Metal Casting

Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the
shape of the mold cavity
• The term casting also applies to the part made in
the process
• Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
 Capabilities and Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries that can not be made
by any other process
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net
shape
• Can produce very large parts (with weight more than 100
tons), like m/c bed
• Casting can be applied to shape any metal that can melt
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
• Can also be applied on polymers and ceramics
 Disadvantages of Casting

• Different disadvantages for different casting processes:

• Limitations on mechanical properties
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g., sand casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
• Environmental problems
 Parts Made by Casting

• Big parts
• Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood burning stoves,
machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, bells, pump housings
• Small parts
• Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans
• All varieties of metals can be cast - ferrous and nonferrous
 Molding material
Choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties.
▪ Sand: Green sand (mixture of sand, clay, water, and some organic additives) is the most
commonly used.
▪ Metals and alloys: Are used in multiple-use mold casting processes.
▪ Plaster: Plaster of Paris (or calcium sulfate or gypsum), with various additions to improve
green strength, dry strength, permeability etc.
▪ Ceramic: Ceramic molds are similar to plaster molds, except that
the mold can withstand the higher melting point metals.
▪ Graphite: Powdered graphite can be combined with cement, starch,
and water and compacted around a pattern.
▪ Rubber: Several types of artificial elastomers can be compounded in liquid form and poured
over a pattern to form a Semi-rigid mold. Rubber molds are flexible and used for intricate
pattern or shapes small castings of low melting point materials.
COMPOSITION OF MOLDING SAND
Material used for making green sand moulds consists following:
1. Sand (70-85%): to provide refractoriness
2. Clay (10-20%): to act as binder, along with water, impart tensile and shear strength
to the molding sand
3. Water (3-6%): to activate the clay and provide plasticity
4. Organic additives (1-6%): to enhance desired sand properties

• Moulding sand composition must be carefully controlled to assure Satisfactory and

consistent results.
• Exact composition may vary slightly depending on whether casting is
Ferrous or non-ferrous.

• Good sand always represents a compromise between

moldin conflicting factors such as:
g
Size of sand particles, Amount of bonding
agent (such as clay), Moisture content,
Organic matter
 CONSITUTENT OF MOULDING SAND
Clay

Clay is generally used as binding agent in the molding sand to provide

the strength, because of its low cost and wider utility.
The most popular types of clay used are:
1. Kaolinite or fire clay (melting point: range of 1750 to 1787°c )
2. Bentonite (melting point: range of 1250 to 1300 0c), two types
3. Sodium bentonite or western bentonite
4. Calcium bentonite or southern bentonite

▪ Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.
▪ Sodium bentonites
produce better swelling properties (volume
increases some 10 to 20 times), high dry strength which lowers the risk of erosion,
better tolerance of variations in water content, low green strength and high resistance
to burnout which reduces clay consumption.
▪ In contrast, calcium bentonites have low dry strength
but higher green strength.
 ADDITIVES

• Additives are added to sand to enhance the specific properties.

Since molding material is often reclaimed and recycled, the temperature of the
mold during pouring and solidification is also important.

• If organic materials are added to provide collapsibility, a portion will bum during
the pour. Some of the mold material may have to be discarded and replaced
with new one.
 ADDITIVES
Cereals:
- Finely ground corn flour or ground starch from corn.
- 0.25 to 2.00 percent
- Increase green or dry strength and collapsibility.
Ground Pitch:
- By-product of coke making.
- up to 2.0 percent
- Improve hot strength and casting finish on ferrous
castings
Gilsonite:
- About 0.4 to 0.8 percent.
- A mineral
- Improve casting finish
Water

• Water activates clay so that it develops the

necessary plasticity and strength.

• Amount water used should

properlyofcontrolled. be
• Water in molding sand is often referred as
“tempering” water.
• Water in excess -------- free water
• A part of the water absorbed by clay helps in
bonding while the remainder up to a limit helps
in improving the plasticity.

