of them also have their own
additional proprietary extensions that are usually only used on their system. However,
the standard SQL commands such as "Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete", "Create",
and "Drop" can be used to accomplish almost everything that one needs to do with a
database. This tutorial will provide you with the instruction on the basics of each of
these commands as well as allow you to put them to practice using the SQL
Interpreter.
Benefits of Standard SQL:
Following are the major benefits of SQL:-
Reduced training cost
• Application portability
• Application longevity
• Reduced dependence on a single vendor
• Cross-system communicationSQL is used for any type of interaction with
the database through DBMS. It can be used for creating tables, insertion in the
table and deletion as we well and other operations also.
MS SQL Server
The DBMS for our course is Microsoft’s SQL Server 2000 desktop edition. There are
twomain tools Query Analyzer and Enterprise Manager; both can be used. For SQL
practice we will use Query Analyzer. So you must use this software for the SQL
queries. So we will be using this software for our SQL queries.
Summary:

195
In this lecture we have studied the vertical partitioning, its importance and methods of
applying. We have also studied replication and clustering issues. We then started with
the basics of SQL and in the next lectures we will use SQL Server for the queries.
Exercise:
Critically examine the tables drawn for Examination system and see if there is a
requirement of vertical partitioning and then carry out the process. Also install
the SQL Server and acquaint yourself with this software.
196
Lecture No. 25
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
Overview of Lecture
o Structured Query Language (SQL)
In the previous lecture we have studied the partitioning and replication of data. From
this lecture onwards we will study different rules of SQL for writing different
commands.
Rules of SQL Format
SQL, at its simplest, is a basic language that allows you to "talk" to a database and
extract useful information. With SQL, you may read, write, and remove information
from a database. SQL commands can be divided into two main sub languages. The
Data Definition Language (DDL) contains the commands used to create and destroy
databases and database objects. After the database structure is defined with DDL,
database administrators and users can utilize the Data Manipulation Language to
insert, retrieve and modify the data contained within it. Following are the rules for
writing the commands in SQL:-
• Reserved words are written in capital like SELECT or INSERT.
• User-defined identifiers are written in lowercase
• Identifiers should be valid, which means that they can start with @,_
alphabets ,or with numbers. The maximum length can be of 256. The reserved
words should not be used as identifiers.
• Those things in the command which are optional are kept in [ ]
• Curly braces means required items
• | means choices
• [,…..n] means n items separated by comma
Consider the following example:-
SELECT [ALL|DISTINCT]
{*|select_list}
FROM {table|view[,…n]}

197
Select * from std
Data Types in SQL Server
In Microsoft SQL Server™, each column, local variable, expression, and parameter
has a related data type, which is an attribute that specifies the type of data (integer,
character, money, and so on) that the object can hold. SQL Server supplies a set of
system data types that define all of the types of data that can be used with SQL
Server. The set of system-supplied data types is shown below:-
Integers:
• Biggint
Integer (whole number) data from –2
63
(-9,223,372,036,854,775,808)
through 2
63
-1 (9,223,372,036,854,775,807).
• Int
Integer (whole number) data from -2
31
(-2,147,483,648) through 2
31
-1
(2,147,483,647).
• Smallint
Integer data from -2
15
(-32,768) through 2
15
- 1 (32,767).
• Tinyint
Integer data from 0 through 255.
bit
Integer data with either a 1 or 0 value.
Decimal and Numeric
• Decimal
Fixed precision and scale numeric data from -10
38
+1 through 10
38
–1.
• Numeric
Functionally equivalent to decimal.
Text:
It handles the textual data. Following are the different data types.
• Char: By default 30 characters, max 8000

198
• Varchar: Variable length text, max 8000
• Text: Variable length automatically
• nchar, nvarchar, ntext
Money:
It is used to handle the monetary data
• Small money: 6 digits, 4 decimal
• Money: 15 digits, 4 decimal
Floating point:
• Float
• Real
Date:
• Smalldatetime
• datetime
199
Examination System Database Examination System Database
We will now transfer this conceptual database design into relational database design
as under:-
PROGRAM (prName, totSem, prCredits)
COURSE (crCode, crName, crCredits, prName)
SEMESTER(semName, stDate, endDate)
CROFRD(crCode, semName, facId)
FACULTY(facId, fName, fQual, fSal, rank)
STUDENT(stId, stName, stFName, stAdres,stPhone, prName, curSem, cgpa)
ENROLL(stId, crCode, semName, mTerm,sMrks, fMrks, totMrks, grade, gp)
SEM_RES(stId, semName, totCrs, totCrdts, totGP, gpa)
It is used to specify a database scheme as a set of definitions expressed in a DDL.
DDL statements are compiled, resulting in a set of tables stored in a special file called

200
a data dictionary or data directory. The data directory contains metadata (data about
data) the storage structure and access methods used by the database system are
specified by a set of definitions in a special type of DDL called a data storage and
definition language
Data Manipulation is retrieval, insertion, deletion and modification of information
from the database. A DML is a language, which enables users to access and
manipulate data. The goal is to provide efficient human interaction with the system.
There are two types of [Link] is Procedural: in which the user specifies what data
is needed and how to get it Second is Nonprocedural: in which the user only specifies
what data is needed
The category of SQL statements that control access to the data and to the database.
Examples are the GRANT and REVOKE statements.
Summary:
In today’s lecture we have read about the basics of SQL. It is used to communicate
with a database. According to ANSI (American National Standards Institute), it is the
standard language for relational database management systems. SQL statements are
used to perform tasks such as update data on a database, or retrieve data from a
database. Some common relational database management systems that use SQL are:
Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc. Although most database
systems use SQL, most of them also have their own additional proprietary extensions
that are usually only used on their system. However, the standard SQL commands
such as "Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete", "Create", and "Drop" can be used to
accomplish almost everything that one needs to do with a database. In the end we
have also seen the different types of SQL commands and their functions.
Exercise:
Practice the basic commands of SQL like SELECT, INSERT and CREATE.

201
Lecture No. 26
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
Overview of Lecture
o Different Commands of SQL
In the previous lecture we have seen the database of an examination system. We had
drawn the ER model and then the relational model, which was normalized. In this
lecture we will now start with different commands of SQL.
Categories of SQL Commands
We have already read in our previous lecture that there are three different types
of commands of SQL, which are DDL, DML and DCL. We will now study DDL.
DDL
It deals with the structure of [Link] DDL (Data Definition Language) allows
specification of not only a set of relations, but also the following information for each
relation:
• The schema for each relation.
• The domain of values associated with each attribute.
• Integrity constraints.
• The set of indices for each relation.
• Security and authorization information.
• Physical storage structure on disk.
Following are the three different commands of DDL:-
Create
The first data management step in any database project is to create the database. This
task can range from the elementary to the complicated, depending on your needs and
the database management system you have chosen. Many modern systems (including
Personal Oracle7) include graphical tools that enable you to completely build the
database with the click of a mouse button. This timesaving feature is certainly helpful,
but you should understand the SQL statements that execute in response to the mouse
clicks. This command is used to create a new database table. The table is created in

202
the current default database. The name of the table must be unique to the database.
The name must begin with a letter and can be followed by any combination of
alphanumeric characters. The name is allowed to contain the underscore character
( _ ). This command can be used to create permanent disk-based or temporary in-memory database
tables. Data stored in a temporary table is lost when the server is
shutdown. To create a temporary table the "AS TEMP" attribute must be specified.
Note that querying against a temporary in-memory table is generally faster than
querying against a disk-based table. This command is non-transactional. If no file size
is given for a disk-based table, the table will be pre-allocated to 1MB. If no filegrowth
is given, the default is 50%. It is used to create new tables, fields, views and indexes.
It is used to create database. The format of statement is as under:
CREATE DATABASE db_name
For Example CREATE DATABASE EXAM. So now in this example database
of exam has been created. Next step is to create tables. There are two
approaches for creating the tables, which are:
• Through SQL Create command
• Through Enterprise Manager
Create table command is used to:
• Create a table
• Define attributes of the table with data types
• Define different constraints on attributes, like primary and foreign keys,
check constraint, not null, default value etc.
The format of create table command is as under:
CREATE TABLE
[ database_name.[ owner ] . | owner. ] table_name
( { < column_definition >
| column_name AS omputed_column_expression
| < table_constraint >
}
| [ { PRIMARY KEY | UNIQUE } [ ,...n ] ]
Let us now consider the CREATE statement used to create the Airport table definition
for the Airline Database.
CREATE TABLEAirport
(airport char(4) not null,
name varchar(20),

203
checkin varchar(50),
resvtns varchar(12),
flightinfo varchar(12) );
Table Name.(Airport)
The name chosen for a table must be a valid name for the DBMS.
Column Names. (Airport, Name, ..., FlightInfo)
The names chosen for the columns of a table must also be a valid name for the
DBMS.
Data Types
Each column must be allocated an appropriate data type. In addition, key columns, i.e.
columns used to uniquely identify individual rows of a given table, may be specified
to be NOT NULL. The DBMS will then ensure that columns specified as NOT NULL
always contain a value.
The column definition is explained as under:
< column_definition > ::= { column_name data_type}
[ DEFAULT constant_expression]
[ < column_constraint > ] [ ...n ]
The column constraint is explained as under:
< column_constraint > ::= [ CONSTRAINT constraint_name ]
{ [ NULL | NOT NULL ]
| [ { PRIMARY KEY | UNIQUE }
]
| [ [ FOREIGN KEY ]
REFERENCES ref_table [ ( ref_column ) ]
[ ON DELETE { CASCADE | NO ACTION } ]
[ ON UPDATE { CASCADE | NO ACTION } ]
]

204
| CHECK( logical_expression )
}
)
We will now see some examples of CREATE command. This is a very simple
command for creating a table.
CREATE TABLE Program (
prName char(4),
totSem tinyint,
prCredits smallint)
If this command is to written in SQL Server, it will be written in Query Analyzer.
We will now see an example in which has more attributes comparatively along
with different data types:
CREATE TABLE Student
(stId char(5),
stName char(25),
stFName char(25),
stAdres text,
stPhone char(10),
prName char(4)
curSem smallint,
cgpa real)
In this example there are more attributes and different data types are also there. We
will now see an example of creating a table with few constraints:
CREATE TABLE Student (
stId char(5) constraint ST_PK primary key constraint ST_CK check (stId
like‘S[0- 9][0-9][0-9][0-9]'),
stName char(25) not null,
stFName char(25),
stAdres text,
stPhone char(10),
prName char(4),
curSem smallint default 1,
cgpa real)

205
Every constraint should be given a meaningful name as it can be referred later by its
name. The check constraint checks the values for any particular attribute. In this way
different types of constraints can be enforced in any table by CREATE command.
Summary
Designing a database properly is extremely important for the success of any
application. In today’s lecture we have seen the CREATE command of SQL. How
different constraints are applied on this command with the help of different examples.
This is an important command and must be practiced as it is used to create database
and different tables. So create command is part of DDL.
Exercise:
Create a database of Exam System and create table of student with different
constraints in SQL Server.

206
Lecture No. 27
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
“Teach Yourself SQL in 21 Days”, Second Edition Que Series.
Overview of Lecture
Data Manipulation Language
In the previous lecture we were studying DDL in which we studied the CREATE
command along with different examples. We also saw different constraints of create
command. In this lecture we will study the ALTER and other SQL commands with
examples.
Alter Table Statement
The purpose of ALTER statement is to make changes in the definition of a table
already created through Create statement. It can add, and drop the attributes or
constraints, activate or deactivate constraints. It modifies the design of an existing
table. The format of this command is as under:
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table {
ADD [COLUMN] column type [(size)] [DEFAULT default] |
ALTER [COLUMN] column type [(size)] [DEFAULT default] |
ALTER [COLUMN] column SET DEFAULT default |
DROP [COLUMN] column |
RENAME [COLUMN] column TO columnNew
}
The ALTER TABLE statement has these parts:
Part Description
Table The name of the table to be altered.

207
Column The name of the column to be altered or added to or deleted from table.
ColumnNew The new name of the altered column
Type The data type of column.
Size
The size of the altered column in characters or bytes for text or binary
columns.
Default
An expression defining the new default value of the altered column.
Can contain literal values, and functions of these values
Using the ALTER TABLE statement, we can alter an existing table in several
ways. We can:
• Use ADD COLUMN to add a new column to the table. Specify the name, data
type, an optional size, and an optional default value of the column.
• Use ALTER COLUMN to alter type, size or default value of an existing
column.
• Use DROP COLUMN to delete a column. Specify only the name of the
column.
• Use RENAME COLUMN to rename an existing column. We cannot add,
delete or modify more than one column at a [Link] will now see an example
of alter command
ALTER TABLE Student
add constraint fk_st_pr
foreign key (prName) references
Program (prName)
This is a simple example, in which we have incorporated a constraint and the names
are meaningful, so that if in the future we have to refer them, we can do so. We will
now see an example of removing or changing attribute.
ALTER TABLE student
ALTER COLUMN stFName char (20)
ALTER TABLE student
Drop column curSem
ALTER TABLE student
Drop constraint ck_st_pr
Now in these examples either an attribute is deleted or altered by using the keywords
of Drop and Alter. We will now see an example in which few or all rows will be
removed, or whole table is required to be removed. The TRUNCATE is used to delete
all the rows of any table but rows would exist. The DELETE is used to delete one or
many records. If we want to remove all records we must use TRUNCATE. Next is the
DROP table command, which is used to drop the complete table from the database.
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
Truncate table class

208
Delete can also be used
DROP TABLE table_name
Data Manipulation Language
The non-procedural nature of SQL is one of the principle characteristics of all 4GLs -
Fourth Generation Languages - and contrasts with 3GLs (eg, C, Pascal, Modula-2,
COBOL, etc) in which the user has to give particular attention to how data is to be
accessed in terms of storage method, primary/secondary indices, end-of-file
conditions, error conditions (eg, Record NOT Found), and so on. The Data
Manipulation Language (DML) is used to retrieve, insert and modify database
information. Data Manipulation is retrieval, insertion, deletion and modification of
information from the [Link] is a non-procedural language that is, it allows the
user to concentrate on specifying what data is required rather than concentrating on
the how to get it. There are two types of [Link] is procedural in which: the user
specifies what data is needed and how to get it. Second is nonprocedural in which the
user only specifies what data is needed. The DML component of SQL comprises of
following basic statements:
InsertTo add new rows to tables.
SelectTo retrieve rows from tables
UpdateTo modify the rows of tables
Insert
The INSERT command in SQL is used to add records to an existing table. We will
now see the format of insert command as under:
INSERT [INTO] table
{[ ( column_list ) ]
{ VALUES
( { DEFAULT | NULL | expression } [ ,...n] )
}
}
| DEFAULT VALUES
The basic format of the INSERT...VALUESstatement adds a record to a table using the
columns you give it and the corresponding values you instruct it to add. You must
follow three rules when inserting data into a table with the INSERT...VALUES
statement:
The values used must be the same data type as the fields they are being added to.
The data's size must be within the column's size. For instance, you cannot add an 80-character string to
a 40-character column.
The data's location in the VALUESlist must correspond to the location in the column
list of the column it is being added to. (That is, the first value must be entered into the
first column, the second value into the second column, and so on.)
The rules mentioned above must be followed. We will see the examples of the insert
statement in the coming lectures.
Summary
SQL provides three statements that can be used to manipulate data within a database.
The INSERTstatement has two variations. The INSERT...VALUESstatement inserts a set
of values into one record. The INSERT...SELECTstatement is used in combination with
a SELECTstatement to insert multiple records into a table based on the contents of one
or more tables. The SELECTstatement can join multiple tables, and the results of this

209
join can be added to another table. The UPDATEstatement changes the values of one
or more columns based on some condition. This updated value can also be the result
of an expression or calculation.
The DELETEstatement is the simplest of the three statements. It deletes all rows from
a table based on the result of an optional WHEREclause. If the WHEREclause is
omitted, all records from the table are deleted. Modern database systems supply
various tools for data manipulation. Some of these tools enable developers to import
or export data from foreign sources. This feature is particularly useful when a
database is upsized or downsized to a different system. Microsoft Access, Microsoft
and Sybase SQL Server, and Personal Oracle7 include many options that support the
migration of data between systems.
Exercise:
Try inserting values with incorrect data types into a table. Note the errors and then
insert values with correct data types into the same table.

