History

Chester Carlson (1906–1968), the inventor of photocopying, was originally

a patent attorney, as well as a part-time researcher and inventor. His job
at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of
copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic, found this a painful
and tedious process. This motivated him to conduct experiments with
photoconductivity. Carlson used his kitchen for his "electrophotography"
experiments, and, in 1938, he applied for a patent for the process. He
made the first photocopy using a zinc plate covered with sulfur. The words
"10-22-38 Astoria" were written on a microscope slide, which was placed
on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was
removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his
invention to some companies but failed because the process was still
underdeveloped. At the time, multiple copies were most commonly made
at the point of document origination, using carbon paper or
manual duplicating machines. People did not see the need for an
electronic copier. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by
over 20 companies, including IBM and General Electric—neither of which
believed there was a significant market for copiers.

In 1944, the Battelle Memorial Institute, a non-profit organization

in Columbus, Ohio, contracted with Carlson to refine his new process. Over
the next five years, the institute conducted experiments to improve the
process of electrophotography. In 1947, Haloid Corporation, a
manufacturer of photographic paper, approached Battelle to obtain a
license to develop and market a copying machine based on this
technology.[2]

Haloid felt that the word "electrophotography" was too complicated and
did not have good recall value. After consulting a professor of classical
language at Ohio State University, Haloid and Carlson changed the name
of the process to xerography, a term, coined from Greek roots, that meant
"dry writing." Haloid called the new copier machines "Xerox Machines"
and, in 1948, the term Xerox was trademarked. Haloid eventually
became Xerox Corporation in 1961.

In 1949, Xerox Corporation introduced the first xerographic copier, called

the Model A.[3] Seeing off computing-leader IBM[4] in the office-copying
market, Xerox became so successful that, in North America, photocopying
came to be popularly known as "xeroxing". Xerox has actively fought to
prevent Xerox from becoming a genericized trademark. While the
word Xerox has appeared in some dictionaries as a synonym for
photocopying,[5] Xerox Corporation typically requests such entries be
modified, and discourages use of the term Xerox in this way.
In the early 1950s, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) introduced a
variation on the process called Electrofax, whereby images are formed
directly on specially coated paper and rendered with a toner dispersed in
a liquid.

During the 1960s and through the 1980s, Savin Corporation developed
and sold a line of liquid-toner copiers that implemented a technology
based on patents held by the company.

Before the widespread adoption of xerographic copiers, photo-direct

copies produced by machines such as Kodak's Verifax (based on a 1947
patent) were used. A primary obstacle associated with the pre-xerographic
copying technologies was the high cost of supplies: a Verifax print
required supplies costing US$0.15 in 1969, while a Xerox print could be
made for $0.03, including paper and labor. The coin-operated Photostat
machines still found in some public libraries in the late 1960s made letter-
size copies for $0.25 each, when the minimum wage for a US worker was
$1.65 per hour; the Xerox machines that replaced them typically charged
$0.10.

Xerographic-copier manufacturers took advantage of the high perceived

value copying had in the 1960s and early 1970s and marketed "specially
designed" paper for xerographic output. By the end of the 1970s, paper
producers made xerographic "runability" one of the requirements for most
of their office-paper brands.

DADF or Duplex Automatic Document

feeder - Canon IR6000

Some devices sold as photocopiers have replaced the drum-based process

with inkjet or transfer-film technology.

Among the key advantages of photocopiers over earlier copying

technologies is their ability:

 to use plain (untreated) office paper

 to implement duplex (two-sided) printing

 to scan several pages automatically with an ADF

 eventually, to sort and/or staple output

In 1970, Paul Orfalea founded Kinko's retail chain, in Isla Vista, California.
Starting with a single copier that year, this copy service chain would
expand to over 1,000 locations around the world. [6] By the 1980s, Kinko's
operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, with customers using the copy
center for academic and business work as well as personal publishing and
advertising.[7] By the 1990s, Kinko's had 700 locations around the United
States, with 5 in Manhattan. In such urban areas, Kinko's became a place
where a multitude of users could make their ideas "typed, designed and
xeroxed, then transmitted by fax, computer disk and Federal Express".
[8]
Kate Eichhorn, in Adjusted Margin: Xerography, Art, and Activism in the
Late Twentieth Century, notes that during this period (1970s through
1990s) the copy machine played "an especially notable role in the era's
punk, street art, and DIY movements."[9] FedEx purchased the Kinko's
chain in 2004, and its services were incorporated into the name FedEx
Office in 2008.[10]

