INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM & SKELETAL SYSTEM

The integument is the outer covering of the body of an organism and serves as the primary
barrier between the internal and external environments. In vertebrates, especially mammals, the
integument includes the skin and its derivatives. Here's a structured breakdown of the
integument and its derivatives:

I. Structure of the Integument

The integument (skin) consists of three main layers:

1. Epidermis (Outer Layer)

 Composed of stratified squamous epithelium.

 Avascular (no blood vessels).
 Made mostly of keratinocytes.
 Layers (from deep to superficial):
o Stratum basale (germinativum): actively dividing cells.
o Stratum spinosum: keratin production begins.
o Stratum granulosum: keratohyalin granules form.
o Stratum lucidum (in thick skin only).
o Stratum corneum: dead, keratinized cells.

2. Dermis (Middle Layer)

 Made of connective tissue, vascularized.

 Contains nerve endings, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles.
 Two layers:
o Papillary layer: loose connective tissue, forms dermal papillae.
o Reticular layer: dense irregular connective tissue.

3. Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)

 Also called superficial fascia.

 Composed mainly of adipose tissue and loose connective tissue.
 Provides insulation and energy storage.

II. Derivatives of the Integument (Skin Appendages)

These are structures derived from the epidermis but located in the dermis:

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1. Hair

 Composed of keratin.
 Grows from a hair follicle.
 Functions: insulation, protection, sensory input.

2. Nails (in primates) / Claws / Hooves

 Made of hard keratin.

 Function in protection, digging, grasping, or locomotion.

3. Glands

 Sebaceous glands: produce sebum, an oily substance that lubricates skin and hair.
 Sweat glands:
o Eccrine glands: thermoregulation.
o Apocrine glands: found in specific areas (e.g., armpits), involved in scent.
 Mammary glands (in mammals): modified sweat glands producing milk.

4. Scales (in reptiles), Feathers (in birds), and Fur (in mammals)

 Modified structures from the epidermis for protection, insulation, or flight.

5. Horns and Antlers

 Horns: permanent, keratin-covered projections (e.g., cattle).

 Antlers: made of bone, shed and regrown annually (e.g., deer).

Summary Table

Component Origin Function

Epidermis Ectoderm Protection, water barrier
Dermis Mesoderm Support, blood supply, sensation
Hypodermis Mesoderm Insulation, fat storage
Hair/Fur Epidermal Insulation, protection
Nails/Claws/Hooves Epidermal Protection, locomotion
Glands (sweat/sebaceous/mammary) Epidermal Regulation, secretion
Scales/Feathers Epidermal Protection, thermoregulation, flight
Horns/Antlers Mixed Defense, mating display

The skin is the largest organ of the body and plays a crucial role in maintaining overall health
and homeostasis. Here are the main functions of the skin:

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1. Protection

 Acts as a barrier against:

o Physical injury (cuts, abrasions).
o Pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi).
o UV radiation (melanin in the skin absorbs UV rays).
o Chemical exposure (resistant outer layer).
 Prevents water loss through keratinized outer cells.

2. Thermoregulation

 Sweat glands help cool the body through evaporation.

 Blood vessels in the dermis can dilate (release heat) or constrict (retain heat).
 Hair provides insulation.

3. Sensation

 Contains numerous nerve endings and receptors for:

o Touch
o Pressure
o Temperature
o Pain
o Vibration

4. Excretion

 Sweat glands excrete:

o Water
o Salts
o Urea and other waste products

5. Synthesis of Vitamin D

 When exposed to UVB radiation, the skin synthesizes vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol).

 Vital for calcium and phosphorus absorption in the body.

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🛡️6. Immunity

 Contains Langerhans cells (in the epidermis), which are part of the immune system.
 Acts as the first line of immune defense.

7. Wound Healing

 Capable of regeneration and repair after injury through coordinated actions of cells and
growth factors.

8. Storage

 Stores lipids and water in the hypodermis.

 Acts as an energy reserve through adipose tissue.

Basic plan and comparative anatomy of the bones

of the skull, girdles, ligaments, and limbs across
vertebrates. This is useful for understanding evolutionary adaptations and homologous structures.