210
Lecture No. 28
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
“Teach Yourself SQL in 21 Days”, Second Edition Que Series.
In the previous lecture we started the data manipulation language, in which we were
discussing the Insert statement, which is used to insert data in an existing table. In
today’s lecture we will first see an example of Insert statement and then discuss the
other SQL Commands.
The INSERT statement allows you to insert a single record or multiple records into a
table. It has two formats:
INSERT INTO table-1 [(column-list)] VALUES (value-list)
And,
INSERT INTO table-1 [(column-list)] (query-specification)
The first form inserts a single row into table-1 and explicitly specifies the column
values for the row. The second form uses the result of query-specification to insert
one or more rows into table-1. The result rows from the query are the rows added to
the insert table. Both forms have an optional column-list specification. Only the
columns listed will be assigned values. Unlisted columns are set to null, so unlisted
columns must allow nulls. The values from the VALUES Clause(first form) or the
columns from the query-specification rows (second form) are assigned to the
corresponding column in column-list in order. If the optional column-list is missing,
the default column list is substituted. The default column list contains all columns in
table-1 in the order they were declared in CREATE TABLE.
The VALUES Clause in the INSERT Statement provides a set of values to place in
the columns of a new row. It has the following general format:
VALUES (value-1 [, value-2]...)
Value-1 and value-2 are Literal Valuesor Scalar Expressionsinvolving literals. They
can also specify NULL. The values list in the VALUES clause must match the

211
explicit or implicit column list for INSERT in degree (number of items). They must
also match the data type of corresponding column or be convertible to that data type.
We will now see an example of INSERT statement for that we have the table of
COURSE with following attributes: -
COURSE (crCode, crName, crCredits, prName)
The INSERT statement is as under:
INSERT INTO course VALUES (‘CS-211', ‘Operating Systems’, 4, ‘MCS’)
This is a simple INSERT statement; we have not used the attribute names because we
want to enter values for all the attributes. So here it is important to enter the values
according to the attributes and their data types. We will now see an other example of
insert statement:
INSERT INTO course (crCode, crName) VALUES (‘CS-316’, Database
Systems’)
In this example we want to enter the values of only two attributes, so it is important
that other two attributes should not be NOT NULL. So in this example we have
entered values of only two particular attributes. We will now see another example of
INSERT statement as under:
INSERT INTO course (‘MG-103’, ‘Intro to Management’, NULL, NULL)
In this example we have just entered the values of first two attributes and rest two are
NULL. So here we have not given the attribute names and just placed NULL in those
values.
Select Statement
Select statement is the most widely used SQL Command in Data Manipulation
Language. It is not only used to select rows but also the columns. The SQL SELECT
statement queries data from tables in the database. The statement begins with the
SELECT keyword. The basic SELECT statement has 3 clauses:
• SELECT
• FROM
• WHERE

212
The SELECT clause specifies the table columns that are retrieved. The FROM clause
specifies the tables accessed. The WHERE clause specifies which table rows are used.
The WHERE clause is optional; if missing, all table rows are used. The SELECT
clause is mandatory. It specifies a list of columns to be retrieved from the tables in the
FROM clause. The FROM clause always follows the SELECT clause. It lists the
tables accessed by the query. The WHERE clause is optional. When specified, it
always follows the FROM clause. The WHERE clause filters rows from the FROM
clause tables. Omitting the WHERE clause specifies that all rows are used. The
syntax for the SELECT statement is:
SELECT {*|col_name[,….n]} FROM table_name
This is the simplest form of SELECT command. In case of * all the attributes of any
table would be available. If we do not mention the * then we can give the names of
particular attribute names. Next is the name of the table from where data is required.
We will now see different examples of SELECT statement using the following table:
STUDENT
stId stName prName cgpa
S1020 Sohail Dar MCS 2.8
S1038 Shoaib Ali BCS 2.78
S1015 Tahira Ejaz MCS 3.2
S1034 Sadia Zia BIT
S1018 Arif Zia BIT 3.0
So the first query is
Q: Get the data about studentsSELECT * FROM students
The output of this query is as under:
stId stName prName cgpa
1 S1020 Sohail Dar MCS 2.8
2 S1038 Shoaib Ali BCS 2.78
3 S1015 Tahira Ejaz MCS 3.2
4 S1034 Sadia Zia BIT
5 S1018 Arif Zia BIT 3.0
We will now see another query, in which certain specific data is required form the
table: The query is as under:
Q: Give the name of the students with the program nameThe SQL Command for the
query is as under:
SELECT stName, prName
FROM student
The output for the command is as under:
stName prName
1 Sohail Dar MCS

213
2 Shoaib Ali BCS
3 Tahira Ejaz MCS
4 Sadia Zia BIT
5 Arif Zia BIT
Attribute Allias
SELECT {*|col_name [[AS] alias] [, …n]} FROM tab_name
Now in this case if all the attributes are to be selected by * then we cannot give the
name of attributes. The AS is also optional here then we can write the name of
attribute what we want. We will now see an example.
SELECT stName as ‘Student Name’, prName ‘Program’ FROM Student
The output of this query will be as under:
Student Name Program
1 Sohail Dar MCS
2 Shoaib Ali BCS
3 Tahira Ejaz MCS
4 Sadia Zia BIT
5 Arif Zia BIT
In the column list we can also give the expression; value of the expression is
computed and displayed. This is basically used where some arithmetic operation is
performed, in which that operation is performed on each row and then that result is
displayed as an output. We will now see it with an example:
Q Display the total sessional marks of each student obtained in each subject
The SQL Command for the query will be as under:
Select stId, crCode, mTerm + sMrks ‘Total out of 50’ from enroll
The DISTINCT keyword is used to return only distinct (different) values. The
SELECT statement returns information from table columns. But what if we only want
to select distinct elements With SQL, all we need to do is to add a DISTINCT
keyword to the SELECT statement. The format is as under:

214
SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
We will now see it with an example
Q Get the program names in which students are enrolled
The SQL Command for this query is as under:
SELECT DISTINCT prName FROM Student
programs
1 BCS
2 BIT
3 MCS
4 MBA
The “WHERE” clause is optional. When specified, it always follows the FROM
clause. The “WHERE” clause filters rows from “FROM” clause tables. Omitting the
WHERE clause specifies that all rows are used. Following the WHERE keyword is a
logical expression, also known as a predicate. The predicate evaluates to a SQL
logical value -- true, false or unknown. The most basic predicate is a comparison:
Color = 'Red'
This predicate returns:
• True -- If the color column contains the string value -- 'Red',
• False -- If the color column contains another string value (not 'Red'), or
• Unknown -- If the color column contains null.
Generally, a comparison expression compares the contents of a table column to a
literal, as above. A comparison expression may also compare two columns to each
other. Table joins use this type of comparison.
In today’s we have studied the SELECT statement with different examples. The
keywords SELECTand FROMenable the query to retrieve data. You can make a broad
statement and include all tables with a SELECT *statement or you can rearrange or
retrieve specific tables. The keyword DISTINCT limits the output so that you do not see
duplicate values in a column. In the coming lecture we will see further SQL
Commands of Data Manipulation Language.

215
Lecture No. 29
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
“Teach Yourself SQL in 21 Days”, Second Edition Que Series.
Overview of Lecture
Data Manipulation Language
In the previous lecture we have studied the SELECT statement, which is the most
widely used SQL statement. In this lecture we will study the WHERE clause. This is
used to select certain specific rows.
The WHERE clause allows you to filter the results from an SQL statement - select,
insert, update, or delete statement. The rows which satisfy the condition in the where
clause are selected. The format of WHERE clause is as under:
SELECT [ALL|DISTINCT]
{*|culumn_list [alias][,…..n]} FROM table_name
[WHERE <search_condition>]
Here WHERE is given in square brackets, which means it is optional. We will see the
search condition as under:
Search Condition
{ [ NOT ] < predicate > | ( < search_condition > ) }
[ { AND | OR } [ NOT ] { < predicate > |
( < search_condition > ) } ]
} [ ,...n ]
< predicate > ::=
{ expression { = | <> | ! = | > | > = | ! > | < | < = | ! < }

216
expression
| string_expression [ NOT ] LIKE string_expression
| expression [ NOT ] BETWEEN expression AND
expression
| expression IS [ NOT ] NULL
| expression [ NOT ] IN ( subquery | expression [ ,...n ] )
| expression { = | <> | ! = | > | > = | ! > | < | < = | ! < }
{ ALL | SOME | ANY} ( subquery )
| EXISTS ( subquery )
}
In this format where clause is used in expressions using different comparison
operators. Those rows, which fulfill the condition, are selected in the output.
SELECT *
FROMsupplier
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM';
In this first example, we have used the WHERE clauseto filter our results from the
supplier table. The SQL statement above would return all rows from the supplier
table where the supplier_name is IBM. Because the * is used in the select, all fields
from the supplier table would appear in the result set. We will now see another
example of where clause.
SELECT supplier_id
FROMsupplier
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
or supplier_city = 'Karachi';
We can define a WHERE clause with multiple conditions. This SQL statement would
return all supplier_id values where the supplier_name is IBM or the supplier_city is
Karachi..
SELECT supplier.suppler_name, orders.order_id
FROMsupplier, orders
WHERE supplier.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id
and supplier.supplier_city = 'Karachi';

217
We can also use the WHERE clause to join multiple tables together in a single SQL
statement. This SQL statement would return all supplier names and order_ids where
there is a matching record in the supplier and orders tables based on supplier_id, and
where the supplier_city is Karachi.
We will now see a query in which those courses, which are part of MCS, are to be
displayed
Q: Display all courses of the MCS program
Select crCode, crName, prName from course
where prName = ‘MCS
Now in this query whole table would be checked row by row and where program
name would be MCS would be selected and displayed.’
Q List the course names offered to programs other than MCS
SELECT crCode, crName, prName
FROM course
WHERE not (prName = ‘MCS’)
Now in this query again all the rows would be checked and those courses would be
selected and displayed which are not for MCS. So it reverses the output.
The BETWEEN condition allows you to retrieve values within a specific range.
The syntax for the BETWEEN condition is:
SELECT columns
FROMtables
WHERE column1 between value1 and value2;
This SQL statement will return the records where column1 is within the range of
value1 and value2 (inclusive). The BETWEEN function can be used in any valid
SQL statement - select, insert, update, or delete. We will now see few examples of
this operator.
SELECT *
FROMsuppliers
WHERE supplier_id between 10 AND 50;

218
This would return all rows where the supplier_id is between 10 and 50.
The BETWEEN function can also be combined with the NOT operator.
For example,
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id not between 10 and 50;
The IN function helps reduce the need to use multiple OR conditions. It is sued to
check in a list of values. The syntax for the IN function is:
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE column1 in (value1, value2,.... value_n);
This SQL statement will return the records where column1 is value1, value2... or
value_n. The IN function can be used in any valid SQL statement - select, insert,
update, or delete. We will now see an example of IN operator.
SELECT crName, prName
From course
Where prName in (‘MCS’, ‘BCS’)
It is equal to the following SQL statement
SELECT crName, prName
From course
Where (prName = ‘MCS’) OR (prName = ‘BCS’)
Now in these two queries all the rows will be checked for MCS and BCS one by one
so OR can be replaced by IN operator.
The LIKE operator allows you to use wildcards in the where clause of an SQL
statement. This allows you to perform pattern matching. The LIKE condition can be
used in any valid SQL statement - select, insert, update, or delete.
The patterns that you can choose from are:
% Allows you to match any string of any length (including zero length)

219
_ Allows you to match on a single character
We will now see an example of LIKE operator
Q: Display the names and credits of CS programs
SELECT crName, crCrdts, prName FROM course
WHERE prName like '%CS'
The ORDER BY clause allows you to sort the records in your result set. The ORDER
BY clause can only be used in SELECT statements.
The syntax for the ORDER BY clause is:
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE predicates
ORDER BY column ASC/DESC;
The ORDER BY clause sorts the result set based on the columns specified. If the
ASC or DESC value is omitted, the system assumed ascending order.
ASCindicates ascending order. (Default)
DESCindicates descending order.
We will see the example of ORDER BY clause in our next lecture.
In today’s lecture we have discussed different operators and use of WHERE clause
which is the most widely used in SQL Commands. These different operators are used
according to requirements of users. We will study rest of the SQL Commands in our
coming lectures.

220
Lecture No. 30
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2nd edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
Overview of Lecture
Data Manipulation Language
Functions in SQL
In the previous lecture we have discussed different operators of SQL, which are used
in different commands. By the end of previous lecture we were discussing ORDER
BY clause, which is basically used to bring the output in ascending or descending
order. In this lecture we will see some examples of this clause.
ORDER BY Clause
The ORDER BY clause allows you to sort the records in your result set. The ORDER
BY clause can only be used in SELECT statements. The ORDER BY clause sorts the
result set based on the columns specified. If the ASC or DESC value is omitted, the
system assumed ascending order. We will now see few examples of this clause
SELECT supplier_city
FROM supplier
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
ORDER BY supplier_city;
This would return all records sorted by the supplier_city field in ascending order.
SELECT supplier_city
FROM supplier

221
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
ORDER BY supplier_city DESC;
This would return all records sorted by the supplier_city field in descending order.
Functions in SQL
A function is a special type of command. Infact, functions are one-word command
that return a single value. The value of a function can be determined by input
parameters, as with a function that averages a list of database values. But many
functions do not use any type of input parameter, such as the function that returns the
current system time, CURRENT_TIME.There are normally two types of functions.
First is Built in, which are provided by any specific tool or language. Second is user
defined, which are defined by the user. The SQL supports a number of useful
functions.. In addition, each database vendor maintains a long list of their own
internal functions that are outside of the scope of the SQL standard.
Categories of Functions:
These categories of functions are specific to SQL Server. Depending on the
arguments and the return value, functions are categorized as under:
• Mathematical (ABS, ROUND, SIN, SQRT)
• String (LOWER, UPPER, SUBSTRING, LEN)
• Date (DATEDIFF, DATEPART, GETDATE ())
• System (USER, DATALENGTH, HOST_NAME)
• Conversion (CAST, CONVERT)
We will now see an example using above-mentioned functions:
SELECT upper (stName), lower (stFName), stAdres, len(convert(char, stAdres)),
FROM student
In this example student name will be displayed in upper case whereas father name
will be displayed in lower case. The third function is of getting the length of student
address. It has got nesting of functions, first address is converted into character and
then its length will be displayed.
Aggregate Functions
These functions operate on a set of rows and return a single value. If used among
many other expressions in the item list of a SELECT statement, the SELECT must

222
have a GROUP BY clause. No GROUP BY clause is required if the aggregate
function is the only value retrieved by the SELECT statement. Following are some of
the aggregate functions:
Function Usage
AVG(expression) Computes average value of a column by the
expression
COUNT(expression) Counts the rows defined by the expression
COUNT(*) Counts all rows in the specified table or view
MIN(expression) Finds the minimum value in a column by the
expression
MAX(expression) Finds the maximum value in a column by the
expression
SUM(expression) Computes the sum of column values by the expression
SELECT avg(cgpa) as 'Average CGPA', max(cgpa) as 'Maximum CGPA'
from student
GROUP BY Clause
The GROUP BY clause can be used in a SELECT statement to collect data across
multiple records and group the results by one or more columns. It is added to SQL
because aggregate functions (like SUM) return the aggregate of all column values
every time they are called, and without the GROUP BY function it is impossible to
find the sum for each individual group of column values.
The syntax for the GROUP BY clause is:
SELECT column1, column2, ... column_n, aggregate_function
(expression)
FROM tables
WHERE predicates
GROUP BY column1, column2, ... column_n;
Aggregate function can be a function such as SUM, COUNT, MIN or MAX

223
Example using the SUM function
For example, the SUM function can be used to return the name of the department and
the total sales (in the associated department).
SELECT department, SUM (sales) as "Total sales"
FROM order_details
GROUP BY department;
In this example we have listed one column in the SELECT statement that is not
encapsulated in the SUM function, so we have used a GROUP BY clause. The
department field must, therefore, be listed in the GROUP BY section.
Example using the COUNT function
We can also use the COUNT function to return the name of the department and the
number of employees (in the associated department) that make over Rs 25,000 / year.
SELECT department, COUNT (*) as "Number of employees"
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000
GROUP BY department;
HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause. It can be
used in a SELECT statement to filter the records that a GROUP BY returns. At times
we want to limit the output based on the corresponding sum (or any other aggregate
functions). For example, we might want to see only the stores with sales over Rs
1,500. Instead of using the WHERE clause in the SQL statement, though, we need to
use the HAVING clause, which is reserved for aggregate functions. The HAVING
clause is typically placed near the end of the SQL statement, and a SQL statement
with the HAVING clause may or may not include the GROUP BY clause. The syntax
for the HAVING clause is:
SELECT column1, column2, ... column_n, aggregate_function
(expression)
FROM tables
WHERE predicates
GROUP BY column1, column2, ... column_n
HAVING condition1 ... condition_n;
Aggregate function can be a function such as SUM, MIN or MAX.
We will now see few examples of HAVING Clause.
Example using the SUM function

224
We can use the SUM function to return the name of the department and the total sales
(in the associated department). The HAVING clause will filter the results so that only
departments with sales greater than Rs 1000 will be returned.
SELECT department, SUM (sales) as "Total sales"
FROM order_details
GROUP BY department
HAVING SUM (sales) > 1000;
Example using the COUNT function
For example, you could use the COUNT function to return the name of the
department and the number of employees (in the associated department) that make
over $25,000 / year. The HAVING clause will filter the results so that only
departments with at least 25 employees will be returned.
SELECT department, COUNT (*) as "Number of employees"
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000
GROUP BY department
HAVING COUNT (*) > 10;
Accessing Multiple Tables:
Until now we have been accessing data through one table only. But there can be
occasions where we have to access the data from different tables. So depending
upon different requirements data can be accessed from different tables.
Referential integrity constraint plays an important role in gathering data from
multiple tables. Following are the methods of accessing data from different
tables:
Cartesian Product
• Inner join
• Outer Join
• Full outer join
• Semi Join
• Natural JoinWe will now discuss them one by one.
Cartesian product:
A Cartesian join gives a Cartesian product. A Cartesian join is when you join every
row of one table to every row of another table. You can also get one by joining every
row of a table to every row of itself. No specific command is used just Select is used
to join two tables. Simply the names of the tables involved are given and Cartesian
product is produced. It produces m x n rows in the resulting table. We will now see
few examples of Cartesian product.
Select * from program, course
Now in this example all the attributes of program and course are selected and the total
number of rows would be number of rows of program x number of rows of [Link]
Cartesian product certain columns can be selected, same column name needs to be

225
qualified. Similarly it can be applied to more than one table, and even can be applied
on the same table .For Example
SELECT * from Student, class, program
Summary
In today’s lecture we have seen certain important functions of SQL, which are more
specific to SQL Server. We studied some mathematical, string and conversion
functions, which are used in SQL Commands. We also studied Aggregate functions,
which are applied on a entire table or a set of rows and return one value. We also
studied Group By clause which is used in conjunction with aggregate functions. In the
end we saw how to extract data from different tables and in that we studied Cartesian
product. We will see rest of the methods in our coming lectures.

