"Photocopy" redirects here. For the film, see Photocopy (film).

"Copier" redirects here. For other uses, see Copier (disambiguation).

A Xerox digital photocopier in 2010

A photocopier (also called copier or copy machine, and

formerly Xerox machine, the generic trademark) is a machine that
makes copies of documents and other visual images onto paper or plastic
film quickly and cheaply. Most modern photocopiers use a technology
called xerography, a dry process that uses electrostatic charges on a light-
sensitive photoreceptor to first attract and then transfer toner particles (a
powder) onto paper in the form of an image. The toner is then fused onto
the paper using heat, pressure, or a combination of both. Copiers can also
use other technologies, such as inkjet, but xerography is standard for
office copying.

Commercial xerographic office photocopying gradually replaced copies

made by verifax, photostat, carbon paper, mimeograph machines, and
other duplicating machines.[1][non-primary source needed]

Photocopying is widely used in the business, education, and government

sectors. While there have been predictions that photocopiers will
eventually become obsolete as information workers increase their use of
digital document creation, storage, and distribution and rely less on
distributing actual pieces of paper, as of 2015, photocopiers continue to
be widely used. During the 1980s, a convergence began in some high-end
machines towards what came to be called a multi-function printer: a
device that combined the roles of a photocopier, a fax machine,
a scanner, and a computer network-connected printer. Low-end machines
that can copy and print in color have increasingly dominated the home-
office market as their prices fell steadily during the 1990s. High-end color
photocopiers capable of heavy-duty handling cycles and large-format
printing remain a costly option found primarily in print and design shops.

History

Chester Carlson (1906–1968), the inventor of photocopying, was originally

a patent attorney, as well as a part-time researcher and inventor. His job
at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of
copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic, found this a painful
and tedious process. This motivated him to conduct experiments with
photoconductivity. Carlson used his kitchen for his "electrophotography"
experiments, and, in 1938, he applied for a patent for the process. He
made the first photocopy using a zinc plate covered with sulfur. The words
"10-22-38 Astoria" were written on a microscope slide, which was placed
on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was
removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his
invention to some companies but failed because the process was still
underdeveloped. At the time, multiple copies were most commonly made
at the point of document origination, using carbon paper or
manual duplicating machines. People did not see the need for an
electronic copier. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by
over 20 companies, including IBM and General Electric—neither of which
believed there was a significant market for copiers.

In 1944, the Battelle Memorial Institute, a non-profit organization

in Columbus, Ohio, contracted with Carlson to refine his new process. Over
the next five years, the institute conducted experiments to improve the
process of electrophotography. In 1947, Haloid Corporation, a
manufacturer of photographic paper, approached Battelle to obtain a
license to develop and market a copying machine based on this
technology.[2]

Haloid felt that the word "electrophotography" was too complicated and
did not have good recall value. After consulting a professor of classical
language at Ohio State University, Haloid and Carlson changed the name
of the process to xerography, a term, coined from Greek roots, that meant
"dry writing." Haloid called the new copier machines "Xerox Machines"
and, in 1948, the term Xerox was trademarked. Haloid eventually
became Xerox Corporation in 1961.

In 1949, Xerox Corporation introduced the first xerographic copier, called

the Model A.[3] Seeing off computing-leader IBM[4] in the office-copying
market, Xerox became so successful that, in North America, photocopying
came to be popularly known as "xeroxing". Xerox has actively fought to
prevent Xerox from becoming a genericized trademark. While the
word Xerox has appeared in some dictionaries as a synonym for
photocopying,[5] Xerox Corporation typically requests such entries be
modified, and discourages use of the term Xerox in this way.

In the early 1950s, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) introduced a

variation on the process called Electrofax, whereby images are formed
directly on specially coated paper and rendered with a toner dispersed in
a liquid.

During the 1960s and through the 1980s, Savin Corporation developed
and sold a line of liquid-toner copiers that implemented a technology
based on patents held by the company.

Before the widespread adoption of xerographic copiers, photo-direct

copies produced by machines such as Kodak's Verifax (based on a 1947
patent) were used. A primary obstacle associated with the pre-xerographic
copying technologies was the high cost of supplies: a Verifax print
required supplies costing US$0.15 in 1969, while a Xerox print could be
made for $0.03, including paper and labor. The coin-operated Photostat
machines still found in some public libraries in the late 1960s made letter-
size copies for $0.25 each, when the minimum wage for a US worker was
$1.65 per hour; the Xerox machines that replaced them typically charged
$0.10.

Xerographic-copier manufacturers took advantage of the high perceived

value copying had in the 1960s and early 1970s and marketed "specially
designed" paper for xerographic output. By the end of the 1970s, paper
producers made xerographic "runability" one of the requirements for most
of their office-paper brands.

DADF or Duplex Automatic Document

feeder - Canon IR6000

Some devices sold as photocopiers have replaced the drum-based process

with inkjet or transfer-film technology.

Among the key advantages of photocopiers over earlier copying

technologies is their ability:

 to use plain (untreated) office paper

  to implement duplex (two-sided) printing

 to scan several pages automatically with an ADF

 eventually, to sort and/or staple output

In 1970, Paul Orfalea founded Kinko's retail chain, in Isla Vista, California.
Starting with a single copier that year, this copy service chain would
expand to over 1,000 locations around the world. [6] By the 1980s, Kinko's
operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, with customers using the copy
center for academic and business work as well as personal publishing and
advertising.[7] By the 1990s, Kinko's had 700 locations around the United
States, with 5 in Manhattan. In such urban areas, Kinko's became a place
where a multitude of users could make their ideas "typed, designed and
xeroxed, then transmitted by fax, computer disk and Federal Express".
[8]
Kate Eichhorn, in Adjusted Margin: Xerography, Art, and Activism in the
Late Twentieth Century, notes that during this period (1970s through
1990s) the copy machine played "an especially notable role in the era's
punk, street art, and DIY movements."[9] FedEx purchased the Kinko's
chain in 2004, and its services were incorporated into the name FedEx
Office in 2008.[10]

Color photocopiers

Colored toner became available in the 1940s,[citation needed] although full-color

copiers were not commercially available until 1968, when 3M released
the Color-in-Color copier, which used a dye sublimation process rather
than conventional electrostatic technology. Xerox introduced the first
electrostatic color-copier (the 6500) in 1973. Color photocopying is a
concern to governments, as it facilitates counterfeiting currency and other
documents: for more information, see § Counterfeiting.

Digital technology

Main article: Multi-function printer

There is an increasing trend for new photocopiers to

implement digital technology, thereby replacing the
older analog technology. With digital copying, the copier effectively
consists of an integrated scanner and laser printer. This design has
several advantages, such as automatic image-quality enhancement and
the ability to "build jobs" (that is, to scan page images independently of
printing them). Some digital copiers can function as high-speed scanners;
such models typically offer the ability to send documents via email or
make them available on file servers.

A significant advantage of digital copier technology is "automatic

digital collation". For example, when copying a set of 20 pages 20 times, a
digital copier scans each page only once, then uses the stored information
to produce 20 sets. In an analog copier, either each page is scanned 20
times (a total of 400 scans), making one set at a time, or 20 separate
output trays are used for the 20 sets.

Low-end copiers also use digital technology, but tend to consist of a

standard PC scanner coupled to an inkjet or low-end laser printer, which
are far slower than their counterparts in high-end copiers. However, low-
end scanner-inkjets can provide color copying at a lower upfront purchase-
price but a much higher cost per copy. Combined digital scanner/printers
sometimes have built-in fax machines and can be classified as one type
of multifunction printer.

How it works (using xerography)

Schematic overview of the xerographic

photocopying process (step 1–4)

Main article: Xerography

Part of a series on the

History of printing
 Techniques

 v

 t

 e

1. Charging: cylindrical drum is electrostatically charged by a high

voltage wire called a corona wire or a charge roller. The drum has a
coating of a photoconductive material. A photoconductor is
a semiconductor that becomes conductive when exposed to light. [11]

2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates the original document, and the

white areas of the original document reflect the light onto the
surface of the photoconductive drum. The drum areas that are
exposed to light become conductive and therefore discharge to the
ground. The drum area not exposed to light (those areas that
correspond to black portions of the original document) remains
negatively charged.

3. Developing: The toner is positively charged. When it is applied to

the drum to develop the image, it is attracted and sticks to the
negatively charged areas (black areas), just as paper sticks to a
balloon with a static charge.

4. Transfer: The resulting toner image on the surface of the drum is

transferred from the drum onto a piece of paper that has an even
greater negative charge than the drum has.

5. Fusing: The toner is melted and bonded to the paper by heat and
pressure rollers.

A negative photocopy inverts the document's colors when creating a

photocopy, resulting in letters that appear white on a black background
instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or
faded documents sometimes produce documents that have better focus
and are easier to read and study.

Copyright issues

Photocopying material that is subject to copyright (such as books or

scientific papers) is subject to restrictions in most countries. This is
common practice, as the cost of purchasing a book for the sake of one
article or a few pages can be excessive. The principle of fair use (in the
United States) or fair dealing (in other Berne Convention countries) allows
copying for certain specified purposes.

In certain countries, such as Canada, some universities pay royalties from

each photocopy made at university copy machines and copy centers
to copyright collectives out of the revenues from the photocopying, and
these collectives distribute resulting funds to various scholarly publishers.
In the United States, photocopied compilations of articles, handouts,
graphics, and other information called readers often require texts for
college classes. Either the instructor or the copy center is responsible for
clearing copyright for every article in the reader, and attribution
information must be clearly included in the reader.

Counterfeiting

To counter the risk of people using color copiers to

create counterfeit copies of paper currency, some countries have
incorporated anti-counterfeiting technologies into their currency. These
include watermarks, microprinting, holograms, tiny security strips made of
plastic (or other material), and ink that appears to change color as the
currency is viewed at an angle. Some photocopying machines contain
special software that can prevent copying currency that has a special
pattern.

Color copying also raises concerns regarding the copying and/or forging of
other documents, such as driver's licenses and university degrees and
transcripts. Some driver's licenses are made with embedded holograms so
that a police officer can detect a fake copy. Some university and college
transcripts have special anti-copying watermarks in the background. If a
copy is made, the watermarks will become highly visible, which allows the
recipient to determine that they have a copy rather than a genuine
original transcript.