• Excessive decreases
strengthwater
and formability. the
• Normal percentages of water used are from 2
to 8%.
Fig. Effect of Water content on (a)
sand properties (b) green strength
 ADDITIVES
Sea Coal:
- 2 to 8 percent.
- A finally ground soft coal.
- Grey and malleable iron molding sands.
- Improve the surface finish.
- Improve ease of cleaning the castings.
Wood Flour:
- 0.5 to 2.0 percent
- Enhance thermal stability.
- Control the expansion of sand by burning out at
elevated temperature
Fuel Oil:
A little fuel oil is sometimes used as a replacement of
water, which lowers total % of moisture
present.
 ADDITIVES
Perlite:
• An aluminum silicate mineral
• 0.5 to 1.5 percent
• Better thermal stability of the sand
• Riser insulator
Molasses, Dextrin:
• Cane or blackstrap molasses, unrefined, and containing 60 to 70
% sugar solids,
• Used for increaseddry strength.
• Dextrins may also be used for
the same purpose
PROPERTIES OF MOLDING SAND
Properties:

1. Refractoriness
2. Cohesiveness
3. Permeability
4. Collapsibility
5. Plasticity
6. Dry strength
7. Hot strength
8. Adhesiveness
 REFRACTORINESS
❖ Refractoriness is the ability of moulding sand to withstand the
high temperatures of melt so that it does not fuse with melt.

❖ Presence of sand imparts this property to the moulding sand.

❖ Higher the pouring temperature higher will be
the required refractoriness and vice versa.

❖ Presence of impurities retards refractoriness.

❖ Refractoriness also increases with increase in size

of sand.
Coarser the size higher will be the refractoriness.

❖ This property of sand is measured by the

sinter point rather
than melting point of sand.
 PERMEABILITY
▪ Permeability is the ability to permit gases to escape through it.
▪ Permeability is the property of the moulding sand due to which it allows the gases
inside the mold (during solidification of casting) to escape to the surroundings.
▪ Permeability is a function of the size of the sand particles, amount and type of clay
or bonding agent, moisture content, compacting pressure.
▪ The mould must be enough porous to permit the
gases to
escape and avoid defects due to entrapped gases.
▪ The rate in millimeter per minute at which air will pass through the sand under a
standard condition of pressure is used as index of permeability.
Fig (a) Effect of grain size Fig (b) Water content on
permeability permeability

Finer the grain Addition of water

low is the permeability increases permeability upto a limit

 COLLAPSIBILT
Y
▪ Collapsibility is the ability of disintegration of
the cohesive mould as a result of metal shrinkage.

▪ Collapsibility is generallyobtained by adding organic

material, such as cellulose, cereals etc., that burn out when these are
exposed to hot metal. The combustion reduces both the volume and strength
of the restraining sand.

▪ Thus collapsibility allows sand mold to collapses automatically after

solidification of the casting as well as free contraction of the cast material.

▪ The lack of collapsibility, hinders contraction of the cast material resulting

in tears and cracks in the casting.
PLASTICITY
▪ Plasticity is also known as Flowability.
▪ Plasticity is the property of moulding sand due to which it
flow around and over the pattern to acquire the desired
shape during molding.

▪ Moulding sand should be plastic so that it flows and acquire

the desired shape under the pressure.

▪ Flowability of moulding sand increases as clay and

water
content increase.
 COHESIVENESS
▪ Cohesiveness is defined as the ability to retain a given shape.
▪ Thus due to cohesiveness, rammed moulding
sand particles are bonded together once the pattern
is withdrawn from mould.

▪ Cohesiveness is obtained by coating the

sand grains with
clays that become cohesive when moistened.
▪ Cohesiveness of sand is ascertained
by amount of bonding materials present
such as clay in presence of moisture.

▪ It may be Green strength, dry strength, hot strength.

 GREEN STRENGTH
▪ Green means containing water while strength refers to the compressive
strength of moulding sand.

▪ Green strength is the property of the green sand to retain the shape of
the mould.

▪ Thus green strength refers to the compressive strength of moulding sand

containing moisture.

▪ Adequate green strength and toughness is must

for
making and handling the mould of moist sand.
DRY STRENGTH
▪ When the moisture in the molding sand is completely expelled, it is called dry
sand.

▪ Dry strength is the ability of the dry sand to retain the shape of mould
cavity as well as to withstand the metallostatic forces.

▪ Lack of dry strength may enlarge the mould cavity owing to erosion and
wall movement due to metallostatic pressure of molten metal.
 HOT STRENGTH
▪ Hot strength is the ability of the sand to hold the shape of mould cavity at high
temperature of sand due to the presence of molten metal in the mould.