226
Lecture No. 31
Reading Material
Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehkre, ‘Database
Management Systems’, Second edition
Chapter 17
Overview of Lecture
o Types of Joins
o Relational Calculus
o Normalization
In the previous lecture we studied that rows from two tables can be merged with each
other using the Cartesian product. In real life, we very rarely find a situation when
two tables need to be merged the way Cartesian product, that is, every row of one
table is merged with every row of the other table. The form of merging that is useful
and used most often is ‘join’. In the following, we are going to discuss different
forms of join.
Inner Join
Only those rows from two tables are joined that have same value in the common
attribute. For example, if we have two tables R and S with schemes
R (a, b, c, d) and S (f, r, h, a), then we have ‘a’ as common attribute between these
twit tables. The inner join between these two tables can be performed on the basis of
‘a’ which is the common attribute between the two. The common attributes are not
required to have the same name in both tables, however, they must have the same
domain in both tables. The attributes in both tables are generally tied in a primary-foreign key
relationship but that also is not required. Consider the following two
tables:

227
Fig. 1: COURSE and PROGRAM tables with common attribute prName
The figure shows two tables, COURSE and PROGRAM. The [Link] and
PROGRAM. prName are the common attributes between the two tables; incidentally
the attributes have the same names and definitely the same domains. If we apply
inner join on these tables, the rows from both tables will be merged based on the
values of common attribute, that is, the prName. Like, row one of COURSE has the
value ‘BCS’ in attribute prName. On the other hand, row number 2 in PROGRAM
table has the value ‘BCS’. So these two rows will merge and form one row of the
resultant table of the inner join operation. As has been said before, the participating
tables of inner join are generally tied in a primary-foreign key link, so the common
attribute is PK in one of the tables. It means the table in which the common attribute
is FK, the rows from this table will not be merged with more that one row from the
other table. Like in the above example, each row from COURSE table will find
exactly one match in PROGRAM table, since the prName is the PK in PROGRAM
table.
The inner join can be implemented using different techniques. One possibility is that
we may find ‘inner join’ operation as such, like:

228
• SELECT * FROM course INNER JOIN program ON
[Link] = [Link]
or
• Select * FROM Course c INNER JOIN program p ON
[Link] = [Link]
The output after applying inner join on tables of figure 1 will be as follows:
Fig. 2: Output of inner join on tables of figure 1
As can be seen in the figure, the common attribute appears twice in the output of inner
join; that is, from both the tables. Another possible approach to implement inner join
can be as follows:
SELECT * FROM course, program WHERE [Link] =
[Link]
The output of this statement will be exactly the same as is given in figure 2.
Outer Join
SQL supports some interesting variants of the join operation that rely on null values,
called outer joins. Consider the two tables COURSE and PROGRAM given in figure
1 and their inner join given in figure 2. Tuples of COURSE that do not match some
row in PROGRAM according to the inner join condition ([Link] =
[Link]) do not appear in the result. In an outer join, on the other hand,
COURSE rows without a matching PROGRAM row appear exactly once in the result,
with the result columns inherited from PROGRAM assigned null values.

229
In fact, there are several variants of the outer join idea. In a right outer join, COURSE
rows without a matching PROGRAM row appear in the result, but not vice versa. In a
left outer join, PROGRAM rows without a matching COURSE row appear in the
result, but not vice versa. In a full outer join, both COURSE and PROGRAM rows
without a match appear in the result. (Of course, rows with a match always appear in
the result, for all these variants, just like the usual joins or inner joins).
SQL-92 allows the desired type of join to be specified in the FROM clause. For
example,
• Select * from COURSE c RIGHT OUTER JOIN
PROGRAM p on [Link] = [Link]
Fig. 3: Right outer join of the tables in figure 1
In figure 3 above, the row number 8 is the non matching row of COURSE that
contains nulls in the attributes corresponding to PROGRAM table, rest of the rows are
the same as in inner join of figure 2.
• Select * from COURSE c LEFT OUTER JOIN
PROGRAM p on [Link] = [Link]

230
Fig. 4: Left outer join of the tables in figure 1
In figure 4 above, the row number 12 is the non matching row of PROGRAM that
contains nulls in the attributes corresponding to COURSE table, rest of the rows are
the same as in inner join of figure 2.
• Select * from COURSE c FULL OUTER JOIN
PROGRAM p on [Link] = [Link]
Fig. 5: Full outer join of the tables in figure 1
In figure 5 above, the row number 1 and 13 are the non matching rows from both
tables, rest of the rows are the same as in inner join of figure 2.
Semi Join
Another form of join that involves two operations. First inner join is performed on the
participating tables and then resulting table is projected on the attributes of one table.
The advantage of this operation is that we can know the particular rows of one table
that are involved in inner join. For example, through semi join of COURSE and
PROGRAM tables we will get the rows of COURSE that have matching rows in
PROGRAM, or in other words, the courses that are part of any program. Same can be
performed other way round. SQL does not provide any operator as such, but can be
implemented by select and inner join operations, for example.
• SELECT distinct [Link], totsem, prCredits FROM program p inner
JOIN course c ON [Link] = [Link]

231
Fig. 6: Semi join of tables in figure 1
Self Join
In self join a table is joined with itself. This operation is used when a table contains
the reference of itself through PK, that is, the PK and the FK are both contained in the
same table supported by the referential integrity constraint. For example, consider
STUDENT table having an attribute ‘cr’ storing the id of the student who is the class
representative of a particular class. The example table is shown in figure 7, where a
CR has been specified for the MCS class, rest of the class students contain a null in
the ‘cr’ attribute.
Fig. 7: Example STUDENT table
Applying self join on this table:

232
• [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link] FROM student a, student b
WHERE [Link] = [Link]
Since same table is involved two times in the join, we have to use the alias. The above
statement displays the names of the students and of the CR.
Fig. 8: Self join of STUDENT table of figure 7
Subquery
Subquery is also called nested query and is one of the most powerful features of SQL.
A nested query is a query that has another query embedded within it; the embedded
query is called a subquery. When writing a query, we sometimes need to express a
condition that refers to a table that must itself be computed. The query used to
compute this subsidiary table is a subquery and appears as part of the main query. A
subquery typically appears within the WHERE clause of a query. Subqueries can
sometimes appear in the FROM clause or the HAVING clause. Here we have
discussed only subqueries that appear in the WHERE clause. The treatment of
subqueries appearing elsewhere is quite similar. Examples of subqueries that appear
in the FROM clause are discussed in following section.
Lets suppose we want to get the data of the student with the maximum cgpa, we
cannot get them within a same query since to get the maximum cgpa we have to apply
the group function and with group function we cannot list the individual attributes. So
we use nested query here, the outer query displays the attributes with the condition on
cgpa whereas the subquery finds the maximum cgpa as shown below:
• SELECT * from student where cgpa >
(select max(cgpa) from student where prName = 'BCS‘)
233
Fig. 9: STUDENT table and nested query applied on it
We have to take care of the operator being applied in case of subquery in the where
clause. The type of operator depends on the result set being returned by the subquery.
If the output expected from the subquery is a single value, as is the case in the above
example, then we can use operators like =, <, >, etc. However, if the subquery returns
multiple values then we can use operators like IN, LIKE etc. The IN operator allows
us to test whether a value is in a given set of elements; an SQL query is used to
generate the set to be tested. We can also use the NOT IN operator where required.
The subquery can be nested to any level, the queries are evaluated in the reverse order,
and that is, the inner most is evaluated first, then the outer one and finally the outer
most.
ACCESS CONTROL
SQL-92 supports access control through the GRANT and REVOKE commands. The
GRANT command gives users privileges to base tables and views. The syntax of this
command is as follows:
GRANT privileges ON object TO users [ WITH GRANT OPTION ]
For our purposes object is either a base table or a view. Several privileges can be
specified, including these:
SELECT: The right to access (read) all columns of the table specified as the object,
including columns added later through ALTER TABLE commands.
INSERT(column-name): The right to insert rows with (non-null or nondefault) values
in the named column of the table named as object. If this right is to be granted with

234
respect to all columns, including columns that might be added later, we can simply
use INSERT. The privileges UPDATE(column-name) and UPDATE are similar.
DELETE: The right to delete rows from the table named as object.
REFERENCES(column-name): The right to define foreign keys (in other tables) that
refer to the speci_ed column of the table object. REFERENCES without a column
name speci_ed denotes this right with respect to all columns, including any that are
added later.
If a user has a privilege with the grant option, he or she can pass it to another user
(with or without the grant option) by using the GRANT command. A user who creates
a base table automatically has all applicable privileges on it, along with the right to
grant these privileges to other users. A user who creates a view has precisely those
privileges on the view that he or she has on every one of the view or base tables used
to define the view. The user creating the view must have the SELECT privilege on
each underlying table, of course, and so is always granted the SELECT privilege on
the view. The creator of the view has the SELECT privilege with the grant option
only if he or she has the SELECT privilege with the grant option on every underlying
table.
In addition, if the view is updatable and the user holds INSERT, DELETE, or
UPDATE privileges (with or without the grant option) on the (single) underlying table,
the user automatically gets the same privileges on the view.
Only the owner of a schema can execute the data definition statements CREATE,
ALTER, and DROP on that schema. The right to execute these statements cannot be
granted or revoked.
In conjunction with the GRANT and REVOKE commands, views are an important
component of the security mechanisms provided by a relational DBMS. We will
discuss the views later in detail. Suppose that user Javed has created the tables
COURSE, PROGRAM and STUDENT. Some examples of the GRANT command
that Javed can now execute are listed below:
•GRANT INSERT, DELETE ON COURSE TO Puppoo WITH GRANT OPTION
•GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Mina
•GRANT SELECT ON PROGRAM TO Mina WITH GRANT OPTION

235
There is a complementary command to GRANT that allows the withdrawal of
privileges. The syntax of the REVOKE command is as follows:
REVOKE [GRANT OPTION FOR] privileges ON object FROM users
{RESTRICT | CASCADE}
The command can be used to revoke either a privilege or just the grant option on a
privilege (by using the optional GRANT OPTION FOR clause). One of the two
alternatives, RESTRICT or CASCADE, must be specified; we will see what this
choice means shortly. The intuition behind the GRANT command is clear: The
creator of a base table or a view is given all the appropriate privileges with respect to
it and is allowed to pass these privileges including the right to pass along a privilege
to other users. The REVOKE command is, as expected, intended to achieve the
reverse: A user who has granted a privilege to another user may change his mind and
want to withdraw the granted privilege. The intuition behind exactly what effect a
REVOKE command has is complicated by the fact that a user may be granted the
same privilege multiple times, possibly by different users.
When a user executes a REVOKE command with the CASCADE keyword, the effect
is to withdraw the named privileges or grant option from all users who currently hold
these privileges solely through a GRANT command that was previously executed by
the same user who is now executing the REVOKE command. If these users received
the privileges with the grant option and passed it along, those recipients will also lose
their privileges as a consequence of the REVOKE command unless they also received
these privileges independently. Consider what happens after the following sequence
of commands, where Javed is the creator of COURSE.
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Alia WITH GRANT OPTION (executed by
Javed)
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO BobbyWITH GRANT OPTION (executed by Alia)
REVOKE SELECT ON COURSSE FROM Alia CASCADE (executed by Javed)
Alia loses the SELECT privilege on COURSE, of course. Then Bobby, who received
this privilege from Alia, and only Alia, also loses this privilege. Bobby's privilege is
said to be abandoned when the privilege that it was derived from (Alia's SELECT
privilege with grant option, in this example) is revoked. When the CASCADE

236
keyword is specified, all abandoned privileges are also revoked (possibly causing
privileges held by other users to become abandoned and thereby revoked recursively).
If the RESTRICT keyword is specified in the REVOKE command, the command is
rejected if revoking the privileges just from the users specified in the command would
result in other privileges becoming abandoned.
Consider the following sequence, as another example:
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Alia WITH GRANT OPTION (executed by Javed)
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Bobby WITH GRANT OPTION (executed by Javed)
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Bobby WITH GRANT OPTION (executed by Alia)
REVOKE SELECT ON COURSE FROM Alia CASCADE (executed by Javed)
As before, Alia loses the SELECT privilege on COURSE. But what about Bobby?
Bobby received this privilege from Alia, but he also received it independently
(coincidentally, directly from Javed). Thus Bobby retains this privilege. Consider a
third example:
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Alia WITH GRANT OPTION (executed by Javed)
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Alia WITH GRANT OPTION (executed by Javed)
REVOKE SELECT ON COURSE FROM Alia CASCADE (executed by Javed)
Since Javed granted the privilege to Alia twice and only revoked it once, does Alia get
to keep the privilege? As per the SQL-92 standard, no. Even if Javed absentmindedly
granted the same privilege to Alia several times, he can revoke it with a single
REVOKE command. It is possible to revoke just the grant option on a privilege:
GRANT SELECT ON COURSE TO Alia WITH GRANT OPTION (executed by Javed)
REVOKE GRANT OPTION FOR SELECT ON COURSE FROM Alia CASCADE (executed by
Javed)
This command would leave Alia with the SELECT privilege on COURSE, but Alia
no longer has the grant option on this privilege and therefore cannot pass it on to other
users.
Summary
In this lecture we have studied the different types of joins, with the help of which we
can join different tables. We also discussed two major commands of access control
that are also considered the part of Data Control Language component of SQL. The
last part of this lecture handout is taken from chapter 17 of the reference given. The

237
interested users are recommended to see the book for detailed discussion on the topic.
There is a lot left on SQL, for our course purposes however we have studied enough.
Through extensive practice you will have clear understanding that will help you in
further learning.
Exercise:
Practice for all various types of Joins and Grant and Revoke commands.

238
Lecture No. 32
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2nd edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke,
McGraw-Hill
Database Management, Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture
o Application Programs
o User Interface
o Designing Forms
Until now we have studied conceptual database design, whose goal is to analyze the
application and do a conceptual design on the application. The goal is to provide a
conceptual design and description of reality. It is independent of data model. Then we
discussed the relational database design. A relational database stores all its data inside
tables, and nothing more. All operations on data are done on the tables themselves or
produce another tables as the result. Here we had discussed the selection of data
model. Thereafter we had discussed data manipulation language through SQL. We are
using SQL Server as a tool. In this lecture we will discuss application program.
Application Programs
Programs written to perform different requirement posed by the users/organization are
the application programs. Application programs can be developed in parallel or after
the construction of database design. Tool selection is also critical, but it depends upon
developer in which he feels comfortable.
General Activities in Application Programs
Following are the general activities, which are performed during the development of
application programs:
• Data input programmes
• Editing
• Display

239
• Processing related to activities
• Reports
User Interface
In the minds of users, a system's user interface is the system; everything else is just
stuff they're happy to ignore. The design of the user interface is therefore critical to
the success or failure of a project. Get it right, and your users will forgive the
occasional infelicity in implementation. Get it wrong, and it won't really matter how
efficient your code is.
The irony here is that if you do get it right, hardly anyone will notice. Really elegant
interfaces are invisible. Even if you get it wrong, no one might notice. The interfaces
of many computer systems, particularly database systems, are so awkward that your
system will be just one more of the mediocre, mildly abusive computer systems
people have come to expect.
Effective interfaces can also require more work to implement, although this isn't
necessarily the case. In addition, the payoffs can be huge, and they're not all of the
"virtue is its own reward" variety. An effective user interface minimizes the time
users require to learn and implement the system. Once the system is implemented,
productivity gains are higher if users don't have to struggle to bend it to their will.
Chances are good that both of these issues were addressed in the project goals. They
certainly impact the infamous bottom line.
Effective interfaces that closely match the users' expectations and work processes also
minimize the need for external documentation, which is always expensive. And while
users might not consciously notice how wonderful your user interface is, they'll
certainly notice that your system seems to just work better.
So, what constitutes an effective interface? To my mind, it's one that helps users
accomplish their tasks and otherwise gets out of the way. An effective interface
doesn't impose its requirements on users. It never forces users to play by its rules; it
plays by the users' rules. An effective interface doesn't force users to learn a bunch of

240
uninteresting stuff just to use it. And finally, it doesn't behave in unexpected ways.
Following are the two types of user interfaces:
• Text based
• Graphical User Interface (GUI) most commonly called as Forms
Text Based User Interface
In text based user interface certain keyboard numbers are designated for any action
but it is used very rarely nowadays. For example
Adding a Record 1
Deleting a Record 2
Enrollment 3
Result Calculation 4
Exit 5
Forms
Forms are now days used extensively in the application programs. Following are the
different types of forms

241
Browser Based
These are web-based forms. They are developed in HTML, scripting language or
Front Page.
Non-Browser/Simple
Graphical User Interface
This is an example of Graphical user interface
User Friendly Interfaces
Two definitions of user-friendly that are often mooted are "easy to learn" and "easy to
use." If we put aside for the moment the question of what, exactly, "easy" means, we
still have to ask ourselves, "Easy for whom?" The system that's easy for a beginner to
learn is not necessarily easy for an expert to use. Your best approach is to consider the
needs of each level of user and accommodate each with different facets of the
interface. Following are the different kinds of users:
Beginners
Everyone is a beginner at some point. Very few people remain that way—they will
either pass through the stage to intermediacy, or they'll discard your system entirely in
favor of someone else's. For this reason, you must be careful not to build in support
for beginners that will get in the way of more advanced users. Beginners need to
know what your system does before they start to learn how to use it. The best way to
present this information is outside the main system itself. For simple systems, an
introductory dialog box that describes the system can be sufficient. (Just be sure you
always include a means of dismissing the dialog box permanently.) For more complex

242
systems, a guided tour might be more appropriate. Online help isn't a good option for
beginners. They might not know it exists or, if they do, how to use it. I have had some
success using an online user's guide, however, by including a link to it from the
introductory dialog box and from the Help menu. To be successful with beginners,
these guides must be task-oriented. Beginners don't want to know what "menu item"
means; they want to know how to create an invoice.
Intermediate
For most systems, the majority of users fall into the intermediate category.
Intermediate users know what the system does, but they often forget the details of
how. This is the group you must support directly in the user interface. Fortunately, the
Microsoft Windows interface provides a lot of tools for helping these users.A well-designed menu
system is one of the best tools for reminding intermediate users of the
system capabilities. A quick scan of the available menu items will immediately
remind them of the functions available and at the same time allow them to initiate the
appropriate task.
An excellent second level of support for intermediate users is online help. Writing
online help is outside the scope of this book. In this context, however, I will mention
that most intermediate users will use the index as their primary access mechanism.
The index should therefore be as complete as you can possibly make it.
Experts
Expert users know what to do and how to do it. They're primarily interested in doing
things quickly. The more shortcuts you can build into your system, the happier you
will make this group of users. In my experience, expert users tend to be keyboard-oriented, so make
sure that you provide a way to move around the system using the
keyboard if you're catering to this [Link] users also appreciate the ability to
customize their working environment. Providing this functionality can be an
expensive exercise, however, so you will want to carefully evaluate the benefit before
including it. If you do decide to include some level of interface customization, even if
it's only a matter of arranging windows on the screen, be certain to maintain the
changes between sessions. Nothing is as irritating as having to rearrange everything
every time you load a program

243
Tips for User Friendly Interface
Following are some of the important tips, which should be adhered for interfaces:
• It should be user friendly and user must not search for required buttons or text
boxes.
• Interface should be designed in such a manner that user is in charge of the
form.
• It should be designed in manner that user memory is always tested
• You should be consistent in your approach while designing interface.
• It should be processes based rather than the data structure based.
Entities and Relationships
First type is the simple entity on a page.