Health issues

Exposure to ultraviolet light is a concern. In the early days of

photocopiers, the sensitizing light source was filtered green to match the
optimal sensitivity of the photoconductive surface. This filtering
conveniently removed all ultraviolet.[12] Currently, a variety of light sources
are used. As glass transmits ultraviolet rays between 325 and 400
nanometers, copiers with ultraviolet-producing lights such as
fluorescent, tungsten halogen, or xenon flash, expose documents to some
ultraviolet.[12]

Concerns about emissions from photocopy machines have been expressed

by some in connection with the use of selenium and emissions
of ozone and fumes from heated toner.[13][14]

Forensic identification

Main article: Printer steganography

Similar to forensic identification of typewriters, computer printers and

copiers can be traced by imperfections in their output. The mechanical
tolerances of the toner and paper feed mechanisms cause banding, which
can reveal information about the individual device's mechanical
properties. It is often possible to identify the manufacturer and brand,
and, in some cases, the individual printer can be identified from a set of
known printers by comparing their outputs.[15]

Some high-quality color printers and copiers steganographically embed

their identification code into the printed pages, as fine and almost
invisible patterns of yellow dots. Some sources
identify Xerox and Canon as companies doing this.[16][17] The Electronic
Frontier Foundation (EFF) has investigated this issue[18] and documented
how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and
time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the
yellow channel. EFF is working to reverse engineer additional printers.
[19]
The EFF also reports that the US government has asked these
companies to implement such a tracking scheme, so
that counterfeiting can be traced. The EFF has filed a Freedom of
Information Act request in order to look into privacy implications of this
tracking.[20]

Wet photocopying

Photocopying, using liquid developer, was developed by Ken Metcalfe and

Bob Wright of Defence Standards Laboratory in Adelaide in 1952.[21][22]

Photocopying, using liquid developer, was used in 1967. [23][24][25]

Images from 'wet photocopying' do not last as long as dry toner images,
but this is not due to acidity.[26]

See also

 Gestetner
  Heliography

 IBM Copier Family

 List of duplicating processes

 Print Audit

 Reprography

 Risograph

 Scanography

 Thermochromatic ink

 Thermofax

 Xerox art

 Xerox 914

Xerox Corporation (/ˈzɪərɒks/, ZEER-oks) is an American corporation that

sells printers, digital document products and services in more than 160
countries.[3] Xerox was the pioneer of the photocopier market, beginning
with the introduction of the Xerox 914 in 1959,[4] so much so that the
word xerox is commonly used as a synonym for photocopy.[5] Xerox is
headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut, though it is incorporated in New
York[6] with its largest group of employees based around Rochester, New
York, where the company was founded. As a large developed company, it
is consistently placed in the list of Fortune 500 companies.[7]

The company purchased Affiliated Computer Services for $6.4 billion in

early 2010.[8] On December 31, 2016, Xerox separated its business
process service operations, essentially those operations acquired with the
purchase of Affiliated Computer Services, into a new publicly traded
company, Conduent. Xerox focuses on its document technology and
document outsourcing business, and traded on the NYSE from 1961 to
2021, and the Nasdaq since 2021.[9]

Researchers at Xerox and its Palo Alto Research Center invented several
important elements of personal computing, such as the desktop
metaphor GUI, the computer mouse[10] and desktop computing.[11] The
concepts were adopted by Apple and later Microsoft.

History

Xerox was founded in 1906 in Rochester, New York, as Haloid. [12] It

manufactured photographic paper and equipment.
In 1938, Chester Carlson, a physicist working independently, invented a
process for printing images using an electrically charged photoconductor-
coated metal plate[13] and dry powder "toner". However, it would take
more than 20 years of refinement before the first automated machine to
make copies was commercialized, using a document feeder, scanning
light, and a rotating drum.

The Xerox Model D copier, introduced in

1951

Joseph C. Wilson, credited as the "founder of Xerox", took over Haloid from
his father.[14] He saw the promise of Carlson's invention and, in 1946,
signed an agreement to develop it as a commercial product. Wilson
remained as President/CEO of Xerox until 1967 and served as chairman
until his death in 1971.[15][16]

Looking for a term to differentiate its new system, Haloid hired a Greek
scholar at Ohio State University and coined the term xerography from two
Greek roots meaning "dry writing".[17] Haloid changed its name to Haloid
Xerox in 1958 and then Xerox in 1961.[18][19]

Before releasing the 914, Xerox tested the market by introducing a

developed version of the prototype hand-operated equipment known as
the Flat-plate 1385. The 1385 was not actually a viable copier because of
its slowness of operation. As a consequence, it was sold as a platemaker
for the Addressograph-Multigraph Multilith 1250 and related sheet-fed
offset printing presses in the offset lithography market. It was little more
than a high quality, commercially available plate camera mounted as a
horizontal rostrum camera, complete with photo-flood lighting and timer.
The glass film/plate had been replaced with a selenium-coated aluminium
plate. Clever electrics turned this into a quick-developing and reusable
substitute for film. A skilled user could produce fast, paper and metal
printing plates of a higher quality than almost any other method. Having
started as a supplier to the offset lithography duplicating industry, Xerox
now set its sights on capturing some of offset's market share.
The 1385 was followed by the first automatic xerographic printer, the
Copyflo, in 1955. The Copyflo was a large microfilm printer that could
produce positive prints on roll paper from any type of microfilm negative.
Following the Copyflo, the process was scaled down to produce the 1824
microfilm printer. At about half the size and weight, this still sizable
machine printed onto hand-fed, cut-sheet paper which was pulled through
the process by one of two gripper bars. A scaled-down version of this
gripper feed system was to become the basis for the 813 desktop copier.

Xerox 914

The Xerox 914 photocopier, introduced in

1959 and a highly successful product

Main article: Xerox 914

The company came to prominence in 1959 with the introduction of the

Xerox 914.[4] The 914, the first plain paper photocopier, was developed
by Carlson and John H. Dessauer;[20] it was so popular that by the end of
1961 Xerox had almost $60 million in revenue. The product was sold by an
innovative ad campaign showing that even monkeys could make copies at
the touch of a button – simplicity would become the foundation of Xerox
products and user interfaces. Revenues leaped to over $500 million by
1965.

Xeronic Computer Printer

Peter James Greaves at the Rank Research

Labs 1963: a project to attach a Xeronic printer to the Lyons Leo III
In 1956, Haloid formed a joint venture in the UK with Rank
Organisation whose Rank Precision Industries subsidiary was charged with
anglicising the US products. Rank's Precision Industries went on to develop
the Xeronic computer printer and Rank Data Systems was set up to bring
the product to market. It used cathode-ray tubes to generate the
characters and forms that could be overlaid from microfilm images.
Initially, it planned for the Ferranti and AEI computer companies to sell the
Xeronic as an on-line peripheral, but due to interface problems, Rank
switched to a magnetic tape off-line technique. In 1962, Lyons Computers
placed an order for use with its LEO III computer, and the printer was
delivered in 1964. It printed 2,888 lines per minute, slower than the target
of 5,000 lpm.[21]

1960s

Xerox copying scene at a commercial conference

in Finland, 1965

In the 1960s, Xerox held a dominant position in the photocopier market.

[22]
In 1960, a xerography research facility called the Wilson Center for
Research and Technology was opened in Webster, New York. In 1961, the
company changed its name to Xerox.[23] Xerox common stock (XRX) was
listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1961[19] and on the Chicago
Stock Exchange in 1990.

In 1963, Xerox introduced the Xerox 813, the first desktop plain-paper
copier, realizing Carlson's vision of a copier that could fit on anyone's
office desk. Ten years later, in 1973, a basic, analogue, color copier, based
on the 914, followed. The 914 itself was gradually sped up to become the
420 and 720. The 813 was similarly developed into the 330 and 660
products and, eventually, also the 740 desktop microfiche printer. [citation
needed]

Xerox's first foray into duplicating, as distinct from copying, was with the
Xerox 2400, introduced in 1966. The model number denoted the number
of prints produced in an hour. Although not as fast as offset printing, this
machine introduced the industry's first automatic document feeder, paper
slitter and perforator, and collator (sorter). This product was soon sped up
by fifty percent to become the Xerox 3600 Duplicator. [citation needed]

Meanwhile, a small lab team was borrowing copiers and modifying them.
The lab was developing what it called long distance xerography (LDX) to
connect a modified 813 copier to a CRT based scanner using a special
service (TELPAK) of the public telephone network, so that a document
scanned on one machine would print out on the other. The LDX system
was introduced in 1964, followed in 1966 by the Magnafax Telecopier, a
much smaller, slower and less expensive version that acoustically coupled
to a desk phone. However, fax machines would not become a truly
mainstream device until the 1980s.[24]

In 1968, C. Peter McColough, a longtime executive of Haloid and Xerox,

became Xerox's CEO.[25] The same year, the company consolidated its
headquarters at Xerox Square in downtown Rochester, New York, with its
30-story Xerox Tower.[26]

Xerox embarked on a series of acquisitions. It purchased University

Microfilms International in 1962, Electro-Optical Systems in 1963,[27] and R.
R. Bowker in 1967. In 1969, Xerox acquired Scientific Data Systems (SDS),
[28]
which it renamed the Xerox Data Systems (XDS) division and which
produced the Sigma line and its successor XDS 5xx series of mainframe
computers in the 1960s and 1970s. Xerox sold XDS to Honeywell in 1975.
[29]

Xerox Tower in Rochester, New York, served as headquarters from 1968 to

1969.


Stamford, Connecticut, served as headquarters from 1969 to 2007.

Former manufacturing facility in Henrietta, New York, constructed in the

1960s and sold to Harris RF Communications in 2010

Xerox Canada Head Office at North American Life Centre (Xerox

Tower), Toronto, Ontario

Xerox Training Center

1970s

Archie McCardell was named president of the company in 1971.[30] During

his tenure, Xerox introduced the Xerox 6500, its first color copier.
[31]
During McCardell's reign at Xerox, the company announced
record revenues, earnings and profits in 1973, 1974, and 1975.[32] John
Carrol became a backer, later spreading the company throughout North
America.[citation needed]
In the mid-1970s, Xerox introduced the Xerox 9200 Duplicating System.
Originally designed to be sold to print shops to increase their productivity,
it was twice a fast as the 3600 duplicator at two impressions per second
(7200 per hour). It was followed by the 9400, which did auto-duplexing,
and then by the 9500, which was which added variable zoom reduction
and electronic lightness/darkness control. [citation needed]

In a 1975 Super Bowl commercial for the 9200, Xerox debuted an

advertising campaign featuring Brother Dominic, a monk who used the
9200 system to save decades of manual copying. [33] Before it was aired,
there was some concern that the commercial would be denounced as
blasphemous. However, when the commercial was screened for the
Archbishop of New York, he found it amusing and gave it his blessing.
[34]
Dominic, portrayed by Jack Eagle, became the face of Xerox into the
1980s.[35]

The 6500 color copier was introduced in May 1973. [36]

Following these years of record profits, in 1975, Xerox resolved an anti-

trust suit with the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which at
the time was under the direction of Frederic M. Scherer. The Xerox consent
decree resulted in the forced licensing of the company's
entire patent portfolio, mainly to Japanese competitors. Within four years
of the consent decree, Xerox's share of the U.S. copier market dropped
from nearly 100% to less than 14%.[37]

In 1979, Xerox purchased Western Union International (WUI) as the basis

for its proposed Xerox Telecommunications Network (XTEN) for local-loop
communications. However, after three years, in 1982, the company
decided the idea was a mistake and sold its assets to MCI at a loss.[38]

1980s

David T. Kearns, a Xerox executive since 1971, took over as CEO in 1982.
The company was revived in the 1980s and 1990s, through improvement
in quality design and realignment of its product line. Attempting to expand
beyond copiers, in 1981 Xerox introduced a line of electronic memory
typewriters, the Memorywriter, which gained 20% market share, mostly at
the expense of IBM.[27]

In 1980, Xerox acquired Kurzweil Computer Products, a pioneering

manufacturer of flatbed scanners, from Ray Kurzweil. It later
acquired Datacopy, another pioneer in the image scanner market, for
$31 million in 1986.[39]

In 1983, Xerox bought Crum & Forster, an insurance company, and formed
Xerox Financial Services (XFS) in 1984.[27]
In 1985, Xerox sold all of its publishing subsidiaries including University
Microfilms and R. R. Bowker.[40]

In 1989, Xerox won the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award for
Business Products and Systems.

1990s

Xerox "Pixelated X" logo used from 1994 to 2008

In 1990, Paul Allaire, a Xerox executive since 1966, succeeded David

Kearns, who had reached mandatory retirement age.[41] Allaire
disentangled Xerox from the financial services industry. [41]

The development of digital photocopiers in the 1990s and a revamp of the

entire product range again gave Xerox a technical lead over its
competitors. In 1990, Xerox released the DocuTech Production Publisher
Model 135, ushering in print-on-demand. Digital photocopiers were
essentially high-end laser printers with integrated scanners. Soon,
additional features such as network printing and faxing were added to
many models, known as multi-function machines, or just MFMs, which
were able to be attached to computer networks. Xerox worked to turn its
product into a service, providing a complete document service to
companies including supply, maintenance, configuration, and user
support.