▪ The pouring of melt expels all the moisture present in the mould and heat of
melt increases the temperature of moulding sand to high values.

▪ At this stage deformation of sand grains occur

which
may change the shape of mould cavity.
 ADHESIVENESS

❖ Adhesiveness is the property of the molding sand by which it is capable to

adhere to the surface of the molding flask.

❖ Adhesiveness renders sand particles capable of sticking to the surface of

moulding box of flask.

❖ Because of Adhesiveness moulding sand mass is held in the moulding

box and can be manipulated as desired without any chance of its falling
out.
 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Trowels:
▪ To sleek down the surface, to strike-off and cut away the
surface

Trowel

Hair swab:
▪ Used to apply wet mold wash and core wash prior to drying
It is applied around the edge before pattern is withdrawn

Hair’s swab
Flax Swab:
▪ To dampen the sand and prevent it from breaking
away when the pattern is lifted

Bellows:
▪ For blowing out the sand at the cast cavity after
removing pattern

Rammers:
▪ Used to spread and hardened the loose sand by ramming
action such that sand particles are packed and binded
properly
▪ Three types of rammer: peen rammer, floor rammer and
bench rammer
Strike-off bar:
▪ To strike-off excess sand from the mold box to provide
smooth surface

Gate cutter:
▪ Used to cut the gate in the mold which acts as passage for
hot metal

Vent wire:
▪ It is used to make hole into the cope and drag of sand mold
to allow easy access of gases to the outside, during the
pouring of the casting
Pins:
▪ These are used to remove or draw the pattern fro
the mold.

Sprue cutter:
▪ It is used to make the passage of molten metal to
the gate

Molding box:
▪ These are used to pack the green sand, to form
mold and carry out casting
▪ Consist of upper part (cope) and bottom part
(drag) and locating pins to align properly
 Moulds
• Mould or Mould cavity contains molten metal and is essentially a negative of the
final product.
• Mould is obtained by pattern in moulding material (sand).
• Mould material should posses refractory characteristics and withstand the
pouring temperature.
 Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable mold which must be

destroyed to remove casting
• Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent mold which can be used
over and over to produce many castings
• Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material)
 Sand Casting Mold Terms
• Mold consists of two halves:
• Cope = upper half of mold
• Drag = bottom half
• Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask
• The two halves separate at the parting line
 Forming the Mold Cavity
• Cavity is inverse of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Pattern is model of final shape with shrinkage allowance
Wet sand is made by adding binder in the sand
• Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern
When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of the packed sand has desired shape of cast
part
• The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling

Difference among pattern, cavity &

part ?
 Gating System
It is channel through which molten metal flows into cavity from outside
of mold
• Consists of a down-sprue, through which metal enters a runner
leading to the main cavity
• At the top of down-sprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize
splash and turbulence as the metal flows into down-sprue
 Riser
It is a reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to compensate for shrinkage
of the part during solidification
Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as a solid so castings shrink upon cooling,
which can leave a void at the last point to solidify. Risers prevent this by providing
molten metal to the casting as it solidifies, so that the cavity forms in the riser and
not in the casting
 Why Sprue X-section is kept taper ??

In order to keep volume flow rate (Q=VA) constant. In case, x-section is fixed,
increased fluid velocity due to gravity will increase flow rate. This can cause air
entrapment into liquid metal.
 Overview of Sand Casting

• Sand casting is a cast part produced by forming a mold from a sand mixture and
then pouring molten liquid metal into the cavity in the mold. The mold is then
cooled until the metal has solidified
• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant majority of total
tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high melting
temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
• Castings range in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions
 Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold CAVITY

2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
• Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical
properties
 Sand Casting Production Sequence

Figure: Steps in the production sequence in sand casting.

The steps include not only the casting operation but also pattern-making and mold-making.
 Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern,
then separating the mold into two halves and removing the pattern
• The mold must also contain gating and riser system
• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included in mold
• A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
 The Pattern

A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and
machining allowances in the casting
• Pattern materials:
• Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it warps
• Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
• Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
 Types of Patterns
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

Figure: Types of patterns used in sand casting:

 FUNCTIONS
(PURPOSES) OF CORES

Cores are required for following :

❖ The cores are used to form the internal cavities.

❖ Cores are used to form a part of a green sand mould.