244
Windows Controls
There are number of controls which are used to take input and display output like
buttons, checkboxes etc. Following are the examples

245
Numbers, Dates and Text
Normally text boxes are used for the display of dates
Summary
In today’s lecture we have studied the application programs and designing user
interface and forms. We have studied different techniques and practices for the user
interface and form designing. We will discuss an example of form designing in our
next lecture.

246
Lecture No. 33
Reading Material
Programming Microsoft Access
Mastering MS Access
Overview of Lecture
o Designing Input Form
o Arranging Form
o Adding Command Buttons
In the previous lecture we have discussed the importance of user interface. It plays an
important role in the development of any application. User will take interest in the
application if user interface is friendly. We then discussed different tools, which are
used in the development of any application. In this lecture we will see the designing
of input forms.
An input form is an easy, effective, efficient way to enter data into a table. Input
forms are especially useful when the person entering the data is not familiar with the
inner workings of Microsoft Access and needs to have a guide in order to input data
accurately into the appropriate fields. Microsoft Access provides several predefined
forms and provides a forms wizard that walks you through the process of creating a
form. One of these predefined forms will be used in the example below. You can also
create your own customized forms by using Microsoft Access form design tools.
Following things must be ensured for input forms:
• Forms should be user friendly
• Data integrity must be ensured, which means that database must represent the
true picture of real system.
• Checks can be applied within the tables definition or through input forms

247
So first we will run MS Access and select New option from the file. Next it will ask
the name of database as follows.
We have given the name as Exam System, we will then press the create button and
following screen would be available.

248
In this screen we will first select project using existing data from New templates, as
we are using data of SQL Server that is why we are using this option. Next move on
to Data Link Properties dialog, which is adjacent one. So first select the connection
Tab in which first select the server name then is the security setting after selecting that
option then is the selection of database on which forms are to be constructed.
Now these are the tables of Exam Data base, with which connectivity has been
established. Now we will select the Forms option as under:

249
So here are two options in design and wizard both we are selecting wizard view after
selecting this next screen would be as under:
Now here we will select the concerned table and initially we are selecting single table
that is of STUDENT. Next is the selection of required attributes for the concerned
table as under.

250
Then is the selection of required layout for the form. There are different options
available in this option. We can select the required option. We have selected Column
option for the layout of forms. Then is the selection of background or style for our
forms as under. We have selected the SandStone option.

251
Next is the selection of title for the form as under.
Next is the form view as under in which we can view our data.

252
Forms must be designed and arranged in a systematic manner now
Next is deleting a field from the form.
If we want to add an attribute in the list.
In this example, a command button beside each record is used to open another form.

253
Open the form in Design View and ensure that the Control Wizard button on
the toolbox is pressed in.
Click the command button icon on the toolbox and draw the button on the
form. The Command Button Wizard will then appear.
 On the first dialog window, action categories are displayed in the left list while
the right list displays the actions in each category. Select an action for the
command button and click Next .
The next few pages of options will vary based on the action you selected.
Continue selecting options for the command button.
Choose the appearance of the button by entering caption text or selecting a
picture. Check the Show All Pictures box to view the full list of available

254
[Link] Next >.
Enter a name for the command button and click Finishto create the button.
In today’s lecture we have studied the designing of forms. Forms are used as an
alternative way to enter data into a database table. It can be made more perfect with
lots of practice and designing number of forms. So it needs practice. We have
designed a simple form through wizard. A more complex form can also be designed
with some practice.

255
Lecture No. 34
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2nd edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes
Gehrke, McGraw-Hill
“Modern Database Management”, Fred McFadden, Jeffrey Hoffer,
Benjamin/Cummings
Overview of Lecture
o Data Storage Concepts
o Physical Storage Media
o Memory Hierarchy
In the previous lecture we have discussed the forms and their designing. From
this lecture we will discuss the storage media.
Classification of Physical Storage MediaStorage media are classified according to
following characteristics:
Speed of access
Cost per unit of data
Reliability
We can also differentiate storage as either
Volatile storage
Non-volatile storage
Computer storage that is lost when the power is turned offis called as volatile storage.
Computer storage that is not lost when the power is turned off is called as non –
volatile storage, pronounced cashe is a special high-speed storage mechanism. It can
be either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed sto-rage device. Two types
of caching are commonly used in personal computers:
memory caching and disk caching.
A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store or [Link] is a portion of
memory made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and cheaper
DRAM used for main memory. Memory caching is effective because most programs
access the same data or instructions over and over. By keeping as much of this
information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM.
Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors.. The Intel
80486 microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory cache, and the Pentium
has a 16K cache. Such internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1) caches. Most
modern PCs also come with external cache memory, called Level 2 (L2) caches.
These caches sit between the CPUand the DRAM. Like L1 caches, L2 caches are
composed of SRAM but they are much larger. Disk caching works under the same
principle as memory caching, but instead of using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache
uses conventional main memory. The most recently accessed data from the disk(as

256
well as adjacent sectors) is storedin a memory buffer. When a program needs to
access data from the disk, it first checks the disk cache to see if the data is there. Disk
caching can dramatically improve the performance of applications, because accessing
a byteof data in RAMcan be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a
hard disk.
When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit,and the effectiveness of a
cache is judged by its hit [Link] cache systemsuse a technique known as smart
caching, in which the system can recognize certain types of frequently used data. The
strategies for determining which information should be kept in the cache constitute
some of the more interesting problems in computer science.
The main memory of the computer is also known as RAM, standing for Random
Access Memory. It is constructed from integrated circuits and needs to have electrical
power in order to maintain its information. When power is lost, the information is lost
too! The CPU can directly access it. The access time to read or write any particular
byte are independent of whereabouts in the memory that byte is, and currently is
approximately 50 nanoseconds(a thousand millionth of a second). This is broadly
comparable with the speed at which the CPU will need to access data. Main memory
is expensive compared to external memory so it has limited capacity. The capacity
available for a given price is increasing all the time. For example many home
Personal Computers now have a capacity of 16 megabytes(million bytes), while 64
megabytes is commonplace on commercial workstations. The CPU will normally
transfer data to and from the main memory in groups of two, four or eight bytes, even
if the operation it is undertaking only requires a single byte.
Flash memory is a form of EEPROMthat allows multiple memorylocations to be
erased or written in one programming operation. Normal EEPROM only allows one
location at a time to be erased or written, meaning that flash can operate at higher
effective speeds when the system uses it to read and write to different locations at the
same time. All types of flash memory and EEPROM wear out after a certain number
of erase operations, due to wear on the insulating oxide layer around the charge
storage mechanism used to store data.
Flash memory is non-volatile, which means that it stores information on a silicon chip
in a way that does not need power to maintain the information in the chip. This means
that if you turn off the power to the chip, the information is retained without
consuming any power. In addition, flash offers fast read access times and solid-state
shock resistance. These characteristics are why flash is popular for applications such
as storage on battery-powered devices like cellular phones and [Link] memory is
based on the Floating-Gate Avalanche-Injection Metal Oxide Semiconductor
(FAMOS transistor) which is essentially an NMOS transistor with an additional
conductor suspended between the gate and source/drain terminals.
Magnetic disk is round plate on which datacan be encoded. There are two basic types
of disks: magnetic disks and optical disks on magnetic disks, data is encoded as
microscopic magnetized needleson the disk's surface. You can record and erase data
on a magnetic disk any number of times, just as you can with a cassette tape.
Magnetic disks come in a number of different forms:
Floppy Disk:A typical 5¼-inch floppy disk can hold 360K or 1.2MB (megabytes).
3½-inch floppies normally store720K, 1.2MB or 1.44MB of data.
Hard Disk:Hard disks can store anywhere from 20MB to more than 10GB. Hard
disks are also from 10 to 100 times faster than floppy disks.

257
Optical disks record data by burning microscopic holes in the surface of the disk with
a laser. To readthe disk, another laser beam shines on the disk and detects the holes
by changes in the reflection pattern.
Optical disks come in three basic forms:
CD-ROM:Most optical disks are read-only. When you purchase them, they are
already filled with data. You can read the data from a CD-ROM, but you cannot
modify, delete, or writenew data.
WORM:Stands for write-once, [Link] disks can be written on once and
then read any number of times; however, you need a special WORM disk driveto
write data onto a WORM disk.
Erasable optical (EO):EO disks can be read to, written to, and erased just like
magnetic disks.
The machine that spins a disk is called a disk drive. Within each disk drive is one or
more heads(often called read/write heads) that actually read and write data.
Accessing data from a disk is not as fast as accessing data from main memory, but
disks are much cheaper. And unlike RAM, disks hold on to data even when the
computeris turned off. Consequently, disks are the storagemediumof choice for
most types of data. Another storage medium is magnetic tape. But tapes are used only
for backupand archiving because they are sequential-access devices(to accessdata in
the middle of a tape, the tape drivemust pass through all the preceding data).
Short for Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive) Disks, a category of disk
drivesthat employ two or more drives in combination for fault toleranceand
performance. RAID disk drives are used frequently on serversbut aren't generally
necessary for personal computers.
Fundamental to RAID is "striping", a method of concatenating multiple drives into
one logical storage unit. Striping involves partitioning each drive's storage space into
stripes which may be as small as one sector (512 bytes) or as large as several
megabytes. These stripes are then interleaved round-robin, so that the combined space
is composed alternately of stripes from each drive. In effect, the storage space of the
drives is shuffled like a deck of cards. The type of application environment, I/O or
data intensive, determines whether large or small stripes should be used.
Most multi-user operating systems today, like NT, UNIX and Netware, support
overlapped disk I/O operations across multiple drives. However, in order to maximize
throughput for the disk subsystem, the I/O load must be balanced across all the drives
so that each drive can be kept busy as much as possible. In a multiple drive system
without striping, the disk I/O load is never perfectly balanced. Some drives will
contain data files which are frequently accessed and some drives will only rarely be
accessed. In I/O intensive environments, performance is optimized by striping the
drives in the array with stripes large enough so that each record potentially falls
entirely within one stripe. This ensures that the data and I/O will be evenly distributed
across the array, allowing each drive to work on a different I/O operation, and thus
maximize the number of simultaneous I/O operations, which can be performed by the
array.
In data intensive environments and single-user systems which access large records,
small stripes (typically one 512-byte sector in length) can be used so that each record
will span across all the drives in the array, each drive storing part of the data from the
record. This causes long record accesses to be performed faster, since the data transfer
occurs in parallel on multiple drives. Unfortunately, small stripes rule out multiple
overlapped I/O operations, since each I/O will typically involve all drives. However,
operating systems like DOS which do not allow overlapped disk I/O, will not be

258
negatively impacted. Applications such as on-demand video/audio, medical imaging
and data acquisition, which utilize long record accesses, will achieve optimum
performance with small stripe arrays.
RAID-0
RAID Level 0 is not redundant, hence does not truly fit the "RAID" acronym. In level
0, data is split across drives, resulting in higher data throughput. Since no redundant
information is stored, performance is very good, but the failure of any disk in the
array results in data loss. This level is commonly referred to as striping.
RAID-1
RAID Level 1 provides redundancy by writing all data to two or more drives. The
performance of a level 1 array tends to be faster on reads and slower on writes
compared to a single drive, but if either drive fails, no data is lost. This is a good
entry-level redundant system, since only two drives are required; however, since one
drive is used to store a duplicate of the data, the cost per megabyte is high. This level
is commonly referred to as mirroring.
RAID-2
RAID Level 2, which uses Hamming error correction codes, is intended for use with
drives which do not have built-in error detection. All SCSI drives support built-in
error detection, so this level is of little use when using SCSI drives.
RAID-3
RAID Level 3 stripes data at a byte level across several drives, with parity stored on
one drive. It is otherwise similar to level 4. Byte-level striping requires hardware
support for efficient use.
RAID-4
RAID Level 4 stripes data at a block level across several drives, with parity stored on
one drive. The parity information allows recovery from the failure of any single drive.
The performance of a level 4 array is very good for reads (the same as level 0). Writes,
however, require that parity data be updated each time. This slows small random
writes, in particular, though large writes or sequential writes are fairly fast. Because
only one drive in the array stores redundant data, the cost per megabyte of a level 4
array can be fairly low.
RAID-5
RAID Level 5 is similar to level 4, but distributes parity among the drives. This can
speed small writes in multiprocessing systems, since the parity disk does not become
a bottleneck. Because parity data must be skipped on each drive during reads,
however, the performance for reads tends to be considerably lower than a level 4
array. The cost per megabyte is the same as for level 4.
The manner data records are stored and retrieved on physical devices .The technique
used to find and retrieve store records are called access methods.
Sequential File Organization
Records are arranged on storage devices in some sequence based on the value of some
field, called sequence field. Sequence field is often the key field that identifies the
record.

259
Simply, easy to understand and manage, best for providing sequential access. It is not
feasible for direct or random access; inserting/deleting a record in/from the middle of
the sequence involves cumbersome record searches and rewriting of the file.
RAID-0 is the fastest and most efficient array type but offers no fault-tolerance.
RAID-1 is the array of choice for performance-critical, fault-tolerant environments. In
addition, RAID-1 is the only choice for fault-tolerance if no more than two drives are
desired.
RAID-2 is seldom used today since ECC is embedded in almost all modern disk
drives.
RAID-3 can be used in data intensive or single-user environments which access long
sequential records to speed up data transfer. However, RAID-3 does not allow
multiple I/O operations to be overlapped and requires synchronized-spindle drives in
order to avoid performance degradation with short records.
RAID-4 offers no advantages over RAID-5 and does not support multiple
simultaneous write operations.
RAID-5 is the best choices in multi-user environments which are not write
performance sensitive. However, at least three and more typically five drives are
required for RAID-5 arrays.

260
Lecture No. 35
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management System” by Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture
o Hashing
o Hashing Algorithm
o Collision Handling
In the previous lecture we have studied about different storage media and the RAID
levels and we started with file organization. In this lecture we will study in length
about different types of file organizations.
File Organizations
This is the most common structure for large files that are typically processed in their
entirety, and it's at the heart of the more complex schemes. In this scheme, all the
records have the same size and the same field format, with the fields having fixed size
as well. The records are sorted in the file according to the content of a field of a scalar
type, called ``key''. The key must identify uniquely a records, hence different record
have diferent keys. This organization is well suited for batch processing of the entire
file, without adding or deleting items: this kind of operation can take advantage of the
fixed size of records and file; moreover, this organization is easily stored both on disk
and tape. The key ordering, along with the fixed record size, makes this organization
amenable to dicotomic search. However, adding and deleting records to this kind of
file is a tricky process: the logical sequence of records tipycally matches their
physical layout on the media storage, so to ease file navigation, hence adding a record
and maintaining the key order requires a reorganization of the whole file. The usual
solution is to make use of a “log file'' (also called “transaction file''), structured as a

261
pile, to perform this kind of modification, and periodically perform a batch update on
the master file.
Sequential files provide access only in a particular sequence. That does not suit many
applications since it involves too much time. Some mechanism for direct access is
required
Direct Access File Organization:
For most users, the file system is the most visible aspect of an operating system. Files
store data and programs. The operating system implements the abstract concept of a
file by managing mass storage devices, such as tapes and disks. Also files are
normally organized into directories to ease their use, so we look at a variety of
directory structures. Finally, when multiple users have access to files, it may be
desirable to control by whom and in what ways files may be accessed. This control is
known as file protection. Following are the two types:
• Indexed Sequential
• Direct File Organization
Indexed sequential file:
An index file can be used to effectively overcome the above-mentioned problem, and
to speed up the key search as well. The simplest indexing structure is the single-level
one: a file whose records are pair’s key-pointer, where the pointer is the position in
the data file of the record with the given key. Only a subset of data records, evenly
spaced along the data file, are indexed, so to mark intervals of data records. A key
search then proceeds as follows: the search key is compared with the index ones to
find the highest index key preceding the search one, and a linear search is performed
from the record the index key points onward, until the search key is matched or until
the record pointed by the next index entry is reached. In spite of the double file access
(index + data) needed by this kind of search, the decrease in access time with respect
to a sequential file is significant.
A type of file accessin which an index is used to obtain the address of the block
which contains the required record. An index file can be used to effectively to speed
up the key search as well. The simplest indexing structure is the single-level one: a

262
file whose records are pairs key-pointer, where the pointer is the position in the data
file of the record with the given key. Only a subset of data records, evenly spaced
along the data file, are indexed, so to mark intervals of data records.
A key search then proceeds as follows: the search key is compared with the index
ones to find the highest index key preceding the search one, and a linear search is
performed from the record the index key points onward, until the search key is
matched or until the record pointed by the next index entry is reached. In spite of the
double file access (index + data) needed by this kind of search, the decrease in access
time with respect to a sequential file is significant.
Consider, for example, the case of simple linear search on a file with 1,000 records.
With the sequential organization, an average of 500 key comparisons are necessary
(assuming uniformly distributed search key among the data ones). However, using
and evenly spaced index with 100 entries, the number of comparisons is reduced to 50
in the index file plus 50 in the data file: a 5:1 reduction in the number of operations.
This scheme can obviously be hyerarchically extended: an index is a sequential file in
itself, amenable to be indexed in turn by a second-level index, and so on, thus
exploiting more and more the hyerarchical decomposition of the searches to decrease
the access time. Obviously, if the layering of indexes is pushed too far, a point is
reached when the advantages of indexing are hampered by the increased storage costs,
and by the index access times as well.
Indexed:
Why using a single index for a certain key field of a data record? Indexes can be
obviously built for each field that uniquely identifies a record (or set of records within
the file), and whose type is amenable to ordering. Multiple indexes hence provide a
high degree of flexibility for accessing the data via search on various attributes; this
organization also allows the use of variable length records (containing different
fields).
It should be noted that when multiple indexes are are used the concept of sequentiality
of the records within the file is useless: each attribute (field) used to construct an
index typically imposes an ordering of its own. For this very reason is typicaly not
possible to use the ``sparse'' (or ``spaced'') type of indexing previously described. Two

263
types of indexes are usually found in the applications: the exhaustive type, which
contains an entry for each record in the main file, in the order given by the indexed
key, and the partial type, which contain an entry for all those records that contain the
chosen key field (for variable records only).
Defining Keys:
An indexed sequential file must have at least one key. The first (primary) key is
always numbered 0. An indexed sequential file can have up to 255 keys; however, for
file-processing efficiency it is recommended that you define no more than 7 or 8 keys.
(The time required to insert a new record or update an existing record is directly
related to the number of keys defined; the retrieval time for an existing record,
however, is unaffected by the number of keys.)
When you design an indexed sequential file, you must define each key in the
following terms:
• Position and size
• Data type
• Index number
• Options selected
When you want to define more than one key, or to define keys of different data types,
you must be careful when you specify the key fields. The next few subsections
describe some considerations for specifying keys. In Indexed sequential files
following are ensured:
• New records are added to an overflow file
• Record in main file that precedes it is updated to contain a pointer to
the new record
• The overflow is merged with the main file during a batch update
• Multiple indexes for the same key field can be set up to increase
efficiency
The diagram of Index sequential file is as under:

264
Indexed Sequential Summary:
Following are salient features of Indexed sequential file structure:
Records are stored in sequence and index is maintained.
Dense and nondense types of indexes are maintained.
Track overflows and file overflow areas are ensured.
Cylinder index increases the efficiency .

