Designation: D6424 − 04a (Reapproved 2010) An American National Standard

Standard Practice for

Octane Rating Naturally Aspirated Spark Ignition Aircraft
Engines1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D6424; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope* with a 98 motor octane number. The maximum motor octane

1.1 This practice covers ground based octane rating proce- number that results in knock is 97, so the motor octane
dures for naturally aspirated spark ignition aircraft engines requirement is 98.
using primary reference fuels. 3.1.3 full rich—condition in which the mixture control is at
1.2 This standard does not purport to address all of the the full stop position with the fuel flow within manufacturer’s
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the recommended settings.
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- 3.1.4 house fuel, n—for octane rating, an unleaded, straight
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- hydrocarbon fuel used for engine warm-up and all non-octane
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. rating testing.
3.1.5 knock, n—in an aircraft spark ignition engine, abnor-
2. Referenced Documents mal combustion caused by autoignition of the air/fuel mixture.
2.1 ASTM Standards:2 3.1.6 knock condition, n—for octane rating, when the knock
D2700 Test Method for Motor Octane Number of Spark- intensity in any cylinder is light knock or greater as described
Ignition Engine Fuel in Annex A1.
3. Terminology 3.1.7 knock number, n— for octane rating, a numerical
quantification of knock intensity.
3.1 Definitions:
3.1.1 amine number of reference fuels above 100, AN, 3.1.8 motor octane number of primary reference fuels above
n—determined in terms of the weight percent of 100—determined in terms of the number of millilitres of
3-methylphenylamine in reference grade isooctane tetraethyl lead in isooctane.
(2,2,4–trimethylpentane). For example, 5 % of 3–methylphe- 3.1.9 motor octane number of primary reference fuels from
nylamine in reference grade isooctane has an amine number of 0 to 100—the volume % of isooctane (equals 100.0) in a blend
105 (AN 105). No attempt has been made to correlate with n-heptane (equals 0.0).
performance number of leaded reference fuels to the amine 3.1.10 naturally aspirated aircraft engine, n—aircraft piston
number of unleaded reference fuels, and none is implied. engine that breathes without forced means from either turbo-
3.1.2 engine motor octane requirement—one full motor chargers or superchargers.
octane number greater than the maximum motor octane num- 3.1.11 no-knock condition, n—for octane rating, when the
ber that results in knock (graphic knock level descriptions can combustion instability in all cylinders is less than light knock.
be seen in Annex A1). For example, a test engine knocks on Refer to Annex A1 for description of knock intensity.
primary reference fuels with 96 and 97 motor octane numbers.
The test engine does not knock on a primary reference fuel 3.1.12 peak EGT, n—for octane rating, as the mixture is
manually leaned from a state rich of stoichiometric, the exhaust
gas temperature will increase with the removal of excess fuel.
1
As the mixture is continually leaned, a peak temperature will
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D02 on Petroleum
Products and Lubricants and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D02.J0.02
be attained, after which continued leaning will result in lower
on Aviation Gasoline. exhaust gas temperatures.
Current edition approved July 1, 2010. Published July 2010. Originally approved
in 1999. Last previous edition approved in 2004 as D6424–04a. DOI: 10.1520/
3.1.13 primary reference fuels, n—for octane rating,
D6424-04AR10. blended fuels of reference grade isooctane and n-heptane.
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, [Link], or
3.1.14 stable engine conditions, n—for octane rating, cyl-
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@[Link]. For Annual Book of ASTM
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on inder head temperatures change less than 5°C (9°F) during a
the ASTM website. 1-min period. Any changes or minor adjustments to throttle,