To reinforce this image, the company introduced a corporate signature in

1994, The Document Company, above its main logo and introduced a red
digital X. The digital X symbolized the transition of documents between
the paper and digital worlds.[42]

In April 1999, Allaire was succeeded by Richard Thoman, who had been
brought in from IBM in 1997 as president.[43] The first "outsider" to head
Xerox, Thoman resigned in 2000.[44]

2000s
 A small, much-used Xerox photocopier at
an American high school, 2004

After Thoman's resignation, Allaire again resumed the position of CEO and
served until the appointment of Anne M. Mulcahy, another long-term
Xerox executive.[45] Xerox's turnaround was largely led by Mulcahy, who
was appointed president in May 2000, CEO in August 2001 and chairman
in January 2002.[46] She launched an aggressive turnaround plan that
returned Xerox to full-year profitability by the end of 2002, along with
decreasing debt, increasing cash, and continuing to invest in research and
development.

In 2000, Xerox acquired Tektronix color printing and imaging division in

Wilsonville, Oregon, for US$925 million.[47][48] This led to the current Xerox
Phaser line of products as well as Xerox solid ink printing technology.

In September 2004, Xerox celebrated the 45th anniversary of the Xerox

914. More than 200,000 units were made around the world between 1959
and 1976, the year production of the 914 was stopped. Today, the 914 is
part of American history as an artifact in the Smithsonian Institution.

In November 2006, Xerox completed the acquisition of XMPie. XMPie, a

provider of software for cross-media, variable data one-to-one marketing,
[49]
was the first acquisition of Xerox to remain independent entity, as a
Xerox company and not a division, and to this day is led by its original
founder Jacob Aizikowitz.

Xerox headquarters moved from Stamford, Connecticut, to Norwalk in

October 2007.[50]
 Street stand in India offering Xerox
services, 2007

In October 2008, Xerox Canada was named one of Greater Toronto's Top
Employers by Mediacorp Canada, which was announced by the Toronto
Star newspaper.[51]

On July 1, 2009, Ursula Burns succeeded Anne Mulcahy as CEO of Xerox.

[52]
Burns was the first African American woman to head a company of that
size.[53]

On September 28, 2009, Xerox announced the intended acquisition

of Affiliated Computer Services, a services and outsourcing company, for
$6.4 billion. The acquisition was completed in February 2010. Xerox said it
paid 4.935 Xerox shares and $18.60 cash for each share of ACS, totaling
$6.4 billion, or $63.11 a share for the company. [54]

2010s

Fuji Xerox ApeosPort-II5010 photocopier in

Mauritania, 2011

In May 2011, Xerox acquired NewField IT for an undisclosed sum. [55]

In December 2013, Xerox sold its Wilsonville, Oregon solid ink product
design, engineering and chemistry group and related assets previously
acquired from Tektronix to 3D Systems for $32.5 million in cash.[56]
In December 2014, Xerox sold the IT outsourcing business it had acquired
in 2009 from Affiliated Computer Services to Atos for $1.05 billion.[57] This
move was taken due to the relatively slow growth of this business relative
to some other Xerox units.[57]

In January 2016, Xerox—reportedly under pressure from activist

shareholder and corporate raider Carl Icahn—announced that by the end
of the year it would spin off its business services unit, largely made up of
Affiliated Computer Services, into its own publicly traded company. The
name and management of the new company had not been determined at
the time of the announcement. Icahn would appoint three members of the
new company's board of directors, and he would choose a person to
advise its search for a CEO.[58] In June, the company announced that the
document management business would retain the name Xerox and the
new business services company would be named Conduent. It also
announced that Ashok Vemuri would serve as Conduent's CEO and that
Icahn would control three seats on the new company's board. It continued
to seek a CEO for Xerox; in May, Burns announced her intention to step
down as CEO but continue as chairman of the document management
business.[59] In June 2016, the company announced that Jeff
Jacobson would become the new CEO following the completion of the
company's planned separation.[60] This became effective in January 2017.
[61]

On January 31, 2018, Xerox announced that Fujifilm had agreed to acquire
a 50.1% controlling stake in the company for US$6.1 billion, which was to
be combined into their existing joint venture Fuji Xerox (having a value of
$18 billion post-acquisition).[62][63][64]

Fuji Xerox Document Centre 505 at a 7-

Eleven store in Taiwan, 2013

On May 1, 2018, it was announced that chairman Robert Keegan and CEO
Jeff Jacobson and four other directors would resign as part of a deal with
investors Carl Icahn and Darwin Deason, who had mounted a proxy fight
to oppose the Fujifilm deal. On May 4, Xerox backed away from the deal
after stipulations about ceasing litigation were not met. [65] Icahn and
Deason responded with an open letter to shareholders blaming the board
and management.[66] On May 13 a new deal was reached that additionally
cancelled the Fujifilm transaction.[67]

In November 2019, Xerox began to pursue a hostile takeover of PC and

printer manufacturer HP, declaring its intent to "engage directly" with
shareholders after HP rejected two unsolicited bids for the company. [68]
[69]
Xerox stated in January 2020 that it would pursue the replacement of
HP's board.[70] HP criticized the proposed purchase as a "flawed value
exchange" based on "overstated synergies", and instituted a shareholder
rights plan and other measures designed to quell the bid,[71][72] which the
company believed was being orchestrated by Icahn. [70]

2020s

Fuji Xerox multicopy printer available for use in

Japan, 2021

In February 2020, Xerox announced the hiring of Tali Rosman as VP of

Xerox's 3D business. She joined Xerox from NiCE, where she was vice
president and head of business operations for the Americas. She would
report to CTO Naresh Shanker.[73]

On March 5, HP revealed that its board of directors had unanimously

declined Xerox's $24 a share cash-and-stock offer. [74]

On March 13, Xerox revealed that it was putting its campaign to acquire
HP on hold by postponing additional presentations, interviews with the
press and meetings with HP shareholders. Xerox vice chairman and chief
executive John Visentin cited the COVID-19 pandemic as a main reason
and said, "In light of the escalating Covid-19 pandemic, Xerox needs to
prioritize health and safety of its employees, customers, partners and
affiliates over and above all considerations, including its proposal to
acquire HP."[75]

On March 31, 2020, Xerox canceled its $24 a share offer. [76]
In September 2020, Xerox opened its North Carolina Center of Excellence
in Cary, North Carolina.[77] The center includes the research and
development operations, the 3-D printing lab, and th eXerox Digital
eXperience IT organization.[77]

In September 2021, Xerox announced it was transferring its stock ticker

from the New York Stock Exchange to the Nasdaq after 60 years. The
transfer went into effect on September 21, 2021.[9]

In December 2024, Xerox announced an agreement to acquire Lexmark

International, a Chinese-owned maker of printers and printing software
based in Lexington, Kentucky, in a $1.5 billion deal.[78][79] The acquisition
was completed on July 2, 2025.[80][81]

Digital printing

The laser printer was invented in 1969 by Xerox researcher Gary

Starkweather by modifying a Xerox 7000 copier.[82] Xerox management
was afraid the product version of Starkweather's invention, which became
the 9700, would negatively affect its copier business so the innovation sat
in limbo until IBM launched the 3800 laser printer in 1976.

Xerox 1200 Computer Printing System

The first commercial non-impact printer was the Xerox 1200, introduced in
1973,[83] based on the 3600 copier. It had an optical character generator
designed by optical engineer Phil Chen.[84] It was used in mainframe
computer environments for large-volume printing for business
applications.[85]

In 1977, after IBM had produced the first laser printer, the Xerox 9700 was
introduced. It was also used in mainframe environments and could handle
even larger amounts of paper and printing.[85] Laser printing eventually
became a multibillion-dollar business[when?] for Xerox.[86]

In the late 1970s, Xerox introduced the Xerox 350 color slide machine.
This product allowed the customer to create digital word and graphic 35-
millimetre slides. Many of the concepts used in today's photo editing
programs were pioneered with this technology.

In 1980, Xerox announced the 5700 laser printer, a much smaller version
of its 9700, but with touch-screen capabilities and multiple media input
(word processing disks, IBM magcards, etc.) and printer 'finishing' options.
This product was allegedly never intended to make the commercial
markets due to its development cost, but rather to show the innovation of
Xerox. It took off with many customers, but was soon replaced with the
smaller and lower cost Xerox 2700 Distributed Electronic Printer offering in
1982.[87]

Palo Alto Research Center

Main article: Xerox PARC

The Xerox Alto workstation was developed at

Xerox PARC.

In 1970, under company president C. Peter McColough, Xerox opened the

Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, known as Xerox PARC. The facility
developed many modern computing technologies such as the graphical
user interface (GUI), laser printing, WYSIWYG text editors, and Ethernet.
From these inventions, Xerox PARC created the Xerox Alto in 1973, a small
minicomputer similar to a modern workstation or personal computer. This
machine can be considered the first true Personal Computer, given its
versatile combination of a cathode-ray-type screen, mouse-type pointing
device, and a QWERTY-type alphanumeric keyboard. But the Alto was
never commercially sold, as Xerox itself could not see the sales potential
of it. It was, however, installed in Xerox's own offices, worldwide and those
of the US Government and military, who could see the potential. Within
these sites the individual workstations were connected together by a
Xerox PARC-developed Local Area Network (LAN) technology, Ethernet,
which is ubiquitous in computing even to this day. Data was sent around
this system of heavy, yellow, low loss coaxial cable using the packet data
system. In addition, PARC also developed one of the
earliest internetworking protocol suites, the PARC Universal Packet (PUP).
[88]

In 1979, Steve Jobs made a deal with Xerox's venture capital division: He
would let them invest US$1 million (equivalent to $4.44 million in 2025) in
exchange for a look at the technology they were working on. Jobs and the
others saw the commercial potential of the WIMP (Window, Icon, Menu,
and Pointing device) system and redirected development of the Apple
Lisa to incorporate these technologies. Jobs is quoted as saying: "They just
had no idea what they had."[89]

In 1980, Jobs invited several key PARC researchers to join his company so
that they could fully develop and implement their ideas. [90]

The Xerox Star 8010

In 1981, Xerox released a system similar to the Alto, the Xerox Star. It was
the first commercial system to incorporate technologies that have
subsequently become commonplace in personal computers, such as a
bitmapped display, window-based GUI, mouse, Ethernet networking, file
servers, print servers, and e-mail. The Xerox Star and its successor
the Xerox Daybreak, despite their technological breakthroughs, did not
sell well due to its high price, retailing at US$16,000 per unit (equivalent
to $57,000 in 2025). A typical Xerox Star-based office, complete with
network and printers, would have cost US$100,000 (equivalent to
$354,000 in 2025).[citation needed]

In the mid-1980s, Apple considered buying Xerox; however, a deal was

never reached.[91][citation needed] Apple instead bought rights to the Alto GUI
and adapted it into a more affordable personal computer, aimed towards
the business and education markets. The Apple Macintosh was released in
1984, and it was the first personal computer to popularize the GUI and
mouse among the public.[92]
In 2002, PARC was spun off into an independent wholly owned subsidiary
of Xerox.[93]

In April 2023, Xerox announced that it would donate the lab and its related
assets to SRI International. As part of the deal, Xerox would keep most of
the patent rights inside PARC, and benefit from a preferred research
agreement with SRI/PARC.[93][94]