265
Lecture No. 36
Reading Material
“Database Management Systems”, 2
nd
edition, Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes
Gehrke, McGraw-Hill
Database Management, Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture
o Hashing
o Hashing Algorithm
o Collision Handling
In the previous lecture we have discussed file organization and techniques of file
handling. In today’s lecture we will study hashing techniques, its algorithms and
collision handling.
Hashing
A hash function is computed on some attribute of each record. The result of the
function specifies in which block of the file the record should be placed .Hashing
provides rapid, non-sequential, direct access to records. A key record field is used to
calculate the record address by subjecting it to some calculation; a process called
hashing. For numeric ascending order a sequential key record fields this might
involve simply using relative address indexes from a base storage address to access
records. Most of the time, key field does not have the values in sequence that can
directly be used as relative record number. It has to be transformed. Hashing involves
computing the address of a data item by computing a function on the search key value.
A hash function h is a function from the set of all search key values Kto the set of all
bucket addresses B.

266
• We choose a number of buckets to correspond to the number of search key
values we will have stored in the database.
• To perform a lookup on a search key value , we compute , and
search the bucket with that address.
• If two search keys iand jmap to the same address, because
, then the bucket at the address obtained will contain
records with both search key values.
• In this case we will have to check the search key value of every record in
the bucket to get the ones we want.
• Insertion and deletion are simple.
Hash Functions
A good hash function gives an average-case lookup that is a small constant,
independent of the number of search keys. We hope records are distributed uniformly
among the buckets. The worst hash function maps all keys to the same bucket. The
best hash function maps all keys to distinct addresses. Ideally, distribution of keys to
addresses is uniform and random.
Hashed Access Characteristics
Following are the major characteristics:
• No indexes to search or maintain
• Very fast direct access
• Inefficient sequential access
• Use when direct access is needed, but sequential access is not.
Mapping functions
The direct address approach requires that the function, h(k), is a one-to-one mapping
from each k to integers in (1,m). Such a function is known as a perfect hashing
function: it maps each key to a distinct integer within some manageable range and
enables us to trivially build an O(1) search time table.
Unfortunately, finding a perfect hashing function is not always possible. Let's say that
we can find a hash function, h(k), which maps most of the keys onto unique integers,
but maps a small number of keys on to the same integer. If the number of collisions

267
(cases where multiple keys map onto the same integer), is sufficiently small, then
hash tables work quite well and give O(1) search times.
Handling the Collisions
In the small number of cases, where multiple keys map to the same integer, then elements with
different keys may be stored in the same "slot" of the hash table. It is clear that when the hash function
is used to locate a potential match, it will be necessary to compare the key of that element with the
search key. But there may be more than one element, which should be stored in a single slot of the
table.
Various techniques are used to manage this problem:
• Chaining,
• Overflow areas,
• Re-hashing,
• Using neighboring slots (linear probing),
• Quadratic probing,
• Random probing, ...
Chaining:
One simple scheme is to chain all collisions in lists attached to the appropriate slot.
This allows an unlimited number of collisions to be handled and doesn't require a
priori knowledge of how many elements are contained in the collection. The tradeoff
is the same as with linked lists versus array implementations of collections: linked list
overhead in space and, to a lesser extent, in time.
Re-hashing:
Re-hashing schemes use a second hashing operation when there is a collision. If
there is a further collision, we re-hash until an empty "slot" in the table is found.
The re-hashing function can either be a new function or a re-application of the
original one. As long as the functions are applied to a key in the same order, then
a sought key can always be located.
Linear probing:
One of the simplest re-hashing functions is +1 (or -1), ie on a collision; look in the
neighboring slot in the table. It calculates the new address extremely quickly and may
be extremely efficient on a modern RISC processor due to efficient cache utilization.
The animationgives you a practical demonstration of the effect of linear probing: it
also implements a quadratic re-hash function so that you can compare the difference.

268
h(j)=h(k), so the next hash function, h1 is used. A second collision occurs, so h2 is used.
Clustering:
Linear probing is subject to a clustering phenomenon. Re-hashes from one location occupy a block of
slots in the table which "grows" towards slots to which other keys hash. This exacerbates the collision
problem and the number of re-hashed can become large.
Overflow area:
Another scheme will divide the pre-allocated table into two sections: the primary area to which keys
are mapped and an area for collisions, normally termed the overflow area.
When a collision occurs, a slot in the overflow area is used for the new element and a
link from the primary slot established as in a chained system. This is essentially the
same as chaining, except that the overflow area is pre-allocated and thus possibly
faster to access. As with re-hashing, the maximum number of elements must be
known in advance, but in this case, two parameters must be estimated: the optimum
size of the primary and overflow areas.

269
Of course, it is possible to design systems with multiple overflow tables, or with a
mechanism for handling overflow out of the overflow area, which provide
flexibility without losing the advantages of the overflow scheme.
Collision handling
A well-chosen hash function can avoid anomalies which are result of an excessive
number of collisions, but does not eliminate collisions. We need some method for
handling collisions when they occur. We'll consider the following techniques:
• Open addressing
• Chaining
Open addressing:
The hash table is an array of (key, value) pairs. The basic idea is that when a (key,
value) pair is inserted into the array, and a collision occurs, the entry is simply
inserted at an alternative location in the array. Linear probing, double hashing, and
rehashing are all different ways of choosing an alternative location. The simplest
probing method is called linear probing. In linear probing, the probe sequence is
simply the sequence of consecutive locations, beginning with the hash value of the
key. If the end of the table is reached, the probe sequence wraps around and
continues at location 0. Only if the table is completely full will the search fail.
Summary Hash Table Organization:
Organization Advantages Disadvantages
Chaining Unlimited number of elements
Unlimited number of collisions
Overhead of multiple linked
lists
Re-hashing
Fast re-hashing
Fast access through use
of main table space
Maximum number of
elements must be known
Multiple collisions may
become probable
Overflow
area
Fast access
Collisions don't use primary table
space
Two parameters which
govern performance
need to be estimated

270
Lecture No. 37
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management System” by Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture:
o Indexes
o Index Classification
In the previous lecture we have discussed hashing and collision handling. In
today’s lecture we will discuss indexes, their properties and classification.
Index
In a book, the index is an alphabetical listing of topics, along with the page number
where the topic appears. The idea of an INDEX in a Database is similar. We will
consider two popular types of indexes, and see how they work, and why they are
useful. Any subset of the fields of a relation can be the search key for an index on the
relation. Search key is not the same as key(e.g. doesn’t have to be unique ID). An
index contains a collection of data entries, and supports efficient retrieval of all
records with a given search key value k. typically, index also contains auxiliary
information that directs searches to the desired data entries. There can be multiple
(different) indexes per file. Indexes on primary key and on attribute(s) in the unique
constraint are automatically created. Indexes in databases are similar to indexes in
books. In a book, an index allows you to find information quickly without reading the
entire book. In a database, an index allows the database program to find data in a table
without scanning the entire table. An index in a book is a list of words with the page
numbers that contain each word. An index in a database is a list of values in a table
with the storage locations of rows in the table that contain each value. Indexes can be

271
created on either a single column or a combination of columns in a table and are
implemented in the form of B-trees. An index contains an entry with one or more
columns (the search key) from each row in a table. A B-tree is sorted on the search
key, and can be searched efficiently on any leading subset of the search key. For
example, an index on columns A, B, C can be searched efficiently on A, on A, B, and
A, B, C. Most books contain one general index of words, names, places, and so on.
Databases contain individual indexes for selected types or columns of data: this is
similar to a book that contains one index for names of people and another index for
places. When you create a database and tune it for performance, you should create
indexes for the columns used in queries to find data.
In the pubs sample database provided with Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000, the
employee table has an index on the emp_id column. The following illustration shows
that how the index stores each emp_id value and points to the rows of data in the table
with each value.
When SQL Server executes a statement to find data in the employee table based on a
specified emp_id value, it recognizes the index for the emp_id column and uses the
index to find the data. If the index is not present, it performs a full table scan starting
at the beginning of the table and stepping through each row, searching for the
specified emp_id value. SQL Server automatically creates indexes for certain types of
272
constraints (for example, PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE constraints). You can further
customize the table definitions by creating indexes that are independent of constraints.
The performance benefits of indexes, however, do come with a cost. Tables with
indexes require more storage space in the database. Also, commands that insert,
update, or delete data can take longer and require more processing time to maintain
the indexes. When you design and create indexes, you should ensure that the
performance benefits outweigh the extra cost in storage space and processing
resources.
Index Classification
Indexes are classified as under:
• Clustered vs. Un-clustered Indexes
• Single Key vs. Composite Indexes
• Tree-based, inverted files, pointers
Primary Indexes:
Consider a table, with a Primary Key Attribute being used to store it as an ordered
array (that is, the records of the table are stored in order of increasing value of the
Primary Key attribute.)As we know, each BLOCK of memory will store a few records
of this table. Since all search operations require transfers of complete blocks, to
search for a particular record, we must first need to know which block it is stored in.
If we know the address of the block where the record is stored, searching for the
record is very fast. Notice also that we can order the records using the Primary Key
attribute values. Thus, if we just know the primary key attribute value of the first
record in each block, we can determine quite quickly whether a given record can be
found in some block or not. This is the idea used to generate the Primary Index file for
the table.
Secondary Indexes:
Users often need to access data on the basis of non-key or non-unique attribute;
secondary key. Like student name, program name, students enrolled in a particular
program .Records are stored on the basis of key attribute; three possibilities
• Sequential search
• Sorted on the basis of name

273
• Sort for command execution
A part from primary indexes, one can also create an index based on some other
attribute of the table. We describe the concept of Secondary Indexes for a Key
attribute that is, for an attribute which is not the Primary Key, but still has unique
values for each record of the table The idea is similar to the primary index. However,
we have already ordered the records of our table using the Primary key. We cannot
order the records again using the secondary key (since that will destroy the utility of
the Primary Index Therefore, the Secondary Index is a two column file, which stores
the address of every tuple of the table.
Following are the three-implementation approaches of Indexes:
• Inverted files or inversions
• Linked lists
• B+ Trees
Creating Index
CREATE [ UNIQUE ]
[ CLUSTERED | NONCLUSTERED ]
INDEX index_name
ON { table |view } ( column [ ASC | DESC ] [ ,...n ]
We will now see an example of creating index as under:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX pr_prName
ON program(prName)
It can also be created on composite attributes. We will see it with an example.
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX
St_Name ON
Student(stName ASC, stFName DESC)
Properties of Indexes:
Following are the major properties of indexes:
• Indexes can be defined even when there is no data in the table
• Existing values are checked on execution of this command
• It support selections of form as under:
field <operator> constant

274
• It support equality selections as under:
Either “tree” or “hash” indexes help here.
• It support Range selections (operator is one among <, >, <=, >=, BETWEEN)
Summary
In today’s lecture we have discussed the indexes, its classification and creating the
indexes as well. The absence or presence of an index does not require a change in the
wording of any SQL statement. An index merely offers a fast access path to the data;
it affects only the speed of execution. Given a data value that has been indexed, the
index points directly to the location of the rows containing that value. Indexes are
logically and physically independent of the data in the associated table. You can
create or drop an index at anytime without affecting the base tables or other indexes.
If you drop an index, all applications continue to work; however, access to previously
indexed data might be slower. Indexes, being independent structures, require storage
space.

275
Lecture No. 38
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management System” by Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture
Indexes
Clustered Versus Un-clustered Indexes
Dense Verses Sparse Indexes
Primary and Secondary Indexes
Indexes Using Composite Search Keys
In the previous lecture we studied about what the indexes are and what is the need for
creating an index. There exist a number of index types which are important and are
helpful for the file organization in database environments for the storage of files on
disks.
Ordered Indices
In order to allow fast randomaccess, an index structure may be used.
A file may have several indices on different search keys.
If the file containing the records is sequentially ordered, the index whose search key
specifies the sequential order of the file is the primary index, or clustering index.
Note: The search key of a primary index is usually the primary key, but it is not
necessarily so.
Indices whose search key specifies an order different from the sequential order of the
file are called the secondary indices, or nonclustering indices.
Clustered Indexes
A clustered indexdetermines the storage order of data in a table. A clustered index is
analogous to a telephone directory, which arranges data by last name. Because the
clustered index dictates the physical storage order of the data in the table, a table can
contain only one clustered index. However, the index can comprise multiple columns
(a composite index), like the way a telephone directory is organized by last name and
first name.
A clustered index is particularly efficient on columns often searched for ranges of
values. Once the row with the first value is found using the clustered index, rows with
subsequent indexed values are guaranteed to be physically adjacent. For example, if
an application frequently executes a query to retrieve records between a range of dates,
a clustered index can quickly locate the row containing the beginning date, and then
retrieve all adjacent rows in the table until the last date is reached. This can help
increase the performance of this type of query. Also, if there is a column(s) which is
used frequently to sort the data retrieved from a table, it can be advantageous to

276
cluster (physically sort) the table on that column(s) to save the cost of a sort each time
the column(s) is queried.
Clustered indexes are also efficient for finding a specific row when the indexed value
is unique. For example, the fastest way to find a particular employee using the unique
employee ID column emp_idwould be to create a clustered index or PRIMARY
KEY constraint on the emp_idcolumn.
NotePRIMARY KEY constraints create clustered indexes automatically if no
clustered index already exists on the table and a nonclustered index is not specified
when you create the PRIMARY KEY constraint.
Alternatively, a clustered index could be created on lname, fname(last name, first
name), because employee records are often grouped and queried that way rather than
by employee ID.
Non-clustered Indexes
Nonclustered indexes have the same B-tree structure as clustered indexes, with two
significant differences:
The data rows are not sorted and stored in order based on their nonclustered keys.
The leaf layer of a nonclustered index does not consist of the data pages.
Instead, the leaf nodes contain index rows. Each index row contains the nonclustered
key value and one or more row locators that point to the data row (or rows if the index
is not unique) having the key value.
Nonclustered indexes can be defined on either a table with a clustered index or a heap.
In Microsoft® SQL Server™ version 7.0, the row locators in nonclustered index rows
have two forms:
If the table is a heap (does not have a clustered index), the row locator is a pointer to
the row. The pointer is built from the file ID, page number, and number of the row on
the page. The entire pointer is known as a Row ID.
If the table does have a clustered index, the row locator is the clustered index key for
the row. If the clustered index is not a unique index, SQL Server 7.0 adds an internal
value to duplicate keys to make them unique. This value is not visible to users; it is
used to make the key unique for use in nonclustered indexes. SQL Server retrieves the
data row by searching the clustered index using the clustered index key stored in the
leaf row of the nonclustered index.
Because nonclustered indexes store clustered index keys as their row locators, it is
important to keep clustered index keys as small as possible. Do not choose large
columns as the keys to clustered indexes if a table also has nonclustered indexes.
Dense and Sparse Indices
There are Two types of ordered indices:
Dense Index:
An index record appears for every search key value in file.
This record contains search key value and a pointer to the actual record.
Sparse Index:
Index records are created only for some of the records.
To locate a record, we find the index record with the largest search key value less than
or equal to the search key value we are looking for.
We start at that record pointed to by the index record, and proceed along the pointers
in the file (that is, sequentially) until we find the desired record.
Dense indices are faster in general, but sparse indices require less space and impose
less maintenance for insertions and deletions.
We can have a good compromise by having a sparse index with one entry per block. It
has several advantages.

277
Biggest cost is in bringing a block into main memory.
We are guaranteed to have the correct block with this method, unless record is on an
overflow block (actually could be several blocks).
Index size still small.
Multi-Level Indices
Even with a sparse index, index size may still grow too large. For 100,000 records, 10
per block, at one index record per block, that's 10,000 index records! Even if we can
fit 100 index records per block, this is 100 blocks.
If index is too large to be kept in main memory, a search results in several disk reads.
If there are no overflow blocks in the index, we can use binary search.
This will read as many as blocks (as many as 7 for our 100 blocks).
If index has overflow blocks, then sequential search typically used, reading all b
index blocks.
Use binary search on outer index. Scan index block found until correct index record
found. Use index record as before - scan block pointed to for desired record.
For very large files, additional levels of indexing may be required.
Indices must be updated at all levels when insertions or deletions require it.
Frequently, each level of index corresponds to a unit of physical storage (e.g. indices
at the level of track, cylinder and disk).
Two-level sparse index.
Index Update
Regardless of what form of index is used, every index must be updated whenever a
record is either inserted into or deleted from the file.
Deletion:
Find (look up) the record
If the last record with a particular search key value, delete that search key value from
index.