1. Skull (Cranium)
Basic Plan:

 Divided into:
o Neurocranium (chondrocranium): encases the brain
o Splanchnocranium (visceral skeleton): forms jaws and gill supports
o Dermatocranium: forms most of the outer bones in bony vertebrates

Comparative Account:

Vertebrate
Skull Characteristics
Group
Fishes Mostly cartilaginous in sharks (e.g., chondrocranium prominent); bony fishes

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 Vertebrate
Skull Characteristics
Group
have well-developed dermatocranium
Amphibians Lighter skulls, fewer bones; reduction of dermatocranial elements
Reptiles Skull more ossified; temporal fenestrae appear (diapsid condition)
Birds Fused and lightweight skull; beak replaces teeth
Mammals Highly ossified; single jawbone (dentary); secondary palate; heterodont teeth

2. Girdles (Pectoral and Pelvic)

Basic Plan:

 Pectoral girdle: supports forelimbs; usually includes scapula, clavicle, and coracoid
 Pelvic girdle: supports hindlimbs; usually includes ilium, ischium, and pubis

Comparative Account:

Girdle Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Pectora Cartilage or Detached from More Fused elements Scapula
l bone; skull; girdle ossified; (e.g., prominent;
attached to simplified adapted for furcula/clavicle), clavicle may
skull in locomotion light for flight be reduced or
some present
Pelvic Not fused Connected to Stronger Fused to synsacrum Fully fused
to vertebral vertebrae via fusion with with sacrum;
column sacral region sacrum supports
upright
posture

🦴 3. Limbs (Forelimbs and Hindlimbs)

Basic Plan (Tetrapod Limb Pattern):

 Forelimb and Hindlimb:

o Stylopodium: one bone (humerus/femur)
o Zeugopodium: two bones (radius-ulna / tibia-fibula)
o Autopodium: wrist/ankle and digits (manus/pes)

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Comparative Account:

Limbs Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Forelimb Fins; bones Legs for Limbs Wings; digits Legs, arms,
may be jumping/swimming adapted for fused/reduced wings,
present crawling, flippers
internally climbing depending
on species
Hindlimb Fins or Powerful for Strong limbs Long and light Highly
reduced in jumping for for flight adapted—
some locomotion e.g., hooves,
paws, etc.

4. Ligaments
Basic Plan:

 Ligaments are dense connective tissues that connect bone to bone, providing stability to
joints.

Comparative Account:

Feature Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Function Stabilize Joint More Strong Complex joints
fins stabilization in developed ligaments for (e.g., knee,
limbs with stronger flight stability
shoulder); ACL,
limbs PCL, etc.
Elasticity Generally Moderate Moderate High in wings Variable
low depending on
mobility and
weight-bearing

Summary Table (Key Features)

Structure Common Elements Evolutionary Trend
Skull Neurocranium, dermatocranium, Increased ossification, reduction of bones,
splanchnocranium development of secondary palate
Girdles Scapula, clavicle, coracoid / Ilium, Greater fusion and strength for weight-

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 ischium, pubis bearing
Limbs Stylopodium, zeugopodium, Adapted for walking, flying, swimming, etc.
autopodium
Ligaments Dense connective tissue Increased complexity for joint specialization

Structure of a Typical Vertebra

A typical vertebra consists of the following main parts:

1. Vertebral Body (Centrum)

 Thick, anterior, weight-bearing part of the vertebra.

 Articulates with the intervertebral discs (cartilaginous pads between vertebrae).
 Varies in shape depending on vertebra type (cervical, thoracic, etc.).

2. Vertebral Arch

 Posterior part that forms the vertebral foramen (hole).

 Surrounds and protects the spinal cord.
 Made up of:
o Pedicles (sides of the arch, connect to the body)
o Laminae (posterior parts that meet at the midline)

3. Vertebral Foramen

 Opening between the body and arch.

 Collectively, these form the vertebral canal, which houses the spinal cord.

4. Processes

Processes are projections for muscle attachment and articulation with other bones:

Process Type Description

Spinous Process Single, midline projection from the posterior arch (felt as the "spine

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 Process Type Description
bumps")
Transverse
One on each side; extends laterally from where pedicle meets lamina
Processes
2 superior + 2 inferior; form zygapophyseal (facet) joints between
Articular Processes
vertebrae

5. Intervertebral Foramina

 Not part of a single vertebra, but formed between adjacent vertebrae.

 Openings where spinal nerves exit the vertebral column.

Special Features by Region (Brief Overview)

Region Unique Features
Cervical Small body, bifid spinous process (C2–C6), transverse foramina
Thoracic Facets for rib articulation, longer spinous processes
Lumbar Large, robust body; short, blunt spinous process
Sacral Fused vertebrae forming sacrum
Coccygeal Small, vestigial bones forming the coccyx

Labeled Summary
 1. Body (Centrum)
 2. Pedicle
 3. Lamina
 4. Spinous Process
 5. Transverse Processes
 6. Superior and Inferior Articular Processes
 7. Vertebral Foramen

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Jaw suspension refers to the way the upper jaw (palatoquadrate or maxilla) is attached to the
skull and how the lower jaw (Meckel's cartilage or dentary) articulates with it. It varies among
different vertebrate groups and is a key feature in vertebrate evolution.