❖ Cores are used to strengthen the moulds.

❖ Cores are used as a part of the gating system.

 CORE SANDS
CORE SAND CONSTITUENTS:
Core sand should contain the sand grains, binders and other additives to provide
specific properties.
Sand:
▪ Silica sand which is completely devoid of clay is generally used for making core sands.
▪ Coarse silica (because of its higher refractoriness) is used in steel foundries
▪ Finer sands are used for cast irons and non-ferrous alloys.
Binders:
▪ Core sands need to be stronger than the molding sand.
▪ Clay used as binder in molding sands is not enough and so organic binders are
used.
▪ Generally used binders are, linseed oil, core oil, resins, dextrin, molasses, etc.
▪ Core oil is a mixture of linseed, soya, fish and petroleum oils and coal tar.
▪ These binders are burnt away by the heat of the melt and thus make the core
collapsible during the cooling of the casting.
▪ Amount of binder required depends to a great extent on the fineness of the sand
grains.
▪ Amount of clay left in the sand increases the consumption of the binder.
Core in Mold

A core is a full-scale model of interior surfaces of the part.

1. Like pattern, shrinkage allowances
are also provided in core. (-ve or +)?
2. It is usually made of compacted sand,
metal

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible chaplet
design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
 CORE MAKING

▪ Cores for sand casting are manufactured by

packing
specially prepared sand in Core boxes.
▪ Core-making processes include sand
preparation, core
shooting, coating/treatment and placement in mould.
▪ The cavity in a core box is
a negative replica of the
corresponding part feature.
▪ The core box is made in two
segments (with a parting) to
enable removal of the core.
▪ Complex cores are prepared by assembling or gluing two
or more cores of simpler shapes.
▪ The core-related activities consume significant resources.
▪ Thus the number and volume of cores must be minimized
to the extent possible, to reduce tooling cost and
manufacturing time.
 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate

into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Harder packing of sand helps to

alleviate this problem
Reduce pouring temp if possible
Use better sand binders

Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

 CORE BOX
▪ Core boxes are used for making cores. A core box is a
wooden or metallic type of pattern and are made either
single or in two parts.
Casting Defects
 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavityReasons:
a. Fluidity of molten metal is insufficient
[Link] temperature is too low
c. Pouring is done too slowly
[Link] section of mold cavity is too thin
e. Mold design is not in accordance with
Chvorinov’s rule: V/A at the section closer to
the gating system should be higher than
that far from gating system

Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion due to premature (early) freezing

Reasons:
Same as for misrun

Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splashes during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Gating system should be

improved to avoid splashing

Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage

Proper riser design can solve this issue

Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

 General Casting Defects: Hot Tearing

Hot tearing/cracking in casting occurs when the molten

metal is not allowed to contract by an underlying
mold during cooling/ solidification.

The collapsibility (ability to give way

and allow molten metal to shrink during
solidification) of mold should be
improved

Common defects in sand castings: (e) hot tearing

 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow

Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold

gases during pouring

Low permeability of mold, poor

venting, high moisture content in
sand are major reasons

Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Caused by release of gas during

pouring of molten metal.
To avoid, improve permeability &
venting in mold

Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift

A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise

relative displacement of cope and drag
It is caused by buoyancy force of
molten metal.
Cope an drag must be aligned
accurately and fastened.
Use match plate patterns

Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

 Sand Casting Defects: Core Shift

Similar to core mold but it is core that is displaced and

the displacement is usually vertical.
It is caused by buoyancy force of
molten metal.
Core must be fastened with
chaplet

Common defects in sand castings: (g) core shift

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Wash

An irregularity in the casting surface caused by erosion

of sand mold during pouring.

Turbulence in metal flow during

pouring should be controlled. Also,
very high pouring temperature cause
erosion of mold.

Common defects in sand castings: (h) sand wash

 Sand Casting Defects: Scabs
Scabs are rough areas on the surface of casting due to
un-necessary deposit of sand and metal.

It is caused by portions of the mold

surface flaking off during solidification
and becoming embedded in the casting
surface
Improve mold strength by reducing
grain size and changing binders

Common defects in sand castings: (i) scab

 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Crack

Occurs when the strength of mold is not sufficient to

withstand high temperatures

Improve mold strength by reducing

grain size and changing binders

Common defects in sand castings: (j) mold crack

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