278
For dense indices, this is like deleting a record in a file.
For sparse indices, delete a key value by replacing key value's entry in index by next
search key value. If that value already has an index entry, delete the entry.
Insertion:
Find place to insert.
Dense index: insert search key value if not present.
Sparse index: no change unless new block is created. (In this case, the first search key
value appearing in the new block is inserted into the index).
Secondary Indices
If the search key of a secondary index is not a candidate key, it is not enough to point
to just the first record with each search-key value because the remaining records with
the same search-key value could be anywhere in the file. Therefore, a secondary index
must contain pointers to all the records.
Sparse secondary index on sname.
We can use an extra-level of indirection to implement secondary indices on search
keys that are not candidate keys. A pointer does not point directly to the file but to a
bucket that contains pointers to the file.
See Figure aboveon secondary key sname.
To perform a lookup on Peterson, we must read all three records pointed to by entries
in bucket 2.
Only one entry points to a Peterson record, but three records need to be read.
As file is not ordered physically by cname, this may take 3 block accesses.
Secondary indices must be dense, with an index entry for every search-key value, and
a pointer to every record in the file.
Secondary indices improve the performance of queries on non-primary keys.
They also impose serious overhead on database modification: whenever a file is
updated, every index must be updated.
Designer must decide whether to use secondary indices or not.
Indexes Using Composite Search Keys
The search key for an index can contain several fields; such keys are called composite
search keys or concatenated keys. As an example, consider a collection of employee
records, with fields name, age, and sal, stored in sorted order by name. Figure below
illustrates the difference between a composite index with key (age, sal) anda

279
composite index with key (sal, age), an index with key age, and an index with key sal.
All indexes which are shown in the figure use Alternative (2) for data entries.
If the search key is composite, an equality query is one in which each field in the
search key is bound to a constant. For example, we can ask to retrieve all data entries
with age = 20 and sal = 10. The hashed file organization supports only equality
queries, since a hash function identifies the bucket containing desired records only if a
value is specified for each field in the search key. A range query is one in which not
all fields in the search key are bound to constants. For example, we can ask to retrieve
all data entries with age = 20; this query implies that any value is acceptable for the
sal field. As another example of a range query, we can ask to retrieve all data entries
with age < 30 and sal > 40.
Amir
Qazi
Saif
Nasar

280
Lecture No. 39 and 40
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management System” by Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture
o Introduction to Views
o Views, Data Independence, Security
o Choosing a Vertical and Horizontal Subset of a Table
o A View Using Two Tables
o A View of a View
o A View Using a Function
o Updates on Views
Views
Views are generally used to focus, simplify, and customize the perception
each user has of the database. Views can be used as security mechanisms
by allowing users to access data through the view, without granting the users
permissions to directly access the underlying base tables of the view.
To Focus on Specific Data
Views allow users to focus on specific data that interests them and on the
specific tasks for which they are responsible. Unnecessary data can be left
out of the view. This also increases the security of the data because users

281
can see only the data that is defined in the view and not the data in the
underlying table.
A database view displays one or more database records on the same page. A
view can display some or all of the database fields. Views have filters to
determine which records they show. Views can be sorted to control the record
order and grouped to display records in related sets. Views have other options
such as totals and subtotals.
Most users interact with the database using the database views. A key to
creating a useful database is a well-chosen set of views. Luckily, while views
are powerful, they are also easy to create.
A "view" is essentially a dynamically generated "result" table that is put
together based upon the parameters you have defined in your query. For
example, you might instruct the database to give you a list of all the
employees in the EMPLOYEES table with salaries greater than 50,000 USD
per year. The database would check out the EMPLOYEES table and return
the requested list as a "virtual table".
Similarly, a view could be composed of the results of a query on several
tables all at once (sometimes called a "join"). Thus, you might create a view of
all the employees with a salary of greater than 50K from several stores by

282
accumulating the results from queries to the EMPLOYEES and STORES
databases. The possibilities are limitless.
You can customize all aspects of a view, including:
• The name of the view
• The fields that appear in the view
• The column title for each field in the view
• The order of the fields in the view
• The width of columns in the view, as well as the overall width of the view
• The set of records that appear in the view (Filtering)
• The order in which records are displayed in the view (Sorting & Grouping)
• Column totals for numeric and currency fields (Totaling & Subtotaling)
The physical schema for a relational database describes how the relations in
the conceptual schema are stored, in terms of the file organizations and
indexes used. The conceptual schema is the collection of schemas of the
relations stored in the database. While some relations in the conceptual
schema can also be exposed to applications, i.e., be part of the external
schema of the database, additional relations in the external schema can be
defined using the view mechanism. The view mechanism thus provides the
support for logical data independence in the relational model. That is, it can
be used to define relations in the external schema that mask changes in the
conceptual schema of the database from applications. For example, if the
schema of a stored relation is changed, we can define a view with the old
schema, and applications that expect to see the old schema can now use this
view. Views are also valuable in the context of security: We can define views

283
that give a group of user’s access to just the information they are allowed to
see. For example, we can define a view that allows students to see other
students' name and age but not their GPA, and allow all students to access
this view, but not the underlying Students table.
There are two ways to create a new view in your database. You can:
• Create a new view from scratch.
• Or, make a copy of an existing view and then modify it.
Characteristics /Types of Views:
We have a number of views type of which some of the important views types are
listed below:
• Materialized View
• Simple Views
• Complex View
• Dynamic Views.
A materialized view is a replica of a target master from a single point in time.
The master can be either a master table at a master site or a master
materialized view at a materialized view site. Whereas in multi-master
replication tables are continuously updated by other master sites, materialized
views are updated from one or more masters through individual batch
updates, known as a refreshes refreshesrefreshes refreshes, from a single master site or master
materialized view site
Simple Views

284
As defined earlier simple views are created from tables and are used for
creating secure manipulation over the tables or structures of the database.
Views make the manipulations easier to perform on the database.
Complex Views
Complex views are by definition views of type which may comprise of many of
elements, such as tables, views sequences and other similar objects of the
database. When talking about the views we can have views of one table,
views of one table and one view, views of multiple tables views of multiple
views and so on…
Dynamic Views
Dynamic views are those types of views for which data is not stored and the
expressions used to build the view are used to collect the data dynamically.
These views are not executed only once when they are referred for the first
time, rather they are created and the data contained in such views is updated
every time the view is accessed or used in any other view or query.
Dynamic views generally are complex views, views of views, and views of
multiple tables.
An example of a dynamic view creation is given below:
CREATE VIEW st_view1 AS (select stName, stFname, prName
FROM student
WHERE prName = 'MCS')

285
Views can be referred in SQL statements like tables
We can have view created on functions and other views as well. Where the
function used for the view creation and the other nested view will be used as a
simple table or relation.
Examples:
View Using another View
CREATE VIEW CLASSLOC2
AS SELECT COURSE#, ROOM
FROM CLASSLOC
View Using Function
CREATE VIEWCLASSCOUNT(COURSE#, TOTCOUNT)
AS SELECTCOURSE#, COUNT(*)
FROMENROLL
GROUP BYCOURSE#;
Dynamic Views
SELECT * FROM st_view1
With Check Option
CREATE VIEWst_view2
AS (SELECT stName, stFname, prName FROMstudent WHEREprName = ‘BCS')
WITH CHECK OPTION
UPDATE ST_VIEW1 set prName = ‘BCS’
Where stFname = ‘Loving’

286
SELECT * from ST_VIEW1
SELECT * FROM ST_VIEW2
Update ST_VIEW2 set prName = ‘MCS’
Where stFname = ‘Loving’
Characteristics of Views
• Computed attributes
• Nesting of views
CREATE VIEW enr_view AS (select * from enroll)
CREATE VIEW enr_view1 as (select stId, crcode, smrks, mterm, smrks +
mterm sessional from enr_view)
Select * from enr_view1

287
Deleting Views:
A view can be dropped using the DROP VIEW command, which is just like
DROP TABLE.
Updates on Views
Updating a view is quite simple and is performed in the same way as we
perform updates on any of the database relations. But this simplicity is limited
to those views only which are created using a single relation. Those views
which comprise of multiple relations the updation are hard to perform and
needs additional care and precaution.
As we know that the views may contain some fields which are not the actual
data fields in the relation but may also contain computed attributes. So update
or insertions in this case are not performed through the views created on
these tables.

288
Lecture No. 41
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management System” by Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture
o Indexes
o Index Classification
In our previous lecture we were discussing the views. Views play an important role in
database. At this layer database is available to the users. The user needs to know that
they are dealing with views; it is infact virtual for them. It can be used to implement
security. We were discussing dynamic views whose data is not stored as such.
Updating Multiple Tables
We can do this updation of multiple views by doing it one at a time. It means that
while inserting values in different tables, it can only be done one at a time. We will
now see an example of this as under:
CREATE VIEW st_pr_view1 (a1, a2, a3, a4) AS (select stId, stName,
[Link], prcredits from student, program WHERE [Link] =
[Link])
In this example this is a join statement
We will now enter data in the table
insert into st_pr_view1 (a3, a4) values ('MSE', 110)
We will now see the program table after writing this SQL statement as the data
has been stored in the table.
Select * from program

289
In this example the total semester is NULL as this attribute was not defined in view
creation statement, so then this value will remain NULL. We will now see another
example. In this we have catered for NOT NULL.
insert into st_pr_view1 (a1, a2) values (‘S1043', ‘Bilal Masood’)
SELECT * from student
Materialized Views
A pre-computed table comprising aggregated or joined data from fact and possibly
dimensions tables. Also known as summary or aggregate [Link] are virtual
tables. In which query is executed every time .For complex queries involving large
number of join rows and aggregate functions, so it is problematic. Its solution is
materialized views also called indexed views created through clustered index.
Creating a clustered index on a view stores the result set built at the time the index is
created. An indexed view also automatically reflects modifications made to the data in

290
the base tables after the index is created, the same way an index created on a base
table does. Create indexes only on views where the improved speed in retrieving
results outweighs the increased overhead of making modifications.
Materialized views are schema objects that can be used to summarize, compute,
replicate, and distribute data. They are suitable in various computing environments
such as data warehousing, decision support, and distributed or mobile computing:
• In data warehouses, materialized views are used to compute and store
aggregated data such as sums and averages. Materialized views in these
environments are typically referred to as summaries because they store
summarized data. They can also be used to compute joins with or without
aggregations. If compatibility is set to Oracle9ior higher, then materialized
views can be used for queries that include filter selections.
Cost-based optimization can use materialized views to improve query
performance by automatically recognizing when a materialized view can and
should be used to satisfy a request. The optimizer transparently rewrites the
request to use the materialized view. Queries are then directed to the
materialized view and not to the underlying detail tables or views.
• In distributed environments, materialized views are used to replicate data at
distributed sites and synchronize updates done at several sites with conflict
resolution methods. The materialized views as replicas provide local access to
data that otherwise have to be accessed from remote sites.
• In mobile computing environments, materialized views are used to download a
subset of data from central servers to mobile clients, with periodic refreshes
from the central servers and propagation of updates by clients back to the
central servers.
Materialized views are similar to indexes in several ways:
• They consume storage space.
• They must be refreshed when the data in their master tables changes.

291
• They improve the performance of SQL execution when they are used for
query rewrites.
• Their existence is transparent to SQL applications and users.
Unlike indexes, materialized views can be accessed directly using a SELECT
statement. Depending on the types of refresh that are required, they can also be
accessed directly in an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETEstatement.
A materialized view can be partitioned. You can define a materialized view on a
partitioned table and one or more indexes on the materialized view.
Transaction Management
A transaction can be defined as an indivisible unit of work comprised of several
operations, all or none of which must be performed in order to preserve data integrity.
For example, a transfer of Rs 1000 from your checking account to your savings
account would consist of two steps: debiting your checking account by Rs1000 and
crediting your savings account with Rs1000. To protect data integrity and consistency
and the interests of the bank and the customer these two operations must be applied
together or not at all. Thus, they constitute a transaction.
Properties of a transaction
Alltransactions share these properties: atomicity, consistency, isolation, and
durability (represented by the acronym ACID).
• Atomicity: This implies indivisibility; any indivisible operation (one which
will either complete fully or not at all) is said to be atomic.
• Consistency: A transaction must transition persistent data from one consistent
state to another. If a failure occurs during processing, the data must be restored
to the state it was in prior to the transaction.
• Isolation: Transactions should not affect each other. A transaction in progress,
not yet committed or rolled back (these terms are explained at the end of this
section), must be isolated from other transactions. Although several
transactions may run concurrently, it should appear to each that all the others

292
completed before or after it; all such concurrent transactions must effectively
end in sequential order.
• Durability: Once a transaction has successfully committed, state changes
committed by that transaction must be durable and persistent, despite any
failures that occur afterwards.
A transaction can thus end in two ways: a commit, the successful execution of each
step in the transaction, or a rollback, which guarantees that none of the steps are
executed due to an error in one of those steps.

293
Lecture No. 42
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
“Database Management System” by Jeffery A Hoffer
Overview of Lecture
o Transaction Management
o The Concept of a Transaction
o Transactions and Schedules
o Concurrent Execution of Transactions
o Need for Concurrency Control
o Serializability
o Locking
o Deadlock
A transaction is defined as any one execution of a user program in a DBMS and
differs from an execution of a program outside the DBMS (e.g., a C program
executing on Unix) in important ways. (Executing the same program several times
will generate several transactions.)
For performance reasons, a DBMS has to interleave the actions of several transactions.
However, to give users a simple way to understand the effect of running their
programs, the interleaving is done carefully to ensure that the result of a concurrent
execution of transactions is nonetheless equivalent (in its effect upon the database) to
some serial, or one-at-a-time, execution of the same set of transactions.
The Concept of a Transaction
A user writes data access/update programs in terms of the high-level query and up-
datelanguage supported by the DBMS. To understand how the DBMS handles such
requests, with respect to concurrency control and recovery, it is convenient to regard
an execution of a user program, or transaction, as a series of reads and writes of
database objects:

294
• To read a database object, it is first brought into main memory (specifically,
some frame in the buffer pool) from disk, and then its value is copied into a
program variable.
• To write a database object, an in-memory copy of the object is first modified
and then written to disk.
Database `objects' are the units in which programs read or write information. The
units could be pages, records, and so on, but this is dependent on the DBMS and is not
central to the principles underlying concurrency control or recovery. In this chapter,
we will consider a database to be a fixed collection of independent objects.
There are four important properties of transactions that a DBMS must ensure to
maintain data in the face of concurrent access and system failures:
• Users should be able to regard the execution of each transaction as atomic:
either all actions are carried out or none are. Users should not have to worry
about the effect of incomplete transactions (say, when a system crash occurs).
• Each transaction, run by itself with no concurrent execution of other
transactions, must preserve the consistency of the database. This property is
called consistency, and the DBMS assumes that it holds for each transaction.
Ensuring this property of a transaction is the responsibility of the user.
• Users should be able to understand a transaction without considering the effect
of other concurrently executing transactions, even if the DBMS interleaves the
actions of several transactions for performance reasons. This property is
sometimes referred to as isolation: Transactions are isolated, or protected,
from the effects of concurrently scheduling other transactions.
• Once the DBMS informs the user that a transaction has been successfully
completed, its effects should persist even if the system crashes before all its
changes are reflected on disk. This property is called durability.
The acronym ACID is sometimes used to refer to the four properties of transactions
which are presented here: atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability.
Transactions and Schedules
295
A transaction is seen by the DBMS as a series, or list, of actions. The actions that can
be executed by a transaction include reads and writes of database objects. A
transaction can also be defined as a set of actions that are partially ordered. That is,
the relative order of some of the actions may not be important. In order to concentrate
on the main issues, we will treat transactions (and later, schedules) as a list of actions.
Further, to keep our notation simple, we'll assume that an object O is always read into
a program variable that is also named O. We can therefore denote the action of a
transaction T reading an object O as RT (O); similarly, we can denote writing as WT
(O). When the transaction T is clear from the context, we will omit the subscript.
A schedule is a list of actions (reading, writing, aborting, or committing) from a set of
transactions, and the order in which two actions of a transaction T appear in a
schedule must be the same as the order in which they appear in T. Intuitively, a
schedule represents an actual or potential execution sequence. For example, the
schedule in Figure below shows an execution order for actions of two transactions T1
and T2. We move forward in time as we go down from one row to the next. We
emphasize that a schedule describes the actions of transactions as seen by the DBMS.
In addition to these actions, a transaction may carry out other actions, such as reading
or writing from operating system files, evaluating arithmetic expressions, and so on.
Concurrent Execution of Transactions
The DBMS interleaves the actions of different transactions to improve performance,
in terms of increased throughput or improved response times for short transactions,
but not all interleaving should be allowed.
Ensuring transaction isolation while permitting such concurrent execution is difficult
but is necessary for performance reasons. First, while one transaction is waiting for a
page to be read in from disk, the CPU can process another transaction. This is because
I/O activity can be done in parallel with CPU activity in a computer. Overlapping I/O
and CPU activity reduces the amount of time disks and processors are idle, and
increases system throughput (the average number of transactions completed in a given
time). Second, interleaved execution of a short transaction with a long transaction
usually allows the short transaction to complete quickly. In serial execution, a short

296
transaction could get stuck behind a long transaction leading to unpredictable delays
in response time, or average time taken to complete a transaction.
Figure: Transaction Scheduling
Serializability
To begin with, we assume that the database designer has defined some notion of a
consistent database state. For example, we can define a consistency criterion for a
university database to be that the sum of employee salaries in each department should
be less than 80 percent of the budget for that department. We require that each
transaction must preserve database consistency; it follows that any serial schedule that
is complete will also preserve database consistency. That is, when a complete serial
schedule is executed against a consistent database, the result is also a consistent
database.
A serializable schedule over a set S of committed transactions is a schedule whose
effect on any consistent database instance is guaranteed to be identical to that of some
complete serial schedule over S. That is, the database instance that results from
executing the given schedule is identical to the database instance that results from
executing the transactions in some serial order. There are some important points to
note in this definition:
• Executing the transactions serially in different orders may produce different
results, but all are presumed to be acceptable; the DBMS makes no guarantees
about which of them will be the outcome of an interleaved execution.
• The above definition of a serializable schedule does not cover the case of
schedules containing aborted transactions
• If a transaction computes a value and prints it to the screen, this is an `effect'
that is not directly captured in the state of the database. We will assume that
all such values are also written into the database, for simplicity.