Types of Jaw Suspension

Here’s a breakdown of the main types of jaw suspension found in vertebrates:

1. Paleostylic

 Seen in: Agnathans (Jawless fishes like lampreys and hagfish)

 No jaw suspension; the jaw is absent, and gill arches are not attached to the skull.

2. Euautostylic

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  Seen in: Early jawed vertebrates (e.g., placoderms, acanthodians)
 Upper jaw (palatoquadrate) is directly attached to the cranium.
 No support from the hyoid arch.

3. Amphistylic

 Seen in: Early sharks (e.g., some elasmobranchs)

 Upper jaw is partially supported by both the cranium and the hyomandibular (part of
the hyoid arch).
 Transitional type.

4. Hyostylic

 Seen in: Most modern sharks and many bony fishes

 Upper jaw is not fused to the skull.
 Hyomandibular acts as the main suspensor.
 Allows wide jaw mobility and protrusion.

5. Autostylic (Holostylic)

 Seen in: Lungfish, tetrapods (including mammals)

 Upper jaw is fused to the skull (no support from hyomandibular).
 Modified further in various groups:
o Secondary autostyly in mammals (more below).

6. Craniostylic (Special case: Mammals)

 Seen in: Mammals only

 Entire upper jaw is part of the skull (maxilla and premaxilla).
 Lower jaw = dentary, articulates with the squamosal bone.
 Former jaw elements become ear ossicles:
o Articular → malleus
o Quadrate → incus
o Hyomandibular → stapes

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Comparative Summary Table
Type Example Organisms Upper Jaw Role of Hyomandibula
Attachment
Paleostylic Lampreys, Hagfish No jaws Not involved
Euautostyli Placoderms, Acanthodians Direct to skull Absent
c
Amphistylic Primitive sharks Skull + Hyomandibular Partial support
Hyostylic Modern sharks, teleosts Loose; Hyomandibular Major support
Autostylic Lungfish, tetrapods Fused to skull Little or no role
Craniostylic Mammals Fused; jaw = dentary Becomes stapes (ear)

The visceral arches, also known as branchial arches or pharyngeal arches, are a series of
paired structures that develop in the embryonic pharyngeal region of vertebrates. These arches
play crucial roles in forming the jaws, gill supports, ear bones, and other structures in the head
and neck.

Basic Structure of a Visceral Arch

Each visceral arch typically consists of:

 Cartilage component (forms bones and cartilage)

 Muscle component
 Artery (aortic arch)
 Cranial nerve

Number and Naming of Arches

In vertebrates, six pairs of visceral arches form (numbered I–VI), but the fifth is rudimentary
or absent in most species.

Main Arch Groups:

Arch Common Name Major Derivatives in Vertebrates

Number
I Mandibular Jaws (Meckel’s cartilage, palatoquadrate), malleus & incus
arch in mammals
II Hyoid arch Hyoid apparatus, stapes in mammals
III–VI Branchial Gill supports in fish; parts of larynx, pharynx, and neck in

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 arches tetrapods

In Fishes:
 The first arch forms the jaws (mandibular arch)
 The second arch supports the jaws (hyoid arch)
 Remaining arches (III–VI) support the gills

In Tetrapods:
 Gill function is lost, but the arches are modified into various bones, muscles, and nerves

Arc Cartilage Derivative Muscle Derivative Cranial Nerve

h
I Meckel’s cartilage Muscles of CN V (Trigeminal)
(mandible), malleus, incus mastication
II Stapes, styloid process, Facial expression CN VII (Facial)
lesser horn of hyoid muscles
III Greater horn of hyoid Stylopharyngeus CN IX (Glossopharyngeal)
IV Laryngeal cartilages (e.g. Pharyngeal CN X (Vagus – superior
thyroid) constrictors laryngeal branch)
VI Laryngeal cartilages (e.g. Intrinsic laryngeal CN X (Vagus – recurrent
cricoid) muscles laryngeal branch)

Clinical Note (Humans):

Improper development of visceral arches can lead to congenital anomalies like:

 Cleft palate/lip
 Branchial cysts/fistulas
 Treacher Collins syndrome

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