Chief executives

Chief executives

Name Title Tenure Photo

George C.
President 1906–1912
Seager

Gilbert E.
President 1912–1938
Mosher

Joseph R.
President 1938–1946
Wilson

Joseph C. President 1946–1966

Wilson CEO 1961–1967

C. Peter
CEO 1968–1982
McColough
 1982 – July 31,
David T. Kearns CEO
1990

August 1, 1990 –
Paul A. Allaire CEO
April 6, 1999

G. Richard April 7, 1999 –

CEO
Thoman May 10, 2000

May 11, 2000 –

Paul A. Allaire CEO
July 31, 2001

Anne M. August 1, 2001 –

CEO
Mulcahy June 30, 2009

July 1, 2009 –
Ursula Burns CEO December 31,
2016

January 1, 2017 –
Jeff Jacobson CEO
May 15, 2018

CEO and Vice May 16, 2018 –

John Visentin
Chairman June 28, 2022[95]

Steve CEO and Vice June 29, 2022 –

Bandrowczak [96]
Chairman March 29, 2026

March 30, 2026 –

Louie Pastor[97] CEO
present

Products and services

 Xerox WorkCentre 6605

Xerox manufactures and sells office equipment including scanners,

printers, and multifunction systems that scan, print, copy, email and fax.
These model families include WorkCentre, Phaser, and ColorQube. [2] For
the graphic communications and commercial print industries, the Xerox
product portfolio includes high-volume, digital printing presses, production
printers, and wide format printers that use xerographic and inkjet printing
technologies. Products include the iGen, Nuvera, DocuPrint, and Impika
series, as well as the Trivor, iPrint, and Rialto (inkjet) machines. [98]

Corporate structure

Xerox logo 1968–2008, designed

by Chermayeff & Geismar

Although Xerox is a global brand, it maintained a joint venture from 1962

to 2021, Fuji Xerox, with Japanese photographic firm Fuji Photo Film Co. to
develop, produce, and sell in the Asia-Pacific region. Fujifilm announced in
January 2020 that it would not renew its technology agreement with
Xerox, with Fuji Xerox being renamed to Fujifilm Business Innovation in
April 2021.[99]

Xerox India, formerly Modi Xerox, is Xerox's Indian subsidiary derived from
a joint venture formed between Dr. Bhupendra Kumar Modi and Rank
Xerox in 1983. Xerox obtained a majority stake in 1999 and aims to buy
out the remaining shareholders.[100]

NewField IT is a wholly owned subsidiary of Xerox that implements and

supports third-party software for MPS providers.[101]

Rank Xerox

Main article: Rank Xerox

Rank Xerox logo used in 1980s

The European company Rank Xerox, originally a joint venture between
Xerox and the British company The Rank Organisation, later extended to
Asia and Africa, has been fully owned by Xerox since 1997. The Rank
Xerox name was discontinued following the buyout, and the Rank Xerox
Research Centre was renamed to the Xerox Research Centre Europe.
[102]
The laboratory, based in France, was acquired by South Korean IT
company Naver in 2017,[103] and later became Naver Labs Europe.[104]

Sponsorship

Xerox now sponsors the Factory Ducati Team in the World Superbike
Championship, under the name of the "Xerox Ducati".

In November 2024, Aston Martin F1 Team announced a partnership with

Xerox commencing in 2025.[105]

Accounting irregularities

On May 31, 2001, Xerox announced that its auditors, KPMG, had certified
Xerox's financial statements for the three years ended December 31,
2000; the financials included some restatements. [106] On March 31, 2002,
Xerox restated its financials which reflected the reallocation of equipment
sales revenue of more than $2 billion.[107] On April 11, 2002, the
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed a complaint against Xerox.
[108]
The complaint alleged Xerox deceived the public between 1997 and
2000 by employing several "accounting maneuvers", the most significant
of which was a change in which Xerox recorded revenue from copy
machine leases – recognizing a "sale" when a lease contract was signed,
instead of recognizing revenue over the entire length of the contract. At
issue was when the revenue was recognized, not the validity of the
revenue. Xerox's restatement only changed what year the revenue was
recognized. On December 20, 2002, Xerox Corporation reported that it
had discovered an error in the calculation of its non-cash interest expense
related to a debt instrument and associated interest rate swap
agreements, resulted in after-tax understatement of interest expense of
approximately $5 million to $6 million or less than 1 cent per share in
each of the four quarters of 2001 and for the first three quarters of 2002.
[109]

In response to the SEC's complaint, Xerox neither admitted nor denied

wrongdoing. It agreed to pay a $10 million penalty and to restate its
financial results for the years 1997 through 2000. On June 5, 2003, six
Xerox senior executives accused of securities fraud settled their issues
with the SEC and neither admitted nor denied wrongdoing. They agreed to
pay $22 million in penalties, disgorgement, and interest. The company
received approval to settle the securities lawsuit in 2008. [110]
On January 29, 2003, the SEC filed a complaint against Xerox's auditors,
[111]
KPMG, alleging four partners in the "Big Five" accounting firm
permitted Xerox to "cook the books" to fill a $3 billion "gap" in revenue
and $1.4 billion "gap" in pre-tax earnings. In April 2005 KPMG settled with
the SEC by paying a US$22.48 million fine.[112] Meanwhile, Xerox paid a
civil penalty of $10 million.[113] As part of the settlement KPMG neither
admits nor denies wrongdoings.

During a settlement with the Securities and Exchange Commission, Xerox

began to revamp itself once more. As a symbol of this transformation, the
relative size of the word "Xerox" was increased in proportion to "The
Document Company" on the corporate signature, and the latter was
dropped altogether in September 2004, along with the digital X. However,
the digital X and "The Document Company" were still used by Fuji
Xerox until April 2008.

Character substitution bug

In 2013, German computer scientist David Kriesel [de] discovered

an error in a Xerox WorkCentre 7535 copier. The device would substitute
number digits in scanned documents, even when OCR was turned off. For
instance, a cost table in a scanned document had an entry of 85.40,
instead of the original sum of 65.40.[114] After unsuccessfully trying to
resolve this issue with Xerox's customer support, he publicised his findings
on his blog. Providing example pages that would lead to the bug
occurring, it was confirmed that this bug was reproducible on a wide
variety of Xerox WorkCentre and other high-end Xerox copiers.

The source of the error was a bug in the JBIG2 implementation, which is an
image compression standard that makes use of pattern matching to
encode identical characters only once. While this provides a high level of
compression, it is susceptible to errors in identifying similar characters.

A possible workaround was published by Kriesel, which involved setting

the image quality from "normal" to "higher" or "high". Shortly afterwards,
it was found that the same fix had been suggested in the printer manual,
which mentioned the occurrence of character substitutions in "normal
mode", indicating that Xerox was aware of the software error. [115] In Xerox's
initial response to a growing interest by the media, the error was
described as occurring rarely and only when factory settings had been
changed.[116][117] After Kriesel provided evidence that the error was also
occurring in all three image quality modes (normal, higher and high)
including the factory defaults, Xerox corrected its statement and released
a software patch to eliminate the problem.[118][119] Despite the problem
being present in some instances also in higher quality mode, Xerox
advises users that they can use this mode as an alternative to applying
the patch.[120]

Trademark

See also: Generic trademark

The word xerox is used as a synonym for photocopy (both as a noun and
a verb) in many areas: for example, "I xeroxed the document and placed it
on your desk" or "Please make a xeroxed copy of the articles and hand
them out a week before the exam". Though both are common, the
company does not condone such uses of its trademark, and is particularly
concerned about the ongoing use of Xerox as a verb as this places the
trademark in danger of being declared a generic word by the courts. The
company is engaged in an ongoing advertising and media campaign to
convince the public that Xerox should not be used as a verb. [121][122]

To this end, the company has written to publications that have used Xerox
as a verb. It has also purchased print advertisements using "xerox" as a
verb, stating that "You can't Xerox a Xerox on a Xerox." [123] Xerox continues
to protect its trademark in most if not all trademark categories. [124] Despite
its efforts, many dictionaries continue to include the use of "xerox" as a
verb, including the Oxford English Dictionary. In 2012, the Intellectual
Property Appellate Board (IPAB) of India declared "xerox" a non-generic
term after "almost 50 years (1963–2009) of continued existence on the
register without challenge, and with proof of almost 44 years of use
evident (1965–2009)",[125] but as of 2025, most Indians still use it as a
synonym for photocopying.[126]

The company has also advertised its trademark concerns, in an attempt to

persuade journalists and others not to use "Xerox" as a verb. [5]

In the 2025 science fiction film "M3GAN 2.0" copyright and trademark
issues were circumvented by naming the company "Xenox" (substituting
an n for the r).

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 An early example of a faxlore warning
about tattoo stickers allegedly laced with drugs, an urban legend collected
by Jan Brunvand in his book The Choking Doberman

Faxlore is a sort of folklore: humorous texts, folk poetry, folk art,

and urban legends that are circulated, not by word of mouth, but by fax
machine. Xeroxlore or photocopylore is similar material circulated
by photocopying.

The first use of the term xeroxlore was in Michael J. Preston's essay
"Xerox-lore", 1974.[1] "Photocopylore" is perhaps the most frequently
encountered name for the phenomenon now[citation needed], because
of trademark concerns involving the Xerox Corporation. The first use of
this term came in A Dictionary of English Folklore by Jacqueline
Simpson and Steve Roud.[2]

Material circulated in faxlore

Achtung!

Alles turisten und nonteknischen lookenpeepers!

Das maschine-kontrol ist nicht für der gefingerpoken und mittengraben!

Oderwise ist easy to schnappen der springenwerk, blowenfusen und
poppencorken mit spitzensparksen.

Der maschine ist diggen bei experten only!

Ist nicht für gewerken bei dummkopfen. Der rubbernecken sightseeren

keepen das cottonpicken händer in das pockets.

Zo relaxen und watschen der blinkenlights.

— A common example of faxlore is the mock German variation of the

"Blinkenlights" poster
Some faxlore is relatively harmless. Cartoons and jokes often circulate as
faxlore, the poor graphic quality becoming worse with each new person
who resends the joke to the next recipient. Because faxlore and xeroxlore
is the (mis)appropriation of technology owned by the employer,
much humorous faxlore is mildly subversive of the workplace and its
values. Like email and chain letters, office technology has given new life
to various forms of practical jokes, urban legends, and folklore. The items
are often office-related, such as spoof agenda for meetings, spurious
descriptions of ridiculous training programs that all staff will allegedly be
required to attend, and so on. Names may be whited out and replaced
with someone in the office, making it a joke on a particular person, or
details may be altered making an item more topical. [3]

The semi-traditional lists of reasons "why a cucumber is better than a

man" or "why a beer is better than a woman" often circulate as faxlore, as
has the well known mock German variations of the "Blinkenlights" poster.
Another commonly circulated text contains ethnic humor; a typical version
goes:

Heaven is where the police are British, the lovers French, the mechanics
German, the chefs Italian, and it is all organized by the Swiss. Hell is
where the police are German, the lovers Swiss, the mechanics French, the
chefs British, and it is all organized by the Italians.