297
Lock-Based Concurrency Control
A DBMS must be able to ensure that only serializable, recoverable schedules are
allowed, and that no actions of committed transactions are lost while undoing aborted
transactions. A DBMS typically uses a locking protocol to achieve this. A locking
protocol is a set of rules to be followed by each transaction (and enforced by the
DBMS), in order to ensure that even though actions of several transactions might be
interleaved, the net effect is identical to executing all transactions in some serial order.
Strict Two-Phase Locking (Strict 2PL)
The most widely used locking protocol, called Strict Two-Phase Locking, or Strict
2PL, has two rules.
The first rule is
If a transaction T wants to read (respectively, modify) an object, it first requests a
shared (respectively, exclusive) lock on the object. Of course, a transaction that has an
exclusive lock can also read the object; an additional shared lock is not required. A
transaction that requests a lock is suspended until the DBMS is able to grant it the
requested lock. The DBMS keeps track of the locks it has granted and ensures that if a
transaction holds an exclusive lock on an object, no other transaction holds a shared
or exclusive lock on the same object. The second rule in Strict 2PL is:
All locks held by a transaction are released when the transaction is completed.
Requests to acquire and release locks can be automatically inserted into transactions
by the DBMS; users need not worry about these details. In effect the locking protocol
allows only `safe' interleaving of transactions. If two transactions access completely
independent parts of the database, they will be able to concurrently obtain the locks
that they need and proceed merrily on their ways. On the other hand, if two
transactions access the same object, and one of them wants to modify it, their actions
are effectively ordered serially all actions of one of these transactions (the one that
gets the lock on the common object first) are completed before (this lock is released
and) the other transaction can proceed.
We denote the action of a transaction T requesting a shared (respectively, exclusive)
lock on object O as ST (O) (respectively, XT (O)), and omit the subscript denoting the
transaction when it is clear from the context. As an example, consider the schedule
shown in Figure below.
298
Figure reading uncommitted Data
This interleaving could result in a state that cannot result from any serial execution of
the three transactions. For instance, T1 could change A from 10 to 20, then T2 (which
reads the value 20 for A) could change B from 100 to 200, and then T1 would read
the value 200 for B. If run serially, either T1 orT2 would execute first, and read the
values 10 for A and 100 for B: Clearly, the interleaved execution is not equivalent to
either serial execution. If the Strict 2PL protocol is used, the above interleaving is
disallowed. Let us see why. Assuming that the transactions proceed at the same
relative speed as before, T1 would obtain an exclusive lock on A first and then read
and write A (figure below) Then, T2 would request a lock on A. However, this
request cannot be granted until T1 releases its exclusive lock on A, and the DBMS
therefore suspends T2. T1 now proceeds to obtain an exclusive lock on B, reads and
writes B, then finally commits, at which time its locks are released. T2's lock request
is now granted, and it proceeds. In this example the locking protocol results in a serial
execution of the two transactions. In general, however, the actions of different
transactions could be interleaved. As an example, consider the interleaving of two
transactions shown in Figure below, which is permitted by the Strict 2PL protocol.
Figure: Schedule illustrating strict 2PL.

299
Deadlocks
Consider the following example: transaction T1 gets an exclusive lock on object A,
T2 gets an exclusive lock on B, T1 requests an exclusive lock on B and is queued, and
T2 requests an exclusive lock on A and is queued. Now, T1 is waiting for T2 to
release its lock and T2 is waiting for T1 to release its lock! Such a cycle of
transactions waiting for locks to be released is called a deadlock. Clearly, these two
transactions will make no further progress. Worse, they hold locks that may be
required by other transactions. The DBMS must either prevent or detect (and resolve)
such deadlock situations.
Figure :Schedule Illustrating Deadlock
Deadlock Prevention
We can prevent deadlocks by giving each transaction a priority and ensuring that
lower priority transactions are not allowed to wait for higher priority transactions (or
vice versa). One way to assign priorities is to give each transaction a timestamp when
it starts up. The lower the timestamp, the higher the transaction's priority, that is, the
oldest transaction has the highest priority.
If a transaction Ti requests a lock and transaction Tj holds a conflicting lock, the lock
manager can use one of the following two policies:
• Wait-die: If Ti has higher priority, it is allowed to wait; otherwise it is aborted.
• Wound-wait: If Ti has higher priority, abort Tj; otherwise Ti waits.
In the wait-die scheme, lower priority transactions can never wait for higher priority
transactions. In the wound-wait scheme, higher priority transactions never wait for
lower priority transactions. In either case no deadlock cycle can develop.
300
A subtle point is that we must also ensure that no transaction is perennially aborted
because it never has a sufficiently high priority. (Note that in both schemes, the higher
priority transaction is never aborted.) When a transaction is aborted and restarted, it
should be given the same timestamp that it had originally. Reissuing timestamps in
this way ensures that each transaction will eventually become the oldest transaction,
and thus the one with the highest priority, and will get all the locks that it requires.
The wait-die scheme is non-preemptive; only a transaction requesting a lock can be
aborted. As a transaction grows older (and its priority increases), it tends to wait for
more and more young transactions. A younger transaction that conflicts with an older
transaction may be repeatedly aborted (a disadvantage with respect to wound wait),
but on the other hand, a transaction that has all the locks it needs will never be aborted
for deadlock reasons (an advantage with respect to wound-wait, which is preemptive).
Deadlock Detection
Deadlocks tend to be rare and typically involve very few transactions. This
observation suggests that rather than taking measures to prevent deadlocks, it may be
better to detect and resolve deadlocks as they arise. In the detection approach, the
DBMS must periodically check for deadlocks. When a transaction Ti is suspended
because a lock that it requests cannot be granted, it must wait until all transactions Tj
that currently hold conflicting locks release them.
The lock manager maintains a structure called a waits-for graph to detect deadlock
cycles. The nodes correspond to active transactions, and there is an arc from Ti to Tj
if (and only if) Ti is waiting for Tj to release a lock. The lock manager adds edges to
this graph when it queues lock requests and removes edges when it grants lock
requests.
Detection versus Prevention
In prevention-based schemes, the abort mechanism is used preemptively in order to
avoid deadlocks. On the other hand, in detection-based schemes, the transactions in a
deadlock cycle hold locks that prevent other transactions from making progress.
System throughput is reduced because many transactions may be blocked, waiting to
obtain locks currently held by deadlocked transactions.
This is the fundamental trade-off between these prevention and detection approaches
to deadlocks: loss of work due to preemptive aborts versus loss of work due to

301
blocked transactions in a deadlock cycle. We can increase the frequency with which
we check for deadlock cycles, and thereby reduce the amount of work lost due to
blocked transactions, but this entails a corresponding increase in the cost of the
deadlock detection mechanism.
A variant of 2PL called Conservative 2PL can also prevent deadlocks. Under
Conservative 2PL, a transaction obtains all the locks that it will ever need when it
begins, or blocks waiting for these locks to become available. This scheme ensures
that there will not be any deadlocks, and, perhaps more importantly, that a transaction
that already holds some locks will not block waiting for other locks. The trade-o_ is
that a transaction acquires locks earlier. If lock contention is low, locks are held
longer under Conservative 2PL. If lock contention is heavy, on the other hand,
Conservative 2PL can reduce the time that locks are held on average, because
transactions that hold locks are never blocked.

302
Lecture No. 43
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation”
written by Catherine Ricardo, Maxwell Macmillan.
Chapter 12
“Database Management Systems” Second edition written by
Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehkre.
Chapter 18
Overview of Lecture
o Incremental log with deferred updates
o Incremental log with immediate updates
o Introduction to concurrency control
Incremental Log with Deferred Updates
We are discussing the deferred updates approach regarding the database recovery
techniques. In the previous lecture we studied the structure of log file entries for the
deferred updates approach. In today’s lecture we will discuss the recovery process.
Write Sequence:
First we see what the sequence of actions is when a write operation is performed. On
encountering a ‘write’ operation, the DBMS places an entry in the log file buffer
mentioning the effect of the write operation. For example, if the transaction includes
the operations:
…….
X = X + 10
Write X
…….
Supposing that the value of X before the addition operation is 23 and after the
execution of operation it becomes 33. Now against the write operation, the entry made
in the log file will be

303
<Tn, X, 33>
In the entry, Tn reflects the identity of the transaction, X is the object being updated
and 33 is the value that has to be placed in X. Important point to be noted here is that
the log entry is made only for the write operation. The assignment operation and any
other mathematical or relational operation is executed in RAM. For a ‘read’ operation
the value may be read from the disk (database) or it may already be in RAM or cache.
But the log entry results only from a ‘write’ operation.
The transaction proceeds in a similar fashion and entries keep on adding for the write
operations. When the ‘commit’ statement is executed then, first, the database buffer
is updated, that is the new value is placed in the database buffer. After that the log file
is moved to disk log file which means that the log file entries have been made
permanent. Then write is performed, that is, the data from DB buffer is moved to disk.
There may be some delay between the execution of the commit statement and the
actual writing of data from database buffer to disk. Now, during this time if system
crashes then the problem is that the transaction has been declared as committed
whereas the final result of the object was still in RAM (in database buffer) and due to
system crash the contents of the RAM have been lost. The crash recovery procedure
takes care of this situation.
The Recovery Procedure
When crash occurs, the recovery manager (RM), on restart, examines the log file from
the disk. The transactions for which the RM finds both begin and commit operations,
are redone, that is, the ‘write’ entries for such transactions are executed again. For
example, consider the example entries in a log file
<T1, begin >
<T1, X, 33>
<T2, begin>
<T1, Y, 9>
<T2, A, 43>
<T1, X, 18>
<T1, commit >
<T2, abort>
<T3, begin>
<T3, B, 12>
Here we find the begin entries for
T1, T2 and T3, however, the
commit entry is only for T1. On
restart after the crash, the RM
performs the write operations of T1
again in the forward order, that is,
it writes the value 33 for object X,
then writes 9 for Y and writes 19
for X again. If some or all of these
operations have been performed
already, writing them again will not
cause any harm.
Log File Entries

304
The RM does not any action for the transactions for which there is only a begin entry
or for which there are begin and abort entries, like T3 and T2 respectively.
A question arises here, that how far should the RM go backward in the log file to trace
the transactions affected from the crash that the RM needs to Redo or ignore. The log
file may contain so many entries and going too much back or starting right from the
start of the log file will be inefficient. For this purpose another concept of
‘checkpoint’ is used in the recovery procedure.
Checkpoint:
Checkpoint is also a record or an entry in the log file. It serves as a milestone or
reference point in the log file. At certain point in time the DBMS enters a log
entry/record in the log file and also performs certain operations listed below:
• It moves modified database buffers to disk
• All log records from buffer to disk
• Writing a checkpoint record to log; log record mentions all active
transactions at the time
Now in case of crash, the RM monitors the log file up to the last checkpoint. The
checkpoint guarantees that any prior commit has been reflected in the database. The
RM has to decide which transactions to Redo and which to ignore and RM decides it
on the following bases:
• Transactions ended before the checkpoint, are ignored altogether.
• Transactions which have both begin and the commit entries, are Redone.
It does not matter if they are committed again.
• Transactions that have begin and an abort entry are ignored.
• Transactions that have a begin and no end entry (commit or rollback) are
ignored
This way checkpoint makes the recovery procedure efficient. We can summarize the
deferred approach as:

305
• Writes are deferred until commit for transaction is found
• For recovery purpose, log file is maintained
• Log file helps to redo the actions that may be lost due to system crash
• Log file also contains checkpoint records
Next, we are going to discuss the other approach of crash recovery and that is
incremental log with immediate updates.
Incremental Log with Immediate Updates
Contrary to the deferred updates, the database buffers are updated immediately as the
‘write’ statement is executed and files are updated when convenient. The log file and
database buffers are maintained as in the deferred update approach. One effect of
immediate update is that the object updating process needs not to wait for the commit
statement; however, there is a problem that the transaction in which a ‘write’
statement has been executed (and the buffer has been updated accordingly) may be
aborted later. Now there needs to be some process that cancels the updation that has
been performed for the aborted transaction. This is achieved by a slightly different log
file entry/record. The structure of log file entry for immediate update technique is
<Tr, object, old_value, new_value>, where Tr represents the transaction Id, ‘object’ is
the object to be updated, old_value represents the value of object before the execution
of ‘write’ statement and new_value is the new value of object. Other entries of the log
file in immediate update approach are just like those of deferred update.
The sequence of steps on write statement is:
• A log record of the form <T, X, old val, new val> is written in the log file
• Database buffers are updated
• Log record is moved from buffer to the file
• Database is updated when convenient
• On commit a log file entry is made in the log file as <T, commit>
Recovery Sequence
306
In case of a crash, the RM detects the crash as before on restart and after that the
recovery procedure is initiated. The transactions for which the <Tr, begin> and <Tr,
commit> are found, those transactions are redone. The redo process is performed by
copying the new value of the objects in the forward order. If these transactions have
already been successfully executed even then this redo will not do any harm and the
final state of the objects will be the same. The transactions for which a <Tr, begin>
and <Tr, abort> are found or those transaction for which only <Ts, begin> is found,
such transactions are undone. The undo activity is performed by executing the write
statements in the reverse order till the start of the transaction. During this execution,
the old value of the objects are copied/placed so all the changes made by this
transaction are cancelled.
<T1, begin>
<T1, X, 25, 33>
<T2, begin>
<T1, Y, 5, 9>
<T2, A, 80, 43>
<T1, X, 33, 18>
<T1, commit>
<T3 begin >
<T2, A, 43, 10>
<T3, B, 12, 9>
<T2, abort>
Here we find the begin entries for
T1, T2 and T3, however, the
commit entry is only for T1 and
also there is an abort entry for T2.
On restart after the crash, the RM
performs the write operations of T1
again in the forward order, that is,
it writes the value 33 for object X,
then writes 9 for Y and writes 18
for X again. If some or all of these
operations have been performed
already, writing them again will not
cause any harm.
Log File Entries
To undo the effects of T2 (which has been aborted) the write statements of T2 are
executed in the reverse order copying the old value from the entry/record. Like, here
the second write statement of T2 that had possibly written the value 10 over 43, now
43 will be placed for A. Moving backward we find another write statement of T2 that
places 43 replacing 80. Now we pick the old value, i.e., 80 and place this value for A.
After performing these operations the effects of executing an aborted T2 are
completely eliminated, that is, the object A contains value 80 that it had before the
execution of transaction T2. Same process is also applied for the transaction T3.
Checkpoints are used in immediate updates approach as well.
We have discussed recovery procedure both in deferred update and immediate update.
Crash recovery is an important aspect of a DBMS, since in spite of all precautions and
protections the crashes happen. We can minimize the frequency but they cannot be
avoided altogether. Once crash happens, the purpose of recovery mechanism is to

307
reduce the effect of this crash as much as possible and to bring database in a
consistent state and we have studied how the DBMS performs this activity.
Concurrency Control
Concurrency control (CC) is the second part of the transaction management. The
objective of the CC is to control the concurrent access of database by multiple users at
the same time called the concurrent access.
First questions is that why to have the concurrent access. The answer to this question
refers to very basic objective of the database approach that is sharing of data. Now if
we are allowing multiple users to share the data stored in the database, then how will
they access this data. One user at a time? If so, it will be very inefficient, we cannot
expect the users to be that patient to wait so long. At the same time we have so
powerful and sophisticated computer hardware and software that it will be a very bad
under-utilization of the resources if allow one user access at one time. That is why
concurrent access of the data is very much required and essential.
We are convinced that concurrent access is required, but if not controlled properly the
concurrent access may cause certain problems and those problems may turn the
database into an inconsistent state and this is never every allowed in the database
processing. The objective of CC is to allow the concurrent access in such a way that
these problems due to concurrent access are not encountered or to maintain the
consistency of the database in the concurrent access. It is important to understand that
CC only takes care of the inconsistencies that may possibly be encountered due to
concurrent access. Inconsistency due to some other reasons is not the concern of CC.
Problems due to Concurrent Access
If not controlled properly, the concurrent access may introduce following three
problems in database:
• Lost Update Problem
• Uncommitted Update Problem
• Inconsistent Analysis Problem
We discuss these problems one by one

308
Lost Update Problem
This problem occurs when multiple users want to update same object at the same time.
This phenomenon is shown in the table below:
1010 Write (BAL) …….. t
6
950 BAL = BAL + 10 ……. t
5
950 Write (BAL) t
4
1000 …….. BAL = BAL - 50 t
3
1000 Read (BAL) ……. t
2
1000 Read (BAL) t
1
BAL TB TA TIME
Table 1: Lost update problem
This first column represents the time that acts as reference for the execution of the
statements. As is shown in the table, at time t1 transaction TA reads the value of
object ‘BAL’ that supposedly be 1000. At time t2, transaction TB reads the value of
same object ‘BAL’ and also finds the value as 1000. Now at time t3, TA subtracts 50
of ‘BAL and writes it at time t4. On the other hand TB adds 10 into value of ‘BAL’
(that she has already read as 1000) and writes the value of ‘BAL’. Now since TB
wrote the value after TA, the update made by TA is lost, it has been overwritten by
value of TB. This is the situation that reflects the lost update problem.
This problem occurred because concurrent access to the same object was not
controlled properly, that is, concurrency control did not manage the things properly.
There are two more situations that reflect the problems of concurrent access that we
will discuss in the next lecture.
Summary
This lecture concluded the discussion on crash recovery where we studied that the
main tool used for recovery is the log file. The structure of records stored in the
different types of log files is almost the same, except for the record that stores the
record of the change made in the database as a result of a write statement. The
deferred update approach stores only the new value of the object in the log file.
Whereas the immediate update approach stores the previous as well as new value of
the object being updated. After the crash recovery we started the discussion on CC,

309
where we were studying different problems of CC; first of them is the lost update
problem that we have discussed in today’s lecture, rest two will be discussed in the
next lecture.