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); 1

 D6424 − 04a (2010)
mixture, or engine conditions mandate restarting the clock for [Link] Cooling Air Pressure Transducer, located so as to
determining stable conditions. determine the pressure within the cowling.
3.2 Acronyms: [Link] Cooling Air Temperature Sensor, located either
3.2.1 CHT—cylinder head temperature. within the cowling or at the entrance to the cowling. If a
3.2.2 EGT—exhaust gas temperature. thermocouple is utilized, it should extend at least a third of the
way across the measured area.
3.2.3 inHg—inches of mercury.
[Link] Crankshaft Angle Encoder, if required for knock
3.2.4 MAP—manifold absolute pressure.
detection. The encoder shall have a sample resolution of at
3.2.5 mmHg—millimetres of mercury. least 0.4° of crank shaft rotation. The encoder TDC pulse shall
3.2.6 MON—motor octane number. be aligned with the TDC of cylinder number one prior to
3.2.7 PRF—primary reference fuel. octane rating.
3.2.8 psig—pounds per square inch gauge. [Link] Cylinder Head Temperature Sensors, installed in
each cylinder. The sensing locations and types of thermo-
3.2.9 rpm—revolutions per minute.
couples shall conform to the engine manufacturer’s recommen-
3.2.10 TDC—top dead center. dations. The CHT measurements shall be accurate to within
4. Summary of Practice 1 % of full scale.
[Link] Exhaust Gas Temperature Sensors, on all cylinders.
4.1 A recently overhauled, remanufactured, or new, natu-
Installation shall conform with manufacturer’s recommended
rally aspirated aircraft engine is octane rated, using PRFs, to
determine the minimum motor octane requirement. Minimum location and proper material selection. EGT probes are usually
motor octane requirement is defined as one number above the installed within 5 cm (2 in.) of the exhaust stack flange. The
highest MON in which knock was detected. The engine is EGT probes shall be accurate to within 1 % of full scale.
tested at three or more of the worst power points subject to [Link] Engine Speed Sensor—The dynamometer or propel-
detonation behavior. These points usually involve high mani- ler stand shall measure the engine shaft speed to determine
fold pressures. At the very least, takeoff power, a maximum power development. The engine speed sensor shall be accurate
continuous or climb power, and a cruise configuration shall be to within 65 rpm.
tested. Takeoff power and climb power are tested under full [Link] Fuel Flow Meter—If the device is calibrated for a
rich mixture conditions, and cruise power is tested under full particular fuel, then the device shall be recalibrated for each
rich and lean mixture configurations in 5 % increment reduc- different and subsequent fuel. Data should be reported in mass
tions from full rich fuel flow. Engine operating temperatures flow units.
and oil temperatures are kept at maximum allowable limits,
[Link] Fuel Pressure Transducers—Locations of fuel pres-
while induction and cooling air temperatures are maintained at
sure transducers shall conform with those recommended by the
extreme hot day conditions for severe case testing.
engine manufacturer. One transducer is required for the me-
4.2 Octane ratings are determined under stable engine tered fuel pressure, if necessary, and another is required for the
conditions using PRFs of known MON. pump pressure. The fuel inlet pressure shall not fall below the
4.3 Knock sensor installation and knock quantification are minimum specified by the engine manufacturer during the
described in Annex A1. rating process.
[Link] Induction Air Pressure Transducer, located so as to
5. Significance and Use
measure the pressure of the induction stream prior to the
5.1 This practice is used as a basis for determining the throttle plate.
minimum motor octane requirement of naturally aspirated
[Link] Induction Air Temperature Sensor, located so as to
aircraft engines by use of PRFs.
measure the temperature of the induction stream prior to the
5.2 Results from standardized octane ratings will play an throttle plate.
important role in defining the actual octane requirement of a [Link] Knock Sensors—The referee method for knock
given aircraft engine, which can be applied in an effort to detection is described in Annex A1. This method requires flush
determine a fleet requirement. mounting piezoelectric transducers. At the very least, the four
6. Apparatus cylinders with the highest CHTs shall be monitored. These
transducers are connected to charge amplifiers and shall be
6.1 Instrumentation:
capable of measuring combustion pressures under a high
6.1.1 The engine shall be equipped with the following
temperature environment.
instrumentation, which shall be accurate within 62 % of full
scale unless noted otherwise. [Link] Oil Pressure Transducer—Location of pressure
[Link] Absolute Manifold Pressure Transducer—Location measurement shall conform to engine manufacturer’s specified
of MAP sensor shall conform to engine manufacturer’s speci- location.
fied location. Manifold pressures shall be measured with an [Link] Oil Temperature Sensor—Location of temperature
accuracy of less than 2.5 mmHg and recorded to ensure proper measurement shall conform with manufacturer’s specified
engine behavior and repeatability. location.