Materials of this sort have existed from the beginnings of duplicating

technologies. World War II era blueprints exist of drawings of female nudes
with their body parts labeled as if they were the parts of airplanes. [citation
needed]
With the widespread adoption of photocopying, amateur duplication
of this sort of material became available to a much larger social base.
Cartoons and other amateur materials were distributed in the workplace,
usually in violation of managerial restrictions on the use of office supplies,
and often in disregard of copyright law.[4]

Later, during the early 1990s, the widespread adoption of telecopiers

made it possible to duplicate these materials remotely. The use of a fax
machine to duplicate these materials also changed the emphases of their
subjects; various alarms and urban legends were propagated to distant
readers over the telephone lines. This use of fax has been somewhat
supplanted by email as that technology became more widely used and
embedded in the culture; the sort of urban legends that once circulated by
fax are now likely to appear as email hoaxes. Specific computer related
alarms are the subject of virus hoaxes; email makes forwarding of texts
relatively easy, and the frightening nature of the revelation makes it seem
important to pass along, despite any doubts the sender might have. [4]
Faxlore and urban legends

Other sorts of faxlore have had more serious consequences. A number of

more notorious urban legends have circulated in faxlore. The notorious
"Blue Star Acid" hoax is one well known example.

The "lights out" hoax, which claimed that people who were driving in the
dark with their headlights out might be gang members, and that those
who flashed their headlights at these drivers might be marked
for murder as part of a gang initiation, was another hoax that was widely
circulated as faxlore.[5] The poor graphic quality of the frequently re-sent
faxes, which often were made out to appear to have originated with the
police department of a distant city, only made these hoaxes seem more
credible.[6]

Legal aspects

In the United States, collections of supposedly sinister symbols have been

circulated among school administrators and police departments; in the
1980s these symbols were frequently alleged to be "Satanic symbols",
and in the 1990s they were alleged to be "gang
symbols". Political or religious symbols, like the peace symbol, the Star of
David, the Rosary, the ankh, or the pentagram were mingled with other
cryptic or fanciful symbols in these faxed and recirculated sheets, and the
entire collection was condemned.[7]

On the authority of these anonymous, hard-to-trace, and impossible-to-

cross-examine sources, school administrators sometimes acted to ban the
wearing of Stars of David and similar symbols of minority religions. [citation
needed]
Typically, no compiler or author is given for the collection of symbols,
though frightening descriptions are often given about their "secret
meaning." A number of civil liberties lawsuits were filed over actions taken
by school administrators who took these anonymous sources seriously. [8]

A similar claim that the Procter & Gamble logo was a "satanic symbol" was
linked in the 1980s to the activity of several Amway distributors, Amway
being one of Procter & Gamble's competitors; the hoax was spread by fax,
photocopier, and later by voice mail and email.[9] Another occasional hoax
claims that clothing and memorabilia of
various universities or sports teams are "gang symbols".[10]

Growing obsolescence

Main article: Copypasta

With the rise of the Internet, media such as World Wide

Web, email, instant messaging, and social networking sites are now
available to quickly and widely spread the sort of material that formerly
circulated as faxlore. The hoax warnings of things such as dire and
terrible computer viruses that still occasionally circulate, carry on one
tradition of the bogus cautionary tale that used to circulate as faxlore,
now known as copypasta (an altered compound of common computer
functions copy and paste).

See also

 Junk fax

 Meme

 Samizdat

References

Citations

1. Preston, Michael J. (1974). "Xerox-lore". Keystone Folklore (19).

Pennsylvania Folklore Society: 11–26. Retrieved 2013-11-23.

2. Jacqueline Simpson and Steve Roud (2000). A Dictionary of English

Folklore. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860766-0.

3. Michael, 1995; Dundes, passim

4. Preston, 1996

5. Bunch, 1993

6. Brunvand, 1989

7. Ellis, 2000

8. Chalifoux, 1997; Jeglin, 1993; Jewish News Weekly, 1999; Free

Republic, 2005; Bunch, 1993; Roberts et al., 2005

9. Emery, 1998

10. Jeglin, 1993; Roberts et al., 2005

Academic sources

 Brunvand, Jan

 The Truth Never Stands in the Way of a Good Story (2000,

Univ. Illinois: ISBN 0-252-07004-6) – collecting examples

 The Choking Doberman (Norton, 1984; ISBN 0-393-30321-7)

 Curses! Broiled Again! (Horton, 1989; ISBN 0-393-02710-

4) – collecting examples, inc. "Blue Star Acid"

 Dundes, Alan and Pagter, Carl R.:

  Work Hard and You Shall Be Rewarded: Urban Folklore from
the Paperwork Empire. (Rev. ed., Wayne State Univ.
1992; ISBN 0-8143-2432-0)

 When You're Up to Your Ass in Alligators... More Urban Folklore

from the Paperwork Empire (Wayne State Univ. 1997; ISBN 0-
8143-1867-3)

 Never Try to Teach a Pig to Sing: Still More Urban Folklore

from the Paperwork Empire (Wayne State Univ. 1991; ISBN 0-
8143-2358-8)

 Sometimes the Dragon Wins: Yet More Urban Folklore from

the Paperwork Empire (Syracuse, 1997; ISBN 0-8156-0371-1)

 Ellis, Bill: Raising the Devil: Satanism, New Religions, and the
Media (Univ. Kentucky, 2000; ISBN 0-8131-2170-1)

 Hatch, Mary Jo; Jones, Michael Owen: "Photocopylore at work:

aesthetics, collective creativity and the social construction of
organizations", in Culture and Organization, vol. 3, no. 2 (July 1997)

 Michael, Nancy. "Censure of a Photocopylore Display." Journal of

Folklore Research, vol. 32, no. 2 (May–August 1995).

 Preston, Michael J.

 "Traditional Humor from the Fax Machine: 'All of a Kind'",

in Western Folklore, vol. 53, no. 2 (April 1994)

 "Xeroxlore", in American Folklore: An Encyclopedia, Jan

Brunvand, editor in chief. (Garland, 1996; ISBN 0-8153-3350-
1)

Analysis

 Emery, David: Trademark of the Beast Archived 2007-02-20 at

the Wayback Machine, byline June 10, 1998, accessed Nov, 9,
2007 – The Procter & Gamble logo hoax

 Bunch, Michael: "Technology Aided Spread of Terrifying Hoax", San

Diego Union-Tribune, Oct. 4, 1993 – "Lights Out" gang initiation
legend spreads by fax and copier.

 Hofstadter, Douglas: Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of

Language (ISBN 0-465-08645-4) – contains a linguistic discussion of
the Blinkenlights text

Legal
  Chalifoux v. New Caney Independent School District, 976 [Link].
659 (S.D. Tex. 1997) – School board rule forbidding wearing of the
rosary as a necklace, claimed to be a "gang symbol", struck down
by court.

 Jeglin v. San Jacinto Unified School District, 827 [Link]. 1459 (C.D.
Cal. 1993) – School board dress code forbidding the wearing of
sports logos, claimed to be "gang symbols", partially struck down by
court.

 Roberts, Kesler T., Littrell, Elizabeth L., Weber, Gerald R.: Plaintiff's
Memorandum of Law in Support of her Motion for Summary
Judgment in Tillman v. Gwinnett County School District, (N.D. Ga.,
case no. 1:04-CV-01180-BBM). Apr. 9, 2005, accessed Nov. 9, 2007.
Brief filed on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation
for Georgia. Shows school administrators relying on anonymous
printouts and rumors to condemn, among other things, University of
North Carolina logos and clothing, and a patch reading España, as
"gang symbols".

Step-by-Step Instructions on How to Use a Photocopier

1. Turn on the Photocopier

Before you begin, make sure the photocopier is plugged in and
powered on. Most photocopiers have a power button located on the
side or front panel. Press the button to turn on the machine and wait
for it to warm up. This process may take a few seconds to a minute,
depending on the model.

2. Place Your Document on the Scanner Glass or in the

Document Feeder

o Using the Scanner Glass: Lift the photocopier lid and place
your document face down on the scanner glass. Align it with
the top-left corner or follow the placement guide on the glass
surface. This method is best for single-page documents or
bound materials like books.

o Using the Automatic Document Feeder (ADF): If you

have multiple pages to copy, use the ADF. Place your stack of
documents face up in the feeder tray, ensuring they are
aligned and not folded or crumpled. The ADF is perfect for
batch copying as it automatically feeds each page into the
scanner.
3. Select the Copy Settings
On the control panel or touchscreen display, you can choose your
desired copy settings:

o Number of Copies: Enter the number of copies you need

using the numeric keypad or touch screen.

o Colour or Black & White: Choose between colour copies or

black and white. Colour copying typically takes longer and
uses more toner.

o Paper Size and Type: Select the correct paper size (A4, A3,
letter, etc.) and type (plain, glossy, etc.) for your documents.

o Copy Quality: Choose the copy quality setting based on your

needs. Higher quality settings are ideal for documents with
images or graphics, while standard quality is sufficient for text
documents.

o Duplex (Double-Sided) Copying: If you want double-sided

copies, select the duplex option. This is useful for saving
paper and creating professional-looking documents.

4. Adjust Scaling and Image Quality

If you need to resize your document or adjust the image quality:

o Scaling: Most photocopiers offer scaling options to reduce or

enlarge the document size. You can set a specific percentage
or choose preset options like “Fit to Page” or “100%”.

o Image Quality: Adjust settings such as brightness, contrast,

and sharpness to enhance the quality of your copies. These
settings are useful when copying faded or heavily inked
documents.

5. Press the Copy Button

Once all your settings are configured, press
the Start or Copy button to begin copying. The photocopier will
scan your document and produce the desired number of copies. If
you’re using the ADF, the machine will automatically feed and copy
each page.

6. Collect Your Copies

After the copying process is complete, collect your copies from the
output tray. If you used the ADF, ensure all pages have been copied
 correctly, especially if you selected duplex copying. Double-check
for any missing or misaligned pages.

7. Review and Repeat if Necessary

Review the copies to ensure they meet your expectations. If any
adjustments are needed, make the necessary changes and repeat
the process. For large copying jobs, consider making a test copy first
to verify the settings before proceeding with the entire batch.

Tips for Using a Photocopier Effectively

 Regular Maintenance: Keep the photocopier clean and regularly

check for paper jams, low toner levels, and dust build-up on the
scanner glass to ensure optimal performance.

 Use the Correct Paper: Always use the recommended paper type
and size to avoid paper jams and poor-quality copies.

 Organize Your Documents: Arrange your documents in the

correct order before copying to save time and avoid confusion.

 Save on Toner: Use the “Toner Save” mode for draft copies or
internal documents to reduce toner usage and extend cartridge life.

 Preview Your Copies: If your photocopier has a preview function,

use it to check how the document will look before making multiple
copies.

Troubleshooting Common Photocopier Issues

 Paper Jams: Open the machine’s compartments carefully, following

the on-screen instructions to clear any jammed paper. Ensure all
pieces are removed to prevent future jams.

 Streaks or Lines on Copies: Clean the scanner glass and the

document feeder rollers to remove any dust or debris causing
streaks or lines.

 Faded or Poor-Quality Copies: Check the toner levels and replace

the cartridge if needed. Adjust the copy quality settings for better
results.

 Error Messages: Refer to the user manual or on-screen

instructions to troubleshoot specific error codes.

Paper Tray
The paper tray is a fundamental component of a photocopier,
responsible for holding and feeding paper into the machine for copying.
Understanding how to properly use and maintain the paper tray on
photocopy machines can ensure smooth operation, reduce the risk of
paper jams, and improve the quality of your copies.

How to Use the Paper Tray

1. Load the Paper

o Check Paper Size: Ensure that the paper size you are
loading matches the settings on your photocopier. Most
machines have adjustable trays that can accommodate
different paper sizes such as A4, A3, letter, or legal.

o Adjust the Paper Guides: Before loading the paper, adjust

the paper guides in the tray to match the size of the paper.
This helps prevent paper jams by keeping the paper aligned
as it feeds into the machine.

o Load the Paper Stack: Fan the paper stack to separate the
sheets and prevent sticking. Place the paper in the tray with
the print side facing down (for most machines) and ensure the
stack is evenly aligned with the paper guides.