310
Lecture No. 44
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation”
written by Catherine Ricardo, Maxwell Macmillan.
Chapter 12
“Database Management Systems” Second edition written by
Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehkre.
Chapter 18
Overview of Lecture
o Concurrency control problems
o Serial and interleaved schedules
o Serializability theory
o Introduction to locking
We are studying the concurrency control (CC) mechanism. In the previous lecture we
discussed that concurrent access means the simultaneous access of data from database
by multiple users. The concurrency control (CC) concerns maintaining the
consistency of the database during concurrent access. We also studied that if
concurrent access is not controlled properly then database may encounter three
different problems which may turn database into an inconsistence state. One of these
problems we discussed in the previous lecture, now we will discuss the remaining two.
Uncommitted Update Problem
It reflects a situation when a transaction updates an object and another transaction
reads this updated value but later the first transaction is aborted. The problem in this
situation is that the second transaction reads the value updated by an aborted
transaction. This situation is shown in the table below:

311
2650 Write (BAL) ……. t
6
? …….. ROLLBACK t
7
1100 BAL=BAL*1.5 ……. t
5
1100 Read (BAL) ……. t
4
1100 …….. Write (BAL) t
3
1000 …….. BAL=BAL+100 t
2
1000 ……. Read (BAL) t
1
BAL TB TA TIME
Table 1: Uncommitted update problem
As is shown in the table, at time t2, transaction TA updates the value of object ‘BAL’
by adding 100 in its initial value 1000 and at time t3 it writes this updated value to
database. So ‘BAL’ is written as 1100. Now at time t4, TB reads the value of ‘BAL’
and it gets 1100 then TB updates the value multiplying it by 1.5 and writes it at time
t6. So the new value written for ‘BAL’ is 2650. However at time t7 transaction TA is
rolled back as a result of this rollback the changes made by TA stand cancelled, but
TB has already performed certain processing on the value set by TA. This is an
inconsistent state of the database.
Inconsistent Analysis
Thisproblem of concurrent access occurs when one transaction operates on many
records, meanwhile another modifies some of them effecting result of first. This
problem is expressed in the following table:

312
……. ……. t
4
…….. Read (BAL_E) (6000) t
11
…….. INT = BAS_E * .05 t
12
Read (BAL_E) (5000) ……. t
8
BAL_E = BAL_E + 1000 ……. t
9
Write (BAL_E) ……. t
10
Write (BAL_A) ……. t
7
…….. TOT = TOT + INT t
13
BAL_A=BAL_A – 1000 ……. t
6
Read (BAL_A) ……. t
5
…….. TOT = TOT + INT t
3
…….. INT = BAL_A * .05 t
2
……. Read (BAL_A) (5000) t
1
TB TA TIME
Table 2: Inconsistent analysis problem
Suppose Tr-A computes interest on all accounts balances. For this, TA reads the
balance of each account multiplies it with 0.05 and adds this interest amount into a
variable TOT. Now by time t5, TA has read the balance of account ‘A’ (BAL_A) and
computed interest on it, it has to perform same process on all the accounts. In the
meanwhile from time t5 to t10 another transaction TB subtracts a value from balance
of account ‘A’ and adds this value to the balance of account ‘E’. When transaction TA
reaches the account ‘E’ to compute interest on it, the value added in it by TB is also
considered which as a matter of fact is being considered second time. First time from
account ‘A’ and now from account ‘E’. The analysis obtained through transaction TA
will be wrong at the end.
We have discussed three problems of concurrent access; the CC mechanism has to
make sure that these problems do not occur in the database. In the following, we will
discuss how it is done. We will start by studying some basic concepts.
Serial Execution
Serial execution is an execution where transactions are executed in a sequential order,
that is, one after another. A transaction may consist of many operations. Serial
execution means that all the operations of one transaction are executer first, followed
by all the operations of the next transaction and like that. A Schedule or History is a
list of operations from one or more transactions. A schedule represents the order of
execution of operations. The order of operations in a schedule should be the same as
in the transaction. Schedule for a serial execution is called a serial schedule, so in a
serial schedule all operations of one transactions are listed followed by all the
313
operations of another transactions and so on. With a given set of transactions, we can
have different serial schedules. For example, if we have two transactions, then we can
have two different serial schedules as is explained in the table below:
80
80
40
40
50
50
BAL
90 Write (BAL)
A
Write (BAL)
B
100 (BAL = BAL – 10)
A
(BAL=BAL * 2)
B
100 Read (BAL)
A
Read (BAL)
B
100 Write (BAL)
B
Write (BAL)
A
50 (BAL=BAL * 2)
B
(BAL = BAL – 10)
A
50 Read (BAL)
B
Read (BAL)
A
BAL Serial Sched 2
TB, TA
Serial Sched 1
TA, TB
Table 3: Two different serial schedules, TA, TB and TB, TA
The table shows two different schedules of two transactions TA and TB. The
subscript with each operation shows the transaction to which the operation belongs.
For example, Read (BAL)A
means the read operation of TA to read the object ‘BAL’.
By looking at the table that in each serial schedule; all the operations of one
transaction are executed first followed by those of the other transaction. An important
point to be noted here is that different serial schedules of the same transactions may
result in different final state of the database. As we can see in the table 3, final value
of the object ‘BAL’ is 80 with the serial schedule TA, TB and it is 90 with serial
schedule TB, TA. However, it is guaranteed that a serial schedule always leaves the
database in a consistent state. In other words, the three problems of concurrency that
we studies earlier will not occur if a serial schedule is followed.
The serial schedule ensures the consistency of the database, so should we prefer serial
schedule? The answer is no. Because serial execution is badly under utilization of
resources and users will not like it at all since they will have to wait a lot for the
transactions’ execution. Suppose we are following a serial execution and a transaction
Tn has to executed completely before any other transaction may start. Lets say Tn
needs an input from the user who initiated it, and by chance users gets stuck
somewhere or is thinking, unless and until the users does not enter a value, transaction
Tn cannot proceed and all other transactions are waiting for their turn to execute. If

314
allowed to happen, this will be a much disliked situation. Therefore serial schedules
are not preferred for execution.
Contrary to serial schedule is an interleaved schedule in which transactions’ execution
is interleaved, that is, operations of different transactions are intermix with each other.
However, the internal order of the operations is not changed during this intermixing.
Interleave schedule provides more efficient execution since control is switched among
transaction, so on one side it makes a better use of the resources and on the other hand
if one transaction is stuck or halted due to some reasons, the processing can go on
with other transactions. Following figure presents serial and interleaved schedules
among two transactions TA and TB
TA = {Read(X), Write(X), commit}
TB = {Read(Y), Read(X), Write(Y), commit}
S
1
= {R
A
(X), W
A
(X), C
A
,R
B
(Y), R
B
(X), W
B
(Y), C
B
}
S
2
= {R
B
(Y), R
B
(X), W
B
(Y), C
B
,R
A
(X), W
A
(X), C
A
}
S
3
= {R
B
(Y), R
B
(X), R
A
(X), W
B
(Y), C
B
,W
A
(X), C
A
}
S
4
= {R
A
(X), R
B
(Y), R
B
(X), W
A
(X), C
A
,W
B
(Y), C
B
}
Fig. 1: Two transactions and different schedules
In figure 1, we have two transactions TA and TB consisting of different operations.
S1, S2, S3 and S4 are four different schedules of these transactions. S1 and S2 are two
serial schedules where as S3 and S4 are two interleaved schedules. Obviously we can
have just two serial schedules of two transactions, but we can have many other
interleaved schedules of these transactions.
Interleaved schedules are preferred but they may generate three of the concurrent
access problems if not controlled properly. Before discussing the solution to this
problem, lets see what is the actual problem in concurrent access.
There are different situations during concurrent access of the data:
• Different transactions accessing (reading or writing) different objects
• Different transactions reading same object

315
• Different transactions accessing same object and one or all writing it
The first two of these situations do not create any problem during concurrent access,
so we do not need to worry in these situations. However, third situation is precisely
the one that creates the concurrency problems and we have to control this situation
properly. Third situation introduces the concept of conflicting operations; the
operations that are accessing the same object and one of them writing the object. The
transactions that contain conflicting operations are called conflicting transactions.
Basically, in concurrency control we have to take care of the conflicting transactions
and for that we have to study the concept of serializability.
Serializability
An interleaved schedule is said to be serializable if its final state is equivalent to some
serial schedule. Serializable schedule can also be defined as a schedule in which
conflicting operations are in a serial order. The serializable schedule ensures the
consistency of the database. However, this is worthwhile to mention here again that
serializability takes care of the inconsistencies only due to the interleaving of
transactions. The serializability concerns generating serializable schedules or we can
say that the purpose of the CC mechanism is to ensure serializability of the schedules.
Generating serializable schedule involves taking care of only conflicting operations.
We have to adopt a particular serial schedule among the conflicting operations; the
non-conflicting operations can be interleaved to any order, it will not create any
problem at all. There are two major approaches to implement the serializability;
Locking and Timestamping. We will discuss both in detail.
Locking
The basic idea of locking is that an object is locked prior to performing any operation.
When the operation has been performed the lock is released. Locking is maintained by
the transaction manager or more precisely lock manager. Transactions apply locks on
objects. During the time when an object is locked it is available for operations only to
the transaction that has got the lock on that object through lock manager. When an
item is locked and during that time another transaction needs to perform some

316
operation on that object, the transaction applies for the lock on the object but since the
object is already locked, this transaction will have to wait. So it enters into a wait state.
When first transaction finishes its job, it releases locks on items then the second item
gets the lock on the object and then it can proceed.
Transactions perform two types of operations on objects; read or write. That is, a
transaction either performs a read operation on an object or it writes it. Accordingly
there are two types of locks as well. A read or shared lock and a write or exclusive
lock a transaction applies lock according to the nature of operation that it wants to
perform on a particular object. If a transaction TB applies a lock on an object O, the
lock manager first checks if O is free, it is free then TB gets the desired lock on O.
However, if O is already locked by another transaction say TA then lock manager
checks the compatibility of the locks; the one that has already been assigned and the
one that has been applied now. The compatibility of locks means that if the two locks
from two different transactions may exist at the same time. The compatibility of locks
is checked according to the following table:
Transaction A
Read Write
Read Yes No Transaction B
Write No No
Table shows that if a transaction A has got a read lock on an object and transaction B
applies for the read lock, B will be granted this lock. It means two read locks are
compatible with each other, that is, they can exist at the same time. Therefore two or
even more than two transactions can read an object at the same time. Other cells
contain ‘No’; it means these locks are not compatible. So if a transaction has got a
‘write’ lock on an object and another transaction applies for a ‘read’ or ‘write’ lock,
the lock will not be granted and the transaction applying for the lock later, will have
to wait.
That is all for today’s lecture. The locking mechanism will be discussed in detail in
the next lecture.
Summary
In this lecture we discussed two of the three CC problems. Then we discussed that
there are different types of schedules that determine the sequence of execution of

317
operations form different transactions. A serial schedule maintains the consistency of
the database for sure, but serial schedule is not much useful. Interleaved schedule is
preferred but if not controlled properly an interleaved schedule may cause consistency
problems. So CC is based on the serializability theory that controls the order of
conflicting operations. The serializability is applied using locking or Timestamping.
Locking is based on two types of locks; shared and exclusive. Only two shared locks
are compatible with each other, none of the remaining combinations are compatible.

318
Lecture No. 45
Reading Material
“Database Systems Principles, Design and Implementation” written by Catherine Ricardo,
Maxwell Macmillan.
Overview of Lecture:
o Deadlock Handling
o Two Phase Locking
o Levels of Locking
o Timestamping
This is the last lecture of our course; we had started with transaction management. We
were discussing the problems in transaction in which we discussed the locking
mechanism. A transaction may be thought of as an interaction with the system,
resulting in a change to the system state. While the interaction is in the process of
changing system state, any number of events can interrupt the interaction, leaving the
state change incomplete and the system state in an inconsistent, undesirable form.
Any change to system state within a transaction boundary, therefore, has to ensure
that the change leaves the system in a stable and consistent state.

319
Locking Idea
Traditionally, transaction isolation levels are achieved by taking locks on the data that
they access until the transaction completes. There are two primary modes for taking
locks: optimistic and pessimistic. These two modes are necessitated by the fact that
when a transaction accesses data, its intention to change (or not change) the data may
not be readily apparent.
Some systems take a pessimistic approach and lock the data so that other transactions
may read but not update the data accessed by the first transaction until the first
transaction completes. Pessimistic locking guarantees that the first transaction can
always apply a change to the data it first accessed.
In an optimistic locking mode, the first transaction accesses data but does not take a
lock on it. A second transaction may change the data while the first transaction is in
progress. If the first transaction later decides to change the data it accessed, it has to
detect the fact that the data is now changed and inform the initiator of the fact. In
optimistic locking, therefore, the fact that a transaction accessed data first does not
guarantee that it can, at a later stage, update it.
At the most fundamental level, locks can be classified into (in increasingly restrictive
order) shared, update, and exclusive locks. A shared lock signifies that another
transaction can take an update or another shared lock on the same piece of data.
Shared locks are used when data is read (usually in pessimistic locking mode).
An update lock ensures that another transaction can take only a shared lock on the
same data. Update locks are held by transactions that intend to change data (not just
read it). If a transaction locks a piece of data with an exclusive lock, no other
transaction may take a lock on the data. For example, a transaction with an isolation
level of read uncommitted does not result in any locks on the data read by the
transaction, and a transaction with repeatable read isolation can take only a share lock
on data it has read.

320
DeadLock
A deadlock occurs when the first transaction has locks on the resources that the
second transaction wants to modify, and the second transaction has locks on the
resources that the first transaction intends to modify. So a deadlock is much like an
infinite loop: If you let it go, it will continue until the end of time, until your server
crashes, or until the power goes out (whichever comes first). Deadlock is a situation
when two transactions are waiting for each other to release a lock. The transaction
involved in deadlock keeps on waiting unless deadlock is over.
DeadLock Handling
Following are some of the approaches for the deadlock handling:
• Deadlock prevention
• Deadlock detection and resolution
• Prevention is not always possible
• Deadlock is detected by wait-for graph
Wait – for Graph:
It is used for the detection of deadlock. It consists of nodes and links. The nodes represent transaction,
whereas arrowhead represents that a transaction has locked a particular data item. We will see it
following example:
Now in this figure transaction A is waiting for transaction B and B is waiting for N.
So it will move inversely for releasing of lock and transaction A will be the last one to
execute. In the second figure there is a cycle, which represents deadlock, this kind of
TA TB TN
TA TB
TC TA TD

321
cycle can be in between two or more transactions as well. The DBMS keeps on
checking for the cycle.
Two Phase Locking
This approach locks data and assumes that a transaction is divided into a growing
phase, in which locks are only acquired, and a shrinking phase, in which locks are
only released. A transaction that tries to lock data that has been locked is forced to
wait and may deadlock. During the first phase, the transaction only acquires locks;
during the second phase, the transaction only releases locks. More formally, once a
transaction releases a lock, it may not acquire any additional locks. Practically, this
translates into a system in which locks are acquired as they are needed throughout a
transaction and retained until the transaction ends, either by committing or aborting.
For applications, the implications of 2PL are that long-running transactions will hold
locks for a long time. When designing applications, lock contention should be
considered. In order to reduce the probability of deadlock and achieve the best level
of concurrency possible, the following guidelines are helpful.
• When accessing multiple databases, design all transactions so that they access
the files in the same order.
• If possible, access your most hotly contested resources last (so that their locks
are held for the shortest time possible).
• If possible, use nested transactions to protect the parts of your transaction most
likely to deadlock.
322
Levels of Locking
• Lock can be applied on attribute, record, file, group of files or even entire
database
• Granularity of locks.
• Finer the granularity more concurrency but more overhead.
Greater lock granularity gives you finer sharing and concurrency but higher overhead;
four separate degrees of consistency which give increasingly greater protection from
inconsistencies are presented, requiring increasingly greater lock granularity.
When a lock at lower level is applied, compatibility is checked upward. It means
intimation would be available in the hierarchy till the database. The granularity of
locks in a database refers to how much of the data is locked at one time. A database
server can lock as much as the entire database or as little as one column of data. Such
extremes affect the concurrency (number of users that can access the data) and
locking overhead (amount of work to process lock requests) in the server. By locking
at higher levels of granularity, the amount of work required to obtain and manage
locks is reduced. If a query needs to read or update many rows in a table:
• It can acquire just one table-level lock
• It can acquire a lock for each page that contained one of the required rows
• It can acquire a lock on each row
Databas
e
Area
A
Area B Area C
File
A1
File
A2
File
A3
Rec
A11
Rec
A12
Rec
A13
At
A111
At
A112
At
A113

323
Less overall work is required to use a table-level lock, but large-scale locks can
degrade performance, by making other users wait until locks are released. Decreasing
the lock size makes more of the data accessible to other users. However, finer
granularity locks can also degrade performance, since more work is necessary to
maintain and coordinate the increased number of locks. To achieve optimum
performance, a locking scheme must balance the needs of concurrency and overhead.
Deadlock Resolution
If a set of transactions is considered to be deadlocked:
• choose a victim (e.g. the shortest-lived transaction)
• Rollback `victim' transaction and restart it.
• The rollback terminates the transaction, undoing all its updates and releasing
all of its locks.
• A message is passed to the victim and depending on the system the transaction
may or may not be started again automatically.
Timestamping
Two-phase locking is not the only approach to enforcing database consistency.
Another method used in some DMBS is timestamping. With timestamping, there are
no locks to prevent transactions seeing uncommitted changes, and all physical updates
are deferred to commit time.
• Locking synchronizes the interleaved execution of a set of transactions in such
a way that it is equivalent to some serial execution of those transactions.
• Timestamping synchronizes that interleaved execution in such a way that it is
equivalent to a particular serial order - the order of the timestamps.
Problems of Timestamping
• When a transaction wants to read an item that has been updated by a younger
transaction.
• A transaction wants to write an item that has been read or written by a younger
transaction.

324
Timestamping rules
The following rules are checked when transaction T attempts to change a data item. If
the rule indicates ABORT, then transaction T is rolled back and aborted (and perhaps
restarted).
• If T attempts to read a data item which has already been written to by a
younger transaction then ABORT T.
• If T attempts to write a data item which has been seen or written to by a
younger transaction then ABORT T.
If transaction T aborts, then all other transactions which have seen a data item written
to by T must also abort. In addition, other aborting transactions can cause further
aborts on other transactions. This is a `cascading rollback'.
Summary
In today’s lecture we have read the locking mechanism and prevention of deadlocks.
With this we are finished with our course. Locking is a natural part of any application.
However, if the design of the applications and transactions is not done correctly, you
can run into severe blocking issues that can manifest themselves in severe
performance and scalability issues by resulting in contention on resources.
Controlling blocking in an application is a matter of the right application design, the
correct transaction architecture, a correct set of parameter settings, and testing your
application under heavy load with volume data to make sure that the application
`scales well.