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)
[Link] Torque Meter—The dynamometer or propeller 7.1.3 A sample shall be taken of each primary reference fuel
stand shall measure the torque to determine power develop- and subjected to Test Method D2700 for motor octane verifi-
ment. The torque measurement shall be accurate to within 1 % cation.
of full scale.
7.2 Fuels used for operations other than octane rating (for
6.1.2 The engine should be equipped with the following example, warm-up) shall consist of unleaded hydrocarbons and
instrumentation, which shall be accurate within 62 % of full should be capable of satisfying the test engine’s octane
scale unless noted otherwise. requirement under the conditions for the fuel to be used.
[Link] Induction Air Flow Meter—Data should be pre- (Warning—These fuels are flammable, and their vapor is
sented in mass flow units. harmful. Vapors may cause flash fire.)
[Link] Induction Air Humidity Sensor, located in either the 7.3 Engine break-in oil shall be one approved by the engine
induction air plenum or induction air duct. Data should be manufacturer.
presented in absolute, rather than relative, quantities.
[Link] Outside Air Temperature Sensor, capable of measur- 7.4 All engine operations, other than during the break-in
ing both the ambient wet bulb and the dry bulb temperatures period, shall be performed with an oil approved by the engine
prior to any engine testing. manufacturer. (Warning—Lubricating oil is combustible, and
its vapor is harmful.)
6.2 Data Acquisition:
6.2.1 The instrumentation listed in 6.1 shall be scanned and 8. Preparation of Apparatus
the data recorded at least once every 15 s by an automatic data
8.1 The history and condition of each test engine should be
acquisition system. The data shall be stored in a universal
known and documented by means of engine log books, test run
format (for example, comma separated values (CSV) for IBM
sheets, and any other documentation issued by the original
compatible machines) that can be retrieved at a later date.
equipment manufacturers or repair overhaul shops before any
6.2.2 If in-cylinder pressures are recorded to determine octane rating tests are performed.
knock intensity, the pressure data shall be sampled at a rate of
at least 1800 samples per pressure cycle per cylinder. 8.2 Only the engine accessories required to operate the
engine shall be installed on the test engine when conducting the
6.3 Power Absorption—The testing is to be performed in a octane ratings.
ground based test cell using either a dynamometer or propeller
test stand that shall be capable of maintaining a constant speed 8.3 The exhaust system employed shall not induce a back
to within 610 rpm. pressure greater than the back pressure called for in the engine
manufacturer’s specifications.
6.4 Fuel System:
8.4 If the test engine’s fuel system is designed to recirculate
6.4.1 The fuel supply shall have a disposable or cleanable
fuel to the tank, provisions shall be made to ensure that no fuel
filter. The filter shall allow the proper minimum fuel flow.
is recirculated to the containers with the PRFs.
6.4.2 The fuel selection valve shall be capable of selecting
at least two different fuel sources without the possibility of 8.5 The idle mixture setting and full rich fuel flow rate shall
cross contamination of either source. be set in accordance with the engine manufacturer’s recom-
6.4.3 The fuel supply system must comply with federal, mendations.
state, and local regulations related to fire, hazards, and health 8.6 The idle stop and full throttle throw positions shall be
issues. set in accordance with the engine manufacturer’s recommen-
dations.
7. Reagents and Materials
8.7 Before any octane rating, and after all break-in and
7.1 The MON of PRFs is confirmed by using Test Method power baseline runs have been performed, a cylinder compres-
D2700. All fuels used for the initial engine octane ratings are sion test shall be performed on all cylinders and the results
PRFs that consist of blends of reference grade isooctane and recorded.
n-heptane. The PRFs will be prepared in increments of one 8.8 Prior to testing, the integrity of the fuel selection system
MON. (Warning—PRF is flammable, and its vapor is harmful. shall be confirmed and the system flushed. The engine fuel
Vapors may cause flash fire.) selector apparatus shall be checked to ensure no leakage.
7.1.1 Isooctane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) shall be no less
than 99.75 % by volume pure, contain no more than 0.10 % by 8.9 All engine settings shall be checked after the break-in
volume n-heptane, and contain no more than 0.5 mg/L (0.002 period and before any octane rating. As a minimum, this shall
g/U.S. gal) of lead. (Warning—Isooctane is flammable, and its include fuel pressures, oil pressure, fuel flow, and magneto
vapor is harmful. Vapors may cause flash fire.) timing.
7.1.2 n-Heptane shall be no less than 99.75 % by volume 8.10 A systems check shall be performed, as per specific
pure, contain no more than 0.10 % by volume isooctane, and aircraft engine manufacturer’s recommendations, prior to start-
contain no more than 0.5 mg/L (0.002 g/U.S. gal) of lead. ing the test engine. As a minimum, this shall include the
(Warning—n-Heptane is flammable, and its vapor is harmful. following: idle throttle stop, wide open throttle throw, mixture
Vapors may cause flash fire.) cut-off position, and mixture full rich position.