2. Set the Paper Tray

o Check for Proper Alignment: Make sure the paper is evenly

stacked and not overfilled. The paper stack should not exceed
the maximum fill line indicated on the tray.

o Adjust Tray Settings: If your photocopier has digital settings

for paper type or size, ensure these settings match the paper
you’ve loaded. This ensures that the photocopier feeds the
paper correctly and adjusts print settings accordingly.

3. Close the Paper Tray

o Secure the Tray: Gently push the tray back into the
photocopier until it clicks into place. Ensure it’s fully seated to
prevent paper feed issues.

Paper Size
Paper size is a crucial aspect of printing, photocopy process and copying,
as it determines the dimensions of the paper used in various devices such
as photocopiers, printers, and scanners. Understanding paper sizes helps
ensure that documents are printed correctly and fit the intended format.

How to Select the Right Paper Size

1. Determine the Purpose of the Document

o Standard Documents: For everyday use, A4 or US Letter is

typically sufficient.

o Large Format Documents: For posters, presentations, or

architectural drawings, A3 or B4 might be more appropriate.

o Booklets or Small Flyers: A5 or A6 are ideal for smaller

publications or marketing materials.

2. Check Printer or Photocopier Specifications

o Ensure that your printer or photocopier supports the paper

size you plan to use. Most devices have adjustable trays and
settings to accommodate different sizes.

3. Consider Layout and Design

o Margins and Layout: Choose a paper size that complements

your document layout. Ensure that your margins and design
elements fit within the paper dimensions.

4. Regional Standards

o Be aware of regional paper size standards. For example, A4 is

the standard in most countries outside North America, while
US Letter is common in the US and Canada.

Photocopy Machine
A photocopy machine is a versatile tool for duplicating documents
quickly and efficiently. Whether you’re using it in an office, school, or
home setting, understanding how to operate a photocopy machine
correctly can save you time and ensure your copies are of high quality.

Correct Paper Size

Selecting the correct paper size is essential for achieving accurate and
professional results in printing and copying. Using the right paper size
helps ensure that your print documents are formatted properly,
preventing issues like cut-off text or misaligned content.

How to Determine the Correct Paper Size

1. Identify the Purpose of the Document

o Standard Documents: For everyday documents such as

letters and reports, use A4 or US Letter.

o Large Format Documents: For posters, banners, or large

charts, A3 or B4 may be more appropriate.

o Booklets and Flyers: Use A5 or A6 for smaller publications

or marketing materials.

2. Check Printer or Photocopier Specifications

o Verify that your printer or photocopier supports the paper size

you need. Refer to the user manual or manufacturer’s website
for details on supported sizes.

3. Adjust Printer or Photocopier Settings

o Paper Size Settings: Ensure the settings on your printer or

photocopier match the paper size loaded in the machine. This
prevents issues such as content being cut off or improperly
scaled.

o Software Settings: Adjust paper size settings in your print

dialog box or document settings to match the physical paper
size.

4. Consider Regional Standards

o Be mindful of regional differences in paper size standards. For

example, A4 is widely used outside North America, while US
Letter is common in the US and Canada.

Knowing how to use a photocopier efficiently can save you time and
ensure your documents are of high quality. By following these simple
steps and tips, you can master the art of the photocopying process,
whether in the office or at home. Remember to maintain your photocopier
regularly and troubleshoot common issues to keep it running smoothly.
With a bit of practice, you’ll be making perfect copies in no time!

FAQs

1. What is a photocopier?

A a photocopier machine is a machine used to make copies of documents

and images quickly and efficiently. It works by scanning the original
document and then printing the scanned image onto paper. Photocopiers
are commonly found in offices, schools, and other settings where copying
documents is frequently required.

2. How do I turn on a photocopier?

To turn on a photocopier, locate the power button, usually found on the

front or side of the photocopy machine step above. Press the button, and
wait for the machine to warm up. Most photocopiers will display a ready
status on their screen once they are fully operational.

3. How do I place a document on the photocopier?

To place a document on the photocopier, lift the lid and place the
document face down on the glass surface (platen). Align it with the guides
or markings on the edges of bond paper and the glass. If you have
multiple pages to copy, use the document feeder on top of the machine.
Make sure the pages are aligned and free of any obstructions like staples
or paper clips.

4. How can I make double-sided copies?

To make double-sided (duplex) copies or scan documents, use the

photocopier’s control panel to select the duplex option. Most modern
photocopiers offer an automatic duplex function that allows you to copy
on both sides of the paper without needing to manually turn the pages.
Simply choose “double-sided” or “duplex” from the settings menu before
starting the copy job.

5. What should I do if the copy machine or the photocopier shows a

paper jam?

If the photocopier displays a paper jam error message, open the

appropriate compartments where the paper is jammed, usually indicated
on the machine’s display screen. Carefully remove any jammed paper,
ensuring you pull it out in the direction it entered to avoid tearing. Follow
any on-screen instructions to clear the jam completely and close all
compartments securely before resuming copying.

Understanding the Basics of a Photocopy Machine

A photocopier, often known as a copier, is a device that makes paper

copies of documents and photos rapidly. Multifunction printers (MFPs) are
more recent models that can also print, scan, and fax. They employ a
technique known as xerography, in which toner is drawn to a drum by
static electricity, transferring the picture to paper and fusing it with
pressure and heat. This technique has advanced in speed and efficiency
since it was first developed in the 1930s.

Looking to purchase a new photocopier? Browse our range of office

devices and photocopiers suitable for every business size.

Types of Photocopiers

Understanding the type of photocopier you’re using is crucial for optimal

results. Here are the common types:

1. Digital Photocopiers: These are the standard in modern offices,

offering connectivity to networks, advanced printing options, and
features like cloud integration.

2. Analog Photocopiers: Once popular for their simplicity, these

machines are now rare, mostly found in offices with basic copying
needs.

3. Multifunction Printers (MFPs): Combining printing, scanning,

copying, and faxing, MFPs are ideal for offices that need space-
saving, all-in-one solutions.

4. Network Photocopiers: Integrated with office networks, allowing

multiple users to access them.

How to Use a Photocopy Machine: Step-by-Step Instructions

Follow these steps to use a photocopy machine effectively:

Step 1: Power On the Photocopier

 Locate the power button, usually found on the front or side of the
machine.

 Press the button and wait for the photocopier to warm up. Most
modern copiers will display a ready signal on the screen when they
are good to go.
Step 2: Load the Document Correctly

 If you’re copying a single page, place it face-down on the glass

scanning bed.

 If you need to copy multiple pages, use the Automatic Document

Feeder (ADF). Make sure the pages are properly aligned to prevent
paper jams.

Step 3: Choose Copy Settings

Most photocopiers allow you to customize settings such as:

 Number of copies

 Black & white or color copies

 Paper size and orientation

 Single-sided or double-sided copies (duplex printing)

Use the touchscreen panel or control buttons to select the settings that
suit your needs.

Step 4: Adjust Image Quality (Optional)

For high-quality copies, you can adjust:

 Brightness and contrast for better clarity.

 Resolution settings for detailed prints.

 Enlargement or reduction to fit different paper sizes.

Step 5: Press the Copy Button

 Once all settings are configured, press the Start or Copy button.

 Stand by as the machine processes your request. If copying multiple

pages, the ADF will automatically feed them through.

Step 6: Collect Your Copies & Check for Errors

 Retrieve your documents from the output tray.

 Check for misprints, smudges, or paper jams before leaving the

copier.

Step 7: Troubleshooting Common Issues

 Paper Jams: Open the machine’s indicated compartment and

carefully remove jammed paper.

 Low Ink/Toner Warning: Replace the cartridge or request

maintenance if needed.
  Blurry or Faded Prints: Adjust contrast settings or clean the
scanner glass.

Many providers like Fliponn offer reliable printer and photocopier services
in Dubai, ensuring minimal downtime when issues arise.

Tip: For large copy jobs, use the “collate” feature to organize pages
automatically.

Advanced Tips for Efficient Photocopying

1. Use Presets: Save frequently used settings to reduce setup time.

2. Paper Tray Management: Load the correct paper size and type to
avoid jams.

3. Energy-Saving Mode: Enable this feature during low usage hours.

4. Regular Maintenance: Clean the glass and replace toner

cartridges to ensure high-quality output.

How to Maintain Your Photocopier

Proper maintenance is key to ensuring your photocopier performs at its

best:

1. Routine Cleaning: Dust the glass, paper trays, and feeder regularly.
Smudges on the glass can result in blurry copies.

2. Scheduled Servicing: Partner with a trusted photocopier service

provider in Dubai to conduct regular check-ups. Many Dubai-based
companies offer comprehensive maintenance plans..

3. Supply Management: Always use the manufacturer-recommended

toner and paper to avoid damaging the machine.

Did you know? Some photocopiers now come with predictive

maintenance features that notify you when a part is nearing the end of its
life.

Conclusion

A well-maintained photocopier is a cornerstone of efficient office

operations. By mastering its functions and following best practices, you
can optimize your document management processes and reduce
downtime. From understanding the basics to utilizing advanced features, a
little knowledge goes a long way in making your photocopier a reliable ally
in your workplace. Whether you’re a new user or a seasoned professional,
this guide equips you to handle photocopiers effectively, keeping your
office running smoothly. As Dubai continues to embrace smart technology,
staying informed about advancements in office equipment will help you
keep pace with this ever-evolving city.

Curious about how to tackle recurring issues? We’ve listed the top 9
photocopier problems and their solutions to keep you covered. Whether
you’re a new user or a seasoned professional, this guide equips you to
handle photocopiers effectively, keeping your office running smoothly. If
you need professional support, contact our expert team at Fliponn Tech
for photocopier repair and maintenance services, or explore
our photocopier rental options and office equipment. assistance.

What is a Photocopier?

A photocopier is a machine that makes exact copies of documents and

images using light, heat, and electrical charges. It operates primarily on
the principle of xerography, a dry photocopying process that was first
developed in the 1930s by Chester Carlson.

The Basic Components of a Photocopier

Before diving into the process, let’s take a look at some key components
of a photocopier:

 Drum (Photoreceptor): The drum is a cylindrical object that plays

a crucial role in transferring the image.

 Toner: A fine powder that creates the image on the paper. Toner
particles are usually made from a combination of carbon and
polymer.

 Laser/Light Source: This shines light onto the original document

and reflects the image onto the drum.

 Corona Wires: These generate the electrical charge required for

the copying process.

 Fuser: This unit heats the toner to make it permanently adhere to

the paper.

How Does a Photocopier Work?

Now that we know the components, let’s go step by step through the
photocopying process.

1. Charging the Photoreceptor Drum

The process begins with the charging of the drum (also called the
photoreceptor). This the drum surface is coated with a light-sensitive
material. A high-voltage corona wire applies a uniform electrostatic charge
to the surface of the drum.

2. Exposing the Document to Light

Once the drum is charged, the document to be copied is placed face down
on the glass plate of the photocopier. A bright light (or in modern
machines, a laser) scans across the document. The white areas of the
photocopier works the document reflect the light, while the black or
coloured areas do not.

3. Transferring the Image onto the Drum

Where the light hits the drum, the charge is dissipated. This creates a
latent image reflected light back on the drum, where the charged areas
correspond to the dark areas of the document (text or images). This is
because light causes the drum to lose its electrical charge, and only the
areas in shadow retain their charge.

4. Applying the Toner

The toner, which is a negatively charged powder, is attracted to the

positively charged areas on the drum – these are the places where the
image of the document has been formed. The toner powder adheres to
the charged parts of the drum, thus creating a visible image.