Color photocopiers

Colored toner became available in the 1940s,[citation needed] although full-color

copiers were not commercially available until 1968, when 3M released
the Color-in-Color copier, which used a dye sublimation process rather
than conventional electrostatic technology. Xerox introduced the first
electrostatic color-copier (the 6500) in 1973. Color photocopying is a
concern to governments, as it facilitates counterfeiting currency and other
documents: for more information, see § Counterfeiting.

Digital technology

Main article: Multi-function printer

There is an increasing trend for new photocopiers to

implement digital technology, thereby replacing the
older analog technology. With digital copying, the copier effectively
consists of an integrated scanner and laser printer. This design has
several advantages, such as automatic image-quality enhancement and
the ability to "build jobs" (that is, to scan page images independently of
printing them). Some digital copiers can function as high-speed scanners;
such models typically offer the ability to send documents via email or
make them available on file servers.

A significant advantage of digital copier technology is "automatic

digital collation". For example, when copying a set of 20 pages 20 times, a
digital copier scans each page only once, then uses the stored information
to produce 20 sets. In an analog copier, either each page is scanned 20
times (a total of 400 scans), making one set at a time, or 20 separate
output trays are used for the 20 sets.
Low-end copiers also use digital technology, but tend to consist of a
standard PC scanner coupled to an inkjet or low-end laser printer, which
are far slower than their counterparts in high-end copiers. However, low-
end scanner-inkjets can provide color copying at a lower upfront purchase-
price but a much higher cost per copy. Combined digital scanner/printers
sometimes have built-in fax machines and can be classified as one type
of multifunction printer.

How it works (using xerography)

Schematic overview of the xerographic

photocopying process (step 1–4)

Main article: Xerography

Part of a series on the

History of printing
 Techniques

 v

 t

 e

1. Charging: cylindrical drum is electrostatically charged by a high

voltage wire called a corona wire or a charge roller. The drum has a
coating of a photoconductive material. A photoconductor is
a semiconductor that becomes conductive when exposed to light. [11]

2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates the original document, and the

white areas of the original document reflect the light onto the
surface of the photoconductive drum. The drum areas that are
exposed to light become conductive and therefore discharge to the
ground. The drum area not exposed to light (those areas that
correspond to black portions of the original document) remains
negatively charged.

3. Developing: The toner is positively charged. When it is applied to

the drum to develop the image, it is attracted and sticks to the
negatively charged areas (black areas), just as paper sticks to a
balloon with a static charge.

4. Transfer: The resulting toner image on the surface of the drum is

transferred from the drum onto a piece of paper that has an even
greater negative charge than the drum has.

5. Fusing: The toner is melted and bonded to the paper by heat and
pressure rollers.

A negative photocopy inverts the document's colors when creating a

photocopy, resulting in letters that appear white on a black background
instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or
faded documents sometimes produce documents that have better focus
and are easier to read and study.

Copyright issues

Photocopying material that is subject to copyright (such as books or

scientific papers) is subject to restrictions in most countries. This is
common practice, as the cost of purchasing a book for the sake of one
article or a few pages can be excessive. The principle of fair use (in the
United States) or fair dealing (in other Berne Convention countries) allows
copying for certain specified purposes.

In certain countries, such as Canada, some universities pay royalties from

each photocopy made at university copy machines and copy centers
to copyright collectives out of the revenues from the photocopying, and
these collectives distribute resulting funds to various scholarly publishers.
In the United States, photocopied compilations of articles, handouts,
graphics, and other information called readers often require texts for
college classes. Either the instructor or the copy center is responsible for
clearing copyright for every article in the reader, and attribution
information must be clearly included in the reader.

Counterfeiting

To counter the risk of people using color copiers to

create counterfeit copies of paper currency, some countries have
incorporated anti-counterfeiting technologies into their currency. These
include watermarks, microprinting, holograms, tiny security strips made of
plastic (or other material), and ink that appears to change color as the
currency is viewed at an angle. Some photocopying machines contain
special software that can prevent copying currency that has a special
pattern.

Color copying also raises concerns regarding the copying and/or forging of
other documents, such as driver's licenses and university degrees and
transcripts. Some driver's licenses are made with embedded holograms so
that a police officer can detect a fake copy. Some university and college
transcripts have special anti-copying watermarks in the background. If a
copy is made, the watermarks will become highly visible, which allows the
recipient to determine that they have a copy rather than a genuine
original transcript.

Health issues

Exposure to ultraviolet light is a concern. In the early days of

photocopiers, the sensitizing light source was filtered green to match the
optimal sensitivity of the photoconductive surface. This filtering
conveniently removed all ultraviolet.[12] Currently, a variety of light sources
are used. As glass transmits ultraviolet rays between 325 and 400
nanometers, copiers with ultraviolet-producing lights such as
fluorescent, tungsten halogen, or xenon flash, expose documents to some
ultraviolet.[12]

Concerns about emissions from photocopy machines have been expressed

by some in connection with the use of selenium and emissions
of ozone and fumes from heated toner.[13][14]

Forensic identification

Main article: Printer steganography

Similar to forensic identification of typewriters, computer printers and

copiers can be traced by imperfections in their output. The mechanical
tolerances of the toner and paper feed mechanisms cause banding, which
can reveal information about the individual device's mechanical
properties. It is often possible to identify the manufacturer and brand,
and, in some cases, the individual printer can be identified from a set of
known printers by comparing their outputs.[15]

Some high-quality color printers and copiers steganographically embed

their identification code into the printed pages, as fine and almost
invisible patterns of yellow dots. Some sources
identify Xerox and Canon as companies doing this.[16][17] The Electronic
Frontier Foundation (EFF) has investigated this issue[18] and documented
how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and
time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the
yellow channel. EFF is working to reverse engineer additional printers.
[19]
The EFF also reports that the US government has asked these
companies to implement such a tracking scheme, so
that counterfeiting can be traced. The EFF has filed a Freedom of
Information Act request in order to look into privacy implications of this
tracking.[20]

Wet photocopying

Photocopying, using liquid developer, was developed by Ken Metcalfe and

Bob Wright of Defence Standards Laboratory in Adelaide in 1952.[21][22]

Photocopying, using liquid developer, was used in 1967. [23][24][25]

Images from 'wet photocopying' do not last as long as dry toner images,
but this is not due to acidity.[26]

See also

 Gestetner
  Heliography

 IBM Copier Family

 List of duplicating processes

 Print Audit

 Reprography

 Risograph

 Scanography

 Thermochromatic ink

 Thermofax

 Xerox art

 Xerox 914

A Xerox machine, or photocopier, is an electronic device that reproduces

documents using light, heat, and electrostatic charges. Invented by
Chester Carlson, it converts physical paper into digital or duplicated
formats, streamlining office workflows by creating accessible digital PDF
records.

How it Works (Xerography Process)

1. Charging: A high-voltage wire (corona wire) applies a positive static

charge to a rotating photoreceptor drum.

2. Exposure: A bright light scans the original document. Where the

light hits the dark text/images, it discharges, leaving a reversed
electrostatic "latent image" of the page on the drum.

3. Developing: Negatively charged toner particles are applied to the

drum. They stick only to the positively charged areas (where the
text/images are).

4. Transfer: Blank paper is given a strong positive charge and passed

under the drum, pulling the toner off the drum and onto the paper.

5. Fusing: The paper passes through heated rollers, which melt and
permanently press the toner into the paper fibers.

Key Components

 Photoreceptor Drum: The core component that holds the light-

sensitive electrostatic charge.
  Toner Cartridge: Contains the fine powder used to create the
image.

 Fuser Assembly: Uses heat and pressure to bond the toner to the
page.

 Document Glass: The flat surface where the original document is

placed.

 Automatic Document Feeder (ADF): Feeds multiple sheets

automatically for high-volume copying or scanning.

Common Features

Modern Xerox machines are multifunction printers (MFPs) that handle

more than just copying:

 Scan to PDF: Digitizes hard copies into universally viewable PDF

files.

 Searchable PDF: Uses Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to

allow text searches within the scanned document.

 N-up Copying: Prints multiple document pages onto a single sheet

of paper (often used for mini copies).

 Finishing: Includes automatic stapling, hole-punching, and booklet

folding.

Would you like me to:

 Provide instructions on how to scan a physical document into a

PDF using a Xerox machine?

 Format this information into a downloadable PDF file template

outline?

 Explain how to print a PDF directly from a USB stick on a Xerox

device?

Let me know what you need to do next!

This article is about the company. For the machine, see Photocopier.

Xerox Corporation
Xerox Headquarters in Norwalk,
Connecticut

Formerly Haloid Photographic

Company (1906–1956)
Haloid Xerox Inc. (1956–
1961)
Xerox Corporation (1961–
2019)

Type Public

Traded as  Nasdaq: XRX

 NYSE: XRX (1961–

2021)

Industry Information technology

Founded April 18, 1906; 120 years

ago, in Rochester, New
York, U.S.

Founders  Joseph C. Wilson

 Chester Carlson

Darcy Campbell

Headquarte Norwalk, Connecticut

rs
,

U.S.

Area served Worldwide

Key people  Scott Letier

 (chairman)

 Louie Pastor (CEO)

Products  Office printers

 Production printers &

digital presses

 Multi-function
printers

 Wide format
printers, Projectors

 Scanners

 Copiers

 Office equipment

Services Document services

Revenue US$6.22 billion (2024)

Operating US$−1.2 billion (2024)

income

Net income US$−1.3 billion (2024)

Total assets US$8.37 billion (2024)

Total equity US$1.08 billion (2024)

Number of 16,800 (2024)

employees

Subsidiaries  Affiliated Computer

Services

 CareAR

 Xerox India

Website [Link]

Footnotes
[1][2]
Xerox Corporation (/ˈzɪərɒks/, ZEER-oks) is an American corporation that
sells printers, digital document products and services in more than 160
countries.[3] Xerox was the pioneer of the photocopier market, beginning
with the introduction of the Xerox 914 in 1959,[4] so much so that the
word xerox is commonly used as a synonym for photocopy.[5] Xerox is
headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut, though it is incorporated in New
York[6] with its largest group of employees based around Rochester, New
York, where the company was founded. As a large developed company, it
is consistently placed in the list of Fortune 500 companies.[7]

The company purchased Affiliated Computer Services for $6.4 billion in

early 2010.[8] On December 31, 2016, Xerox separated its business
process service operations, essentially those operations acquired with the
purchase of Affiliated Computer Services, into a new publicly traded
company, Conduent. Xerox focuses on its document technology and
document outsourcing business, and traded on the NYSE from 1961 to
2021, and the Nasdaq since 2021.[9]

Researchers at Xerox and its Palo Alto Research Center invented several
important elements of personal computing, such as the desktop
metaphor GUI, the computer mouse[10] and desktop computing.[11] The
concepts were adopted by Apple and later Microsoft.

History

Xerox was founded in 1906 in Rochester, New York, as Haloid. [12] It

manufactured photographic paper and equipment.

In 1938, Chester Carlson, a physicist working independently, invented a

process for printing images using an electrically charged photoconductor-
coated metal plate[13] and dry powder "toner". However, it would take
more than 20 years of refinement before the first automated machine to
make copies was commercialized, using a document feeder, scanning
light, and a rotating drum.

The Xerox Model D copier, introduced in

1951
Joseph C. Wilson, credited as the "founder of Xerox", took over Haloid from
his father.[14] He saw the promise of Carlson's invention and, in 1946,
signed an agreement to develop it as a commercial product. Wilson
remained as President/CEO of Xerox until 1967 and served as chairman
until his death in 1971.[15][16]

Looking for a term to differentiate its new system, Haloid hired a Greek
scholar at Ohio State University and coined the term xerography from two
Greek roots meaning "dry writing".[17] Haloid changed its name to Haloid
Xerox in 1958 and then Xerox in 1961.[18][19]

Before releasing the 914, Xerox tested the market by introducing a

developed version of the prototype hand-operated equipment known as
the Flat-plate 1385. The 1385 was not actually a viable copier because of
its slowness of operation. As a consequence, it was sold as a platemaker
for the Addressograph-Multigraph Multilith 1250 and related sheet-fed
offset printing presses in the offset lithography market. It was little more
than a high quality, commercially available plate camera mounted as a
horizontal rostrum camera, complete with photo-flood lighting and timer.
The glass film/plate had been replaced with a selenium-coated aluminium
plate. Clever electrics turned this into a quick-developing and reusable
substitute for film. A skilled user could produce fast, paper and metal
printing plates of a higher quality than almost any other method. Having
started as a supplier to the offset lithography duplicating industry, Xerox
now set its sights on capturing some of offset's market share.

The 1385 was followed by the first automatic xerographic printer, the
Copyflo, in 1955. The Copyflo was a large microfilm printer that could
produce positive prints on roll paper from any type of microfilm negative.
Following the Copyflo, the process was scaled down to produce the 1824
microfilm printer. At about half the size and weight, this still sizable
machine printed onto hand-fed, cut-sheet paper which was pulled through
the process by one of two gripper bars. A scaled-down version of this
gripper feed system was to become the basis for the 813 desktop copier.

Xerox 914
 The Xerox 914 photocopier, introduced in
1959 and a highly successful product

Main article: Xerox 914

The company came to prominence in 1959 with the introduction of the

Xerox 914.[4] The 914, the first plain paper photocopier, was developed
by Carlson and John H. Dessauer;[20] it was so popular that by the end of
1961 Xerox had almost $60 million in revenue. The product was sold by an
innovative ad campaign showing that even monkeys could make copies at
the touch of a button – simplicity would become the foundation of Xerox
products and user interfaces. Revenues leaped to over $500 million by
1965.

Xeronic Computer Printer

Peter James Greaves at the Rank Research

Labs 1963: a project to attach a Xeronic printer to the Lyons Leo III

In 1956, Haloid formed a joint venture in the UK with Rank

Organisation whose Rank Precision Industries subsidiary was charged with
anglicising the US products. Rank's Precision Industries went on to develop
the Xeronic computer printer and Rank Data Systems was set up to bring
the product to market. It used cathode-ray tubes to generate the
characters and forms that could be overlaid from microfilm images.
Initially, it planned for the Ferranti and AEI computer companies to sell the
Xeronic as an on-line peripheral, but due to interface problems, Rank
switched to a magnetic tape off-line technique. In 1962, Lyons Computers
placed an order for use with its LEO III computer, and the printer was
delivered in 1964. It printed 2,888 lines per minute, slower than the target
of 5,000 lpm.[21]

1960s

Xerox copying scene at a commercial conference

in Finland, 1965

In the 1960s, Xerox held a dominant position in the photocopier market.

[22]
In 1960, a xerography research facility called the Wilson Center for
Research and Technology was opened in Webster, New York. In 1961, the
company changed its name to Xerox.[23] Xerox common stock (XRX) was
listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1961[19] and on the Chicago
Stock Exchange in 1990.

In 1963, Xerox introduced the Xerox 813, the first desktop plain-paper
copier, realizing Carlson's vision of a copier that could fit on anyone's
office desk. Ten years later, in 1973, a basic, analogue, color copier, based
on the 914, followed. The 914 itself was gradually sped up to become the
420 and 720. The 813 was similarly developed into the 330 and 660
products and, eventually, also the 740 desktop microfiche printer. [citation
needed]

Xerox's first foray into duplicating, as distinct from copying, was with the
Xerox 2400, introduced in 1966. The model number denoted the number
of prints produced in an hour. Although not as fast as offset printing, this
machine introduced the industry's first automatic document feeder, paper
slitter and perforator, and collator (sorter). This product was soon sped up
by fifty percent to become the Xerox 3600 Duplicator. [citation needed]

Meanwhile, a small lab team was borrowing copiers and modifying them.
The lab was developing what it called long distance xerography (LDX) to
connect a modified 813 copier to a CRT based scanner using a special
service (TELPAK) of the public telephone network, so that a document
scanned on one machine would print out on the other. The LDX system
was introduced in 1964, followed in 1966 by the Magnafax Telecopier, a
much smaller, slower and less expensive version that acoustically coupled
to a desk phone. However, fax machines would not become a truly
mainstream device until the 1980s.[24]

In 1968, C. Peter McColough, a longtime executive of Haloid and Xerox,

became Xerox's CEO.[25] The same year, the company consolidated its
headquarters at Xerox Square in downtown Rochester, New York, with its
30-story Xerox Tower.[26]

Xerox embarked on a series of acquisitions. It purchased University

Microfilms International in 1962, Electro-Optical Systems in 1963,[27] and R.
R. Bowker in 1967. In 1969, Xerox acquired Scientific Data Systems (SDS),
[28]
which it renamed the Xerox Data Systems (XDS) division and which
produced the Sigma line and its successor XDS 5xx series of mainframe
computers in the 1960s and 1970s. Xerox sold XDS to Honeywell in 1975.
[29]

Xerox Tower in Rochester, New York, served as headquarters from 1968 to

1969.

Stamford, Connecticut, served as headquarters from 1969 to 2007.

 

Former manufacturing facility in Henrietta, New York, constructed in the

1960s and sold to Harris RF Communications in 2010

Xerox Canada Head Office at North American Life Centre (Xerox

Tower), Toronto, Ontario

Xerox Training Center

1970s

Archie McCardell was named president of the company in 1971.[30] During

his tenure, Xerox introduced the Xerox 6500, its first color copier.
[31]
During McCardell's reign at Xerox, the company announced
record revenues, earnings and profits in 1973, 1974, and 1975.[32] John
Carrol became a backer, later spreading the company throughout North
America.[citation needed]

In the mid-1970s, Xerox introduced the Xerox 9200 Duplicating System.

Originally designed to be sold to print shops to increase their productivity,
it was twice a fast as the 3600 duplicator at two impressions per second
(7200 per hour). It was followed by the 9400, which did auto-duplexing,
and then by the 9500, which was which added variable zoom reduction
and electronic lightness/darkness control. [citation needed]

In a 1975 Super Bowl commercial for the 9200, Xerox debuted an

advertising campaign featuring Brother Dominic, a monk who used the
9200 system to save decades of manual copying. [33] Before it was aired,
there was some concern that the commercial would be denounced as
blasphemous. However, when the commercial was screened for the
Archbishop of New York, he found it amusing and gave it his blessing.
[34]
Dominic, portrayed by Jack Eagle, became the face of Xerox into the
1980s.[35]

The 6500 color copier was introduced in May 1973. [36]

Following these years of record profits, in 1975, Xerox resolved an anti-

trust suit with the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which at
the time was under the direction of Frederic M. Scherer. The Xerox consent
decree resulted in the forced licensing of the company's
entire patent portfolio, mainly to Japanese competitors. Within four years
of the consent decree, Xerox's share of the U.S. copier market dropped
from nearly 100% to less than 14%.[37]

In 1979, Xerox purchased Western Union International (WUI) as the basis

for its proposed Xerox Telecommunications Network (XTEN) for local-loop
communications. However, after three years, in 1982, the company
decided the idea was a mistake and sold its assets to MCI at a loss.[38]

1980s

David T. Kearns, a Xerox executive since 1971, took over as CEO in 1982.
The company was revived in the 1980s and 1990s, through improvement
in quality design and realignment of its product line. Attempting to expand
beyond copiers, in 1981 Xerox introduced a line of electronic memory
typewriters, the Memorywriter, which gained 20% market share, mostly at
the expense of IBM.[27]

In 1980, Xerox acquired Kurzweil Computer Products, a pioneering

manufacturer of flatbed scanners, from Ray Kurzweil. It later
acquired Datacopy, another pioneer in the image scanner market, for
$31 million in 1986.[39]

In 1983, Xerox bought Crum & Forster, an insurance company, and formed
Xerox Financial Services (XFS) in 1