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)
8.11 A systems check shall be performed after starting the 10.3.2 The engine shall be warm when the cylinder com-
test engine. This shall include as a minimum the following pression checks are performed.
items: oil pressure, magneto ground check as per the engine 10.4 Octane Rating:
manufacturer’s recommendations, and instrumentation indica-
10.4.1 After the cylinder compression checks have been
tions within normal ranges.
performed, the octane rating shall be performed.
9. Calibration and Standardization 10.4.2 For this test, record the engine parameter data at a
minimum rate of one (1) full channel scan for every 15 s of
9.1 The engine shall be set up in accordance with the engine operation. The knock data sample rate shall be equal to
manufacturer’s specifications. The ignition timing shall be set or greater than at least one (1) pressure sample per cylinder for
within 61° of the recommended setting. The fuel flows shall every 0.4° of crank shaft rotation. Knock data shall encompass
be set within 62 % of the recommended fuel flow (or 65 % of at least 100 consecutive engine cycles per power setting for
the recommended pressure when appropriate). each cylinder monitored.
9.2 Instrumentation shall be calibrated and checked to 10.4.3 Start the engine on house fuel. Allow engine to warm
ensure accuracy to within 62 % of full scale, unless noted up. Ensure all instrumentation indications are within proper
otherwise. range. Conduct ignition systems check.
10.4.4 The cooling and induction air temperatures shall be
10. Procedure adjusted to 39 6 2°C (103 6 4°F). These settings shall be
10.1 Engine Break-In: maintained throughout the octane rating.
10.1.1 If the test engine is new, remanufactured, or recently 10.4.5 The cooling air pressure shall be adjusted to maintain
overhauled, it shall be broken in prior to conducting initial the maximum CHT within 66°C (10°F) of manufacturer’s
octane ratings. The break-in shall be conducted in accordance recommended maximum limit. All CHTs shall be maintained
with the engine manufacturer’s recommendations. Break-in within 28°C (50°F) of the maximum CHT. These settings shall
shall be conducted with a non-metallic fuel. be maintained throughout the octane rating.
10.1.2 The engine is started and the engine manufacturer’s 10.4.6 The oil temperature shall be maintained within 66°C
warm-up procedures are followed. A magneto check is per- (10°F) of the engine manufacturer’s recommended maximum
formed as per the engine manufacturer’s recommendation. limit throughout the octane rating.
10.1.3 The engine is operated at the manufacturer’s recom- 10.4.7 Set takeoff engine rpm, full throttle, and full rich
mended power settings, and the oil consumption is recorded mixture conditions on the house fuel.
until either oil consumption is stabilized or 10 h of engine 10.4.8 Select the PRF to be tested. The test sequence should
operation is attained. Oil consumption stabilization should begin with a PRF of 100 MON or below that is likely to result
conform to the engine manufacturer’s recommendation. in no knock.
10.1.4 During the engine break-in runs, the engine operating 10.4.9 Each time a different PRF is selected or the engine
temperatures and oil temperature should be maintained in power setting is changed, conditions shall be allowed to
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. become stable. Allow time for fuel to enter engine and for
10.2 Power Baselines: conditions to stabilize. The waiting period shall be a minimum
10.2.1 After oil consumption is stabilized, three separate of 2 min, the time required to consume three (3) times the
power baseline tests of the engine shall be performed. Each test volume of fuel contained in the fuel system upstream of the
requires measuring the power developed at combinations of selector valve, or the time it takes for the conditions to
every 100 rpm and 50 mmHg (2 inHg) MAP increments from stabilize, whichever is longer.
takeoff power to low cruise power (that is, 55 % normal rated 10.4.10 Record knock data, and determine the combustion
power). This ensures that proper power is being developed. condition (normal combustion, light knock, moderate knock, or
10.2.2 Record engine parameter data at a rate of at least one heavy knock). See Annex A1 for more detail. Do not allow the
(1) full channel scan for every 15 s of engine operation, and test engine to operate under heavy knock for extended periods
attach the results to the octane rating data. of time.
10.2.3 The installation of the knock sensing equipment is 10.4.11 If knock occurs, select the house fuel, reduce the
performed after the power baselines have been performed. engine power, and return to step 10.4.7 with a higher MON
10.2.4 If this knock sensor installation alters the cylinder/ PRF.
ignition system in any way, such as drilling of cylinders, use of 10.4.12 If no knock occurs, select the house fuel and set the
longer reach spark plugs, or use of modified spark plugs, then power on the test engine to the recommended climb power
three power baselines shall be performed again, after the knock setting or maximum continuous power setting, if appropriate.
sensor installation. The same MAP and rpm settings tested in Leave the mixture at the full rich setting.
10.2.1 shall be retested and the results recorded. Engine 10.4.13 Select the PRF with the same MON as the fuel
parameter data shall again be recorded at a rate of at least one selected in 10.4.8.
(1) full channel scan for every 15 s of engine operation. 10.4.14 Record knock data, and determine the combustion
10.3 Cylinder Compression Check: condition.
10.3.1 After power mapping the engine, cylinder compres- 10.4.15 If knock occurs, select house fuel and return to
sion checks shall be performed and the results recorded. 10.4.7 with a higher MON PRF.

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)
10.4.16 If no knock occurs, select house fuel and set the test 10.4.29 After shutdown, make sure the selector valve does
engine to the maximum recommended cruise setting at which not leak. If the valve leaks, repair the valve and repeat the test
the mixture can be leaned. Leave the mixture at the full rich to ensure the PRFs were not contaminated.
position. 10.4.30 Fig. 1 illustrates, in flowchart form, the octane
10.4.17 Select the PRF with the same MON as the fuel rating test procedures.
selected in 10.4.8.
10.4.18 Record knock data, and determine the combustion 11. Report
condition. 11.1 A description of the history of the aircraft engine shall
10.4.19 If knock occurs, select the house fuel and return to be attached to the results.
10.4.7 with a higher MON PRF. 11.1.1 As a minimum, this shall include information regard-
10.4.20 If no knock occurs, calculate a 5 % reduction in fuel ing whether or not the engine was recently remanufactured,
flow from the reading obtained from the maximum recom- overhauled, or new. The history shall also include the number
mended cruise full rich mixture setting. of hours since last overhauled.
10.4.21 Hold the throttle and engine speed fixed at the
maximum recommended cruise settings. Starting with full rich 11.2 The results from the cylinder compression checks shall
mixture settings, lean until the fuel flow decreases by the 5 % be reported. The data shall be reported in terms of measured
increment just determined. The engine should still be operating cylinder pressure when the applied pressure is equal to 551.6
on the PRF. kPa (80 psi).
10.4.22 Allow conditions to stabilize after adjusting the 11.3 Annex A1 details the referee method for knock detec-
mixture. tion and the quantification of the combustion condition. If that
10.4.23 Record knock data, and determine the combustion method is utilized, the results shall include a description of the
condition. points tested, the MON of the PRF tested, the number of
10.4.24 If knock occurs, select house fuel and return to consecutive engine cycles collected, the maximum knock
10.4.7 with a higher MON PRF. number over those cycles, and the number of those cycles that
10.4.25 If no knock occurs, continue leaning by the 5 % experienced a knock condition.
increment determined in 10.4.20 at the maximum recom- 11.4 If a system other than the one described in Annex A1
mended cruise position until either knock occurs or peak EGT, is utilized, a detailed description of that system shall be
in any cylinder, is attained. The engine shall be stabilized and provided.
knock data recorded after each 5 % increment change in fuel 11.4.1 The sample rate and length of sampling shall be
flow. (Warning—Excessive leaning may cause engine dam- reported.
age. All cylinder EGTs should be monitored so that the mixture 11.4.2 The number of knock events over the given sample
is not leaned past peak EGT for any cylinder. Rapid lean period, for each cylinder, shall be reported.
mixture adjustments may propagate severe detonation and may
lead to engine damage.) 11.5 Engine data as listed in Section 7 shall be reported for
10.4.26 If peak EGT in any cylinder has been reached each engine power setting configuration tested. The data shall
without experiencing a knock condition, the mixture shall be be reported for the time during which the knock data was being
enriched and a lower MON PRF shall be selected. If that lower collected. It may be advantageous to report averaged values
MON PRF has already been found to produce a knock over that same period.
condition, then the motor octane requirement is the last 11.5.1 Both the observed engine power and the engine
knock-free PRF tested. power corrected for standard day barometer shall be reported.
10.4.27 It is suggested when choosing a lower MON PRF to A description of the correction method used shall also be
choose a rating fuel of only one MON lower so as to minimize reported.
any potential engine damage. Continue testing with a lower 11.5.2 The observed brake specific fuel consumption shall
MON PRF until a knock condition is encountered. The motor be reported. The corrected specific fuel consumption using the
octane requirement is defined as one MON higher than the corrected power values from 11.5.1 shall also be reported.
highest MON PRF that produced a knock condition.
10.4.28 At the conclusion of the test, select the house fuel, 12. Keywords
gradually reduce the power setting to idle, and allow the engine 12.1 aircraft engine; naturally aspirated ; octane rating;
to cool. octane requirement; spark ignition aircraft engine

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)

FIG. 1 Flow Chart Illustrating the Octane Rating Procedures

ANNEX

(Mandatory Information)

A1. REFEREE METHOD KNOCK RATING TECHNIQUE

A1.1 Pressure Sensor Installation the sensor face with the cylinder wall may result in the
A1.1.1 A water cooled, high temperature, piezoelectric development of unwanted acoustic noise.
pressure transducer shall be flush mounted in each cylinder. A1.1.2 After installation of the transducers and prior to
Fig. A1.1 shows the typical installation of the transducer. octane rating, power baseline tests, as described in 10.2, shall
Usually an area near the spark plug port is drilled and tapped. again be performed to ensure the integrity of cylinder com-
Care must be taken to minimize the loss of cooling fin surface pression.
area and to minimize material loss between the spark plug port
and the transducer port to maintain cylinder structural integrity. A1.1.3 The piezoelectric transducers are connected to
The installation should be such that the recess of the transducer charge amplifiers, which are connected to the data acquisition
face from the combustion chamber is minimized. Any recess of interface. Data sampling rates must be shown to be at least the

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)

NOTE 1—Figure not drawn to scale.

FIG. A1.1 Typical Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer Installation in an Aircraft Cylinder Head

rate equivalent to one pressure reading per cylinder for each

0.4° of crankshaft travel.

A1.2 Crank Angle Encoder

A1.2.1 A position crank angle encoder is attached to the
accessory tachometer drive on the engine. This allows for a
pressure data scan to be taken once for every 0.4° of revolution
of the crank shaft or the equivalent of 1800 points per pressure
cycle for each cylinder. The encoder TDC pulse shall be
aligned with TDC of cylinder number one prior to octane
rating.

A1.3 Visual Description of Knock

A1.3.1 Cylinder pressure traces are displayed on a monitor
by means of a data acquisition system. With the proper FIG. A1.2 Pressure Trace Showing Normal Combustion
installation of the piezoelectric transducers, acoustic interfer-
ence is negligible and the cylinder pressure traces display
distinctive traits with increasing knock intensity. Under normal
combustion, there is a steady increase in pressure until a peak
is reached and then a steady expansion. For knock cycles, as
the pressure on the compression stroke appears to be reaching
a peak near TDC, autoignition of the end gas occurs, generat-
ing a pressure spike. This pressure spike resonates during the
expansion stroke. In general, both the amplitude of the peak
pressure spike and the subsequent pressure pulse amplitudes
increase as knock intensity increases.
A1.3.2 Several pressure traces are shown in Figs. A1.2-
A1.5, illustrating this effect. These traces demonstrate the
typical changes in combustion characteristics and peak pres-
sure that occur with an increase in knock intensity. Fig. A1.2
shows a normal combustion pressure curve versus crank angle FIG. A1.3 Pressure Trace Showing Light Knock
rotation. Figs. A1.3-A1.5 show cylinder pressure traces of
engine cycles with varying knock intensity levels.
A1.3.3 FAA Advisory Circular No. 33.473 describes a instability begins to become evident. Under this condition,
condition that is not considered a knock condition, but in which peak pressures remain at the normal combustion level, pressure
pulses are minimal, and cylinder head temperatures and oil
3
temperature remain stable while the engine is left to operate for
“Detonation Testing in Reciprocating Aircraft Engines,” available from U.S.
Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents, 732 N. Capitol St., NW, long periods of time. As such, the engine would not suffer
Mail Stop: SDE, Washington, DC 20401. damage if left to operate under this condition.

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)
compression stroke, which accounts for peak pressure variation
due to normal combustion variability and different power
settings.
A1.4.2 The knock quantification, or knock number, is de-
termined by comparing the absolute values of the relative
pressure changes on the expansion slope to those of the
compression stroke. Equal numbers of data points are chosen
from the compression stroke as from the expansion stroke. The
sum of the absolute values of the consecutive pressure differ-
ences are summed for the compression stroke. That sum is then
subtracted from the sum of the absolute values of the consecu-
tive pressure differences for the expansion stroke. This differ-
ence in these two sums is known as the knock number. Care
must be taken to include enough points to ensure enough of the
FIG. A1.4 Pressure Trace Showing Moderate Knock
knock is measured, but not to include either the intake or
exhaust valve noise. Below is the equation for the calculation
of the knock number.
N21 N21

Knock Number 5 (?
i50
? ( ?P
P i 2 P i11 2
i50
2i 2 P 2i21 ?
(A1.1)

where:
P0 = pressure value at the point separating the expansion
and compression strokes,
P–1 = pressure value one point before P0,
P+1 = pressure value one point after P0, and
N = number of points either before or after P0.
A1.4.3 Typically, a full range of 70° of crank shaft rotation
is analyzed. A normal combustion cycle has a knock number
that is negative, and knock cycles (light, moderate, and heavy)
have knock numbers of ten or greater. Heavy knock cycles can
FIG. A1.5 Pressure Trace Showing Heavy Knock have knock numbers as high as a few hundred.
A1.4.4 Use of any knock detection system, other than
A1.4 Quantitative Description of Knock Levels detailed here, shall be shown to correlate with the results
A1.4.1 Numerical quantification of knock intensity utilizes described in A1.4. The sample rate for such a system must
the cylinder pressure versus crank angle data to calculate a eclipse the rate of one (1) pressure data point per cylinder for
value that measures the amplitudes of pressure pulses present each 0.4° of crank shaft revolution. Knock data for at least 100
in the pressure curve. This knock number is normalized by consecutive pressure cycles per cylinder shall be recorded for
subtracting the cumulative effect of pressure increase on the each power setting and PRF tested.

APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. ENGINE PARAMETER SAMPLE DATA SHEET

X1.1 See Fig. X1.1

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)

FIG. X1.1 Engine Parameter Sample Data Sheet

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)

X2. KNOCK PARAMETER SAMPLE DATA SHEET

X2.1 See Fig. X2.1

FIG. X2.1 Knock Parameter Sample Data Sheet

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 D6424 − 04a (2010)
SUMMARY OF CHANGES

Subcommittee D02.J0 has identified the location of selected changes to this standard since the last issue
(D6424–04) that may impact the use of this standard. (Approved Nov. 1, 2004.)

(1) Added clarifying language to 3.1.1.

Subcommittee D02.J0 has identified the location of selected changes to this standard since the last issue
(D6424–03) that may impact the use of this standard. (Approved June 1, 2004.)

(1) Added language to 3.1.1 for clarification.

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