5. Transferring the Toner to the Paper

Next, the drum rotates and comes into contact with a sheet of paper. The
paper has been given a positive charge by a corona wire, so it attracts the
toner particles from the drum. The toner is now transferred from the drum
to the paper, and the image is nearly complete.

6. Fusing the Toner to the Paper

At this stage, the toner is still loosely attached to the paper. To make it
permanent, the paper is passed through the fuser. The fuser uses heat
and pressure to melt the loose toner particles, and bond them to the
paper fibres, resulting in a durable and lasting copy.

7. Cleaning the Drum

After the image is transferred to the paper, the drum needs to be cleaned
before the next copying cycle. A cleaning blade removes any leftover
toner from the drum, and it’s recharged, ready to create the next copy.

The Role of Modern Technology in Photocopiers

Modern photocopiers have come a long way from the early machines.
Today’s copiers often integrate additional technologies such as digital
scanning, automatic document feeding, and wireless connectivity, making
them multifunctional devices. The copying process itself remains largely
based on the original xerographic principle, but with improvements in
speed, efficiency, and image quality.

Advantages of Photocopiers

 Efficiency: Photocopiers can quickly reproduce documents, making

them invaluable in high-demand environments like offices and
schools.

 Cost-effective: For large volume copying, photocopiers are more

economical compared to alternatives like printing.

 High-quality Reproduction: With advancements in toner

technology and laser precision, modern photocopiers can produce
clear and sharp images and text.

Common Issues and Troubleshooting Tips

Like all fax machines though, photocopiers can encounter issues. Here are
a few common problems and how to fix them:

1. Paper Jams

One of the most frequent problems is paper getting stuck inside the
machine. This can often be fixed by carefully removing the paper and
ensuring that the feed tray is correctly aligned.

2. Toner Smudging

If toner smudges appear on the copies, it might indicate an issue with the
fuser. The fuser may not be heating the toner adequately, which prevents
it from bonding correctly with the paper.

3. Poor Copy Quality

If the copies are coming out blurred or faded, it could be due to low toner
levels or a dirty drum. Regular maintenance and cleaning can help avoid
this.

4. Streaks on Copies

This is usually caused by dirt or debris on light sensitive surface called the
glass scanner plate. Simply cleaning the glass with a lint-free cloth can
eliminate this issue.

Maintaining a Photocopier for Optimal Performance

Routine maintenance is key to keeping your photocopier in top condition.

Here are a few tips:
  Regular Cleaning: Clean the glass plate, rollers, and fuser to
ensure smooth operation.

 Replacing Toner: Always have a spare toner cartridge on hand and

replace it when the machine indicates low toner levels.

 Professional Servicing: For more complex issues, it’s always best

to call a technician to service the machine, especially for drum or
fuser replacement.

What is a Digital Copier?

A digital photocopier or copier is an advanced version of the traditional

photocopier. It uses digital technology to scan documents and store them
in memory before printing or reproducing the required copies. Unlike
analogue copiers, which rely on mirrors and lenses to create copies, digital
copiers work by converting the scanned image into data, allowing for
greater versatility and functionality.

Key Components of a Digital Copier

Before understanding how a digital copier works, it’s essential to know its
main components:

 Scanner: This scans the original document and converts the image
into digital data.

 Processor: The brain of the copier, where the digital data is

processed.

 Memory: Temporary storage for scanned images, which can be

stored for later use.

 Toner and Drum: Similar to traditional copiers, these parts create

the image on paper.

 Display Panel: A touchscreen or button interface for selecting

functions and options.

How Does a Digital Copier Work?

The process of copying a document digitally involves several steps:

1. Scanning the Document

The document to be copied is placed on the glass surface or fed through
an automatic document feeder (ADF). The copier’s scanner scans the
document, converting the image or text into a digital form of data.

2. Processing the Data

Once the document is scanned, the data is sent to the copier’s processor.
Here, the digital copier interprets the data and adjusts settings such as
contrast, size, and orientation. This step ensures that the copies produced
will be of high quality.

3. Storing or Reproducing the Document

Digital copiers have memory, allowing them to store scanned documents

temporarily. If multiple copies are needed, the copier retrieves the data
from its memory rather than scanning the document repeatedly,
increasing efficiency.

4. Printing the Copy

The toner and drum come into play during the printing process. The digital
image is transferred onto the drum, and toner particles adhere to the
drum’s charged areas. The toner is then fused to the paper by heat,
creating a permanent image.

The Evolution from Analogue to Digital Copiers

In the past, analogue copiers relied on lenses and mirrors to reproduce

images directly onto paper. While effective, analogue copiers lacked the
flexibility and functionality of digital copiers. Digital copiers have
revolutionised the way we copy and print, offering the ability to
manipulate, store, and even email documents without the need for
constant supervision.

Benefits of Digital Copiers

1. Multifunctionality

Digital copiers often come with additional features like scanning, faxing,
and emailing. These multifunctional devices can replace several office
machines, saving space and reducing equipment costs.

2. Better Image Quality

The digital technology used in these copiers ensures that copies are sharp
and clear, regardless of how many times the document has been
reproduced. Adjustments can be made to enhance brightness, contrast,
and resolution.

3. Speed and Efficiency

With memory storage, digital copiers can print multiple copies faster than
traditional copiers. They only need to scan the document once, making
high-volume copying more efficient.

4. Environmental Impact

Many digital copiers offer energy-saving modes and the ability to print
double-sided, reducing paper waste. Their digital nature also eliminates
the need for ink, as they use toner, which lasts longer.

5. Connectivity and Networking

Digital copiers can connect to a network, allowing multiple users to send

documents to the copier from their computers. Some models of digital
machines even have cloud integration, enabling remote printing and
document management.

Toner Particles

toner particles are essential to the efficient and high-quality printing

process in laser printers and digital copiers. Their unique properties
ensure that documents are printed quickly, clearly, and with long-lasting
durability.

How Do Toner Particles Work?

The process that involves toner particles begins when a laser printer or
digital copier receives a document to print. Here’s how the process works
step-by-step:

1. Laser or LED Exposure: The laser or LED within the printer scans
across the drum, a rotating cylindrical component, creating a static
electric charge that matches the shape of the image or text to be
printed.

2. Attraction to the Drum: Toner particles, which are negatively

charged, are attracted to the positively charged areas on the drum
where the laser has scanned. This forms an image on the drum
made of toner.

3. Transfer to Paper: As the drum rotates, it rolls over a sheet of

paper. The paper, which is also given a positive charge by the
 printer, pulls the toner particles from the drum, transferring the
image onto the paper.

4. Fusing: The final step involves the toner being heated and pressed
onto the paper by a fuser unit, which permanently bonds the toner
to the paper, creating a final, crisp print.

Composition of Toner Particles

Toner particles are primarily composed of the following:

 Plastic Resins: These help the toner melt and bond to the paper
when exposed to heat during the fusing process.

 Colourants: Carbon black is used for black toner, while various

pigments create colours in coloured toner cartridges.

 Magnetic Components: These are often included to help with the

electrostatic process of transferring the toner to the drum.

Benefits of Toner Compared to Ink

 Longer Lasting: Toner cartridges typically last much longer than

traditional ink cartridges, making them more cost-effective over
time.

 Smudge-Resistant: Because toner is fused to the paper with heat,

it is more resistant to smudging, especially when compared to wet
ink from inkjet printers.

 Sharp Image Quality: The fine particles allow for very sharp, high-
resolution printing, making toner ideal for documents requiring crisp
text or detailed images.

Laser Printer

A laser printer is a popular and efficient printing device that uses laser
technology to produce high-quality text and images on paper. Unlike inkjet
printers, which use liquid ink, laser printers use toner – a fine powder – to
create precise and smudge-resistant prints. They are widely used in
offices and homes due to their speed, reliability, and ability to handle high
volumes of printing.

How Does a Laser Printer Work?

The process of how a laser printer works is fascinating and involves
several key steps:

1. Data Transmission

The process starts when a document or image is sent from a computer or

another device to the printer. This digital information is processed by the
printer’s control system, which interprets the data and determines how
the image or text will appear on the paper.

2. Laser Scanning

A laser beam plays a vital role in forming the image on the drum. Inside
the printer, the laser is aimed at a photosensitive drum (or imaging drum).
As the laser scans across the drum’s surface, it discharges areas of the
drum that correspond to the parts of the document being printed, creating
an electrostatic image of the text or graphics.

3. Toner Application

Once the laser has drawn the electrostatic image on the drum, the
printer’s toner (composed of very fine black powder, particles of plastic,
carbon, and colouring agents) is attracted to the charged areas on the
drum. These areas now hold the toner in place, effectively forming the
text or image.

4. Paper Transfer

As the drum rotates, it presses the toner image onto a sheet of paper. The
paper has a stronger charge than the drum, so it pulls the toner particles
away, transferring the image onto the paper.

5. Fusing

To ensure the toner stays on the paper, the paper passes through
the fuser unit. This part of the printer heats up, melting the toner
particles so they bond with the fibres of the paper. The pressure applied
by the fuser rollers ensures that the toner adheres firmly, creating a
permanent print that is crisp and clear.

6. Cleaning

After the toner is transferred to the paper, any excess toner remaining on
the drum is cleaned off, preparing the drum for the next print cycle. This
ensures that each new print is free of any leftover marks or residual toner
used from the previous document.

7. Output
Finally, the printed sheet is ejected from the printer, and you receive your
completed document.

The working mechanism of a photocopier, while complex, is a testament

to the marvels of modern engineering. By combining electrical charges,
light, and heat, these machines can efficiently reproduce documents with
speed and precision. Understanding the basic process can not only satisfy
your curiosity but also help you troubleshoot common issues and maintain
your photocopier for years of reliable service.

Detailed Explanation of Multifunction Printer Components

1. Front View

The front view of the multifunction printer shows the main components
that users interact with during everyday operation.

Control Panel

The control panel is the main interface used to operate the machine. It
consists of a touchscreen display and several buttons that allow users to
copy, scan, print, fax (if installed), check machine status, and adjust
settings. It also displays error messages and maintenance information.

USB Port

The USB port allows users to connect a USB flash drive directly to the
printer. Documents stored on the USB drive can be printed, and scanned
documents can also be saved directly to the USB device.

Stylus

The stylus is used to operate the touchscreen more accurately. It helps

users make precise selections, especially when wearing gloves or when
finer control is required.

Tray 5 (Bypass Tray)

Tray 5 is a manual paper feeding tray located on the left side of the
machine. It is mainly used for printing on special media such as labels,
envelopes, transparencies, cardstock, or custom-sized paper. It folds away
when not in use.

Paper Trays 1–4

These trays store paper for normal printing. Multiple trays allow different
paper sizes or paper types to remain loaded simultaneously, reducing the
need for frequent paper changes.

Duplex Automatic Document Feeder (DADF)

The DADF automatically feeds multiple pages into the scanner. It scans
both sides of a document automatically without requiring the user to flip
the pages manually.

Power On/Off Button

This button is used to switch the printer on or off safely while allowing the
system to shut down properly.

Front Cover

The front cover provides access to internal components such as toner

cartridges, drum cartridges, and the waste toner container. It is opened
during maintenance or when replacing consumables.

Main Power Switch

Located behind the front cover, this switch completely disconnects

electrical power from the printer. It is mainly used during servicing or
when the printer will remain unused for a long period.

2. Document Feeder

The document feeder is designed to automatically feed multiple sheets

into the scanner for copying, scanning, or faxing.

Document Feeder Tray

This tray holds the original documents that need to be scanned or copied.

Document Guides

The adjustable guides keep the paper properly aligned while feeding,
preventing skewed scans or paper jams.

Confirmation Indicator

This indicator light shows whether the document feeder is operating

correctly and confirms that pages are being fed successfully.

Top Cover

The top cover can be opened to remove paper jams or clean the
document feeder rollers.

Document Glass

The document glass is located beneath the automatic document feeder.

It is mainly used for:

 Single-page documents
  Books

 Magazines

 Thick documents

 Fragile or damaged papers that cannot pass through the automatic

feeder

The scanner captures the image directly from the glass surface, ensuring
high-quality scans.

3. Paper Trays

Paper trays store different paper types and sizes used for printing.

Paper Trays 1 and 2

These two trays are identical.

Capacity

 520 sheets each

 Paper weight: 64–300 g/m²

Supported Paper Sizes

 Minimum: 182 × 140 mm

 Maximum: 330 × 488 mm

Features

 Adjustable guides for different paper sizes

 Supports plain paper

 Letterhead

 Colored paper

 Heavy paper

 Pre-printed forms

 Cardstock

Note: Envelopes should not be loaded into these trays.

Paper can be loaded:

 Portrait

 Landscape
  Long-edge feed

 Short-edge feed

Paper Tray 3

Capacity:

 870 sheets

Supports:

 A4

 Letter size paper

Used mainly for high-volume printing.

Paper Tray 4

Capacity:

 1140 sheets

Supports:

 A4

 Letter size paper

Ideal for offices with continuous large print jobs.

Bypass Tray (Tray 5)

The bypass tray is used when printing on special media.

Capacity

Approximately 250 sheets of 90 g/m² paper.

Supports

 Labels

 Thick paper

 Glossy paper

 Cardstock

 Envelopes
  Custom paper sizes

 Transparencies

The tray folds closed when not required.

4. Offset Catch Tray (OCT)

The Offset Catch Tray is the output tray where printed documents are
collected.

Capacity

Up to 500 sheets

Function

The tray automatically shifts each completed print job slightly to one side.

Advantages

 Separates print jobs

 Makes document collection easier

 Prevents mixing of multiple users' print jobs

 Improves office productivity

5. Internal Components

These components are located inside the printer and are essential for
printing.

Toner Cartridges

Toner cartridges contain powdered toner used to create text and images
on paper.

Different colors include:

 Black

 Cyan

 Magenta

 Yellow

The toner is transferred onto the paper during printing.

Drum Cartridges

The drum unit receives the laser image and transfers toner onto the
paper.

Functions:

 Creates the image

 Transfers toner accurately

 Ensures sharp print quality

The drum has a longer lifespan than toner cartridges.

Main Power Switch

This switch completely powers off the machine and is mainly used during
maintenance or servicing.

Fuser

The fuser permanently bonds toner to paper using:

 High temperature

 Pressure rollers

Without the fuser, toner would simply brush off the paper.

Waste Toner Container

This container collects unused or excess toner during printing.

Purpose:

 Keeps the printer clean

 Prevents toner spills

 Protects internal components

It must be replaced when full.

6. Right-Side View

Output Tray

Printed documents are delivered here after printing is complete.

Power Cord

Supplies electrical power to the printer.

Ground Fault Interrupt (GFI) Switch

A safety switch that disconnects electrical power if leakage current is

detected.

Benefits:

 Prevents electric shock

 Protects internal electronics

 Improves user safety

7. Control Panel

The control panel allows users to manage all printer functions.

1. Touch Screen

Displays menus, settings, machine status, print options, and

troubleshooting information. Users interact with the printer through this
screen.

2. Services Home

Opens the All Services screen, where users can access installed features
such as Copy, Scan, Email, Fax, and Print.

3. Services

Returns to the last service screen that was being used, allowing quick
access without navigating from the home screen.

4. Job Status

Shows information about current, pending, and completed jobs. Users can
pause, cancel, or monitor print, copy, and scan jobs.

5. Machine Status

Displays toner levels, paper availability, maintenance alerts, and error

messages, helping users monitor the printer's condition.

6. Log In/Out
Provides secure access to administrator settings. Authorized users can
configure network settings, security options, and machine defaults.

7. Power Saver Button

Places the printer into energy-saving mode to reduce electricity

consumption. The printer wakes automatically when a new job is received.

8. Clear All

 Press once: Resets the settings for the current job.

 Press twice: Restores all settings to the machine's default

configuration.

9. Stop

Temporarily stops the current operation. Users can cancel or resume the
job by following the on-screen instructions.

10. Start

Begins the selected copy, scan, or fax operation after all settings have
been configured.

11. Interrupt

Pauses the current job so that a high-priority job can be processed

immediately. After completion, the original job resumes automatically.

12. Keypad Buttons

Used to enter:

 Numbers

 Passwords

 Quantity of copies

 Fax numbers

 User IDs

13. Language

Allows users to change the display language and keyboard layout to suit
their preference.

14. Help

Provides built-in assistance, operating instructions, and troubleshooting

guidance directly on the printer.
8. Telephone and Fax Connection Options

These ports are located on the rear of the machine and are used for
communication and external device connectivity.

Digital Front End Video Select Switching Circuit (DFE VSEL)

Connects the printer to an external Digital Front End (DFE), which

processes complex print jobs and improves performance in professional
printing environments.

Ethernet Connection

Connects the printer to a local area network (LAN), enabling multiple

users to print, scan, and manage the printer over the network.

A to D Connection

An internal communication interface used for transferring analog signals

to digital form, allowing proper communication between hardware
components.

Fax Connection

This port is used to connect a telephone line for sending and receiving
faxes. It is available only if the optional fax module has been installed.

Control Panel Connection

Provides communication between the control panel and the printer's main
controller, allowing button presses and touchscreen inputs to be
processed.

DADF (Duplex Automatic Document Feeder) Connection

Connects the automatic document feeder to the main printer system,

enabling automatic feeding and duplex scanning.

Foreign Device Interface (FDI) Connection

Allows external devices such as card readers, coin-operated systems, or

authentication units to communicate with the printer. This feature is
commonly used in offices, schools, libraries, and print shops.
Advanced Imaging System Components

The imaging system components represent the cornerstone of xerox

machine functionality, incorporating cutting-edge technology for superior
reproduction quality. The photoreceptor drum features a specially
engineered photosensitive coating that responds precisely to light
exposure, ensuring accurate image capture. This component works in
concert with the exposure system, which uses high-intensity lamps and
precision-aligned mirrors to create exact replicas of original documents.
The system's ability to maintain consistent charge distribution through the
corona wire ensures uniform image quality across the entire page. These
components utilize advanced materials and precise engineering to
maintain their performance over thousands of copying cycles, providing
businesses with reliable, high-quality document reproduction capabilities.
Efficient Toner Management System

The toner management system exemplifies modern efficiency in

xerographic technology. This integrated system consists of the toner unit,
developer unit, and transfer mechanisms working in perfect
synchronization. The toner cartridge design allows for clean, easy
replacement while maximizing toner usage efficiency. The developer unit's
magnetic brush technology ensures even toner distribution, preventing
common issues like streaking or uneven coverage. The transfer system's
precise electrical charge control ensures optimal toner transfer to paper,
minimizing waste and improving image quality. This sophisticated system
maintains consistent performance while reducing operational costs
through efficient toner usage and minimal maintenance requirements.
Intelligent Control and Maintenance Features

The control and maintenance features of modern xerox machines

demonstrate remarkable advancement in user interface design and
system management. The digital control panel provides intuitive access to
all machine functions while offering detailed diagnostics and maintenance
information. The self-diagnostic system continuously monitors component
performance, alerting users to potential issues before they affect copy
quality. The automated cleaning system maintains optimal performance
by removing residual toner and paper dust, extending component life and
ensuring consistent copy quality. These intelligent features significantly
reduce downtime and maintenance costs while simplifying operation for
users of all skill levels.

Copier Components

Paper Cassette

The paper cassette, often also called the paper tray, is the container to
hold the stack of paper sheets to print on.

Paper Feed

The paper feed is a rubber piece that takes a sheet of paper from the
paper cassette and sends it into the printer system, beginning with the
registration rollers.

Registration Roller

A soft rubber roller that collects the paper and passes it towards the drum.

Exposure Lamp

The exposure lamp exists in most old and new systems that copy an
original document, and its purpose is to supply light to the image of the
original so the light reflects off a series of lenses and optical mirrors and
projects the image onto the Drum.

Photoconductive Drum

The drum is an aluminum cylinder coated with a photoconductive (light

sensitive) film. The photoconductive material reacts to the light and so the
image is formed on the drum as a series of active and inactive areas of
static electricity on the photoconductive material. The intensity of light –
perhaps by reflecting the amount of colour or grey, black or white – from
the original document provides an intensity of electrical charge on the
photoconductive material, which is created by the charge corona.

Charge Corona
The first of the two Corona components is the Charge Corona, which is a
thin wire in a metal slide, usually part of the drum unit, with the purpose
of producing an electrical charge on the Drum where the light reacts with
the photoconductive film. This charge is to attract the toner to the drum,
as the toner unit consists of a positively charged chemical.

Toner Unit

Toner is a powder which contains finely grounded dye

coloured plastic, and this will become ink when heated. The unit also
consists of something called ‘Developer’ which is a finely grounded
metallic chemical with that can be electrically charged. When the
electrically charged Drum rolls passed the toner unit, the developer is
attracted to the drum, and carries the toner along with it onto the drum.
Where there are colour toners, the collection of toner units with different
colour dyes sit in parallel within proximity of the drum.

Transfer Corona

Much like the Charge Corona, the Transfer Corona is a thin wire housed in
a metal slide that electrically attracts the toner from the drum onto the
copy paper. At the same time this component separates the electrically
charged paper away from the drum so the paper can continue to the next
stage of the process.

Fuser Unit
The Fuser Unit binds the toner to the paper, consisting of two rollers, of
which the upper one is heated to melt the toner plastic and releasing the
ink onto the paper as the paper passes through the rollers. The upper
fuser roller is heated by a temperature-controlled lamp, and is coated with
a non-stick (and therefore easily cleanable) silicon coating. The lower
fuser roller is not heated, and is generally just a soft silicon rubber.

Cleaning Unit

As the drum is not only charged but attracts the toner with developer
material to form the copy image on the drum, the cleaning unit is
designed to remove any residue of the substances that form on the drum
after the Transfer Corona has transferred the necessary toner representing
the image onto th paper. The cleaning unit consists of a magnetic roller
and a cleaning blade. The cleaning blade is simply a silicone rubber strip
attached to a metal bracket, and makes physical contact with the Drum to
remove the residue.

Paper Transport

The Paper Transport is a carriage system that holds together the process
of copying by consisting of a series of rubber rollers and planes to
facilitate the copy paper’s passage along the process.

Paper Tray

The Paper Tray – also known as the ‘catch tray’ – is often an optional
extension to the exit location for the copy paper, allowing the paper to
stack more efficiently with less risk of paper falling off the printer exit
shelf.

CCD and other Electronics

In digital copiers, there are additional components to digitise the copied

image before it is transported to the physical copying process. These
components include a CCD (Charge Couple Device) which acts as a sensor
to the image light from the lamp/mirror, and converts it into a series of
charges that represents the formation of the image from the light.

The signal is then passed on to other electronics on a circuit board within

the copier, such as an ‘Analogue to Digital Converter’. On the output of
the circuit, the signal is passed to a laser gun which forms the image as
light again onto mirrors towards the photosensitive drum. The purpose of
the electronics is to add a stage of refinement and flexibility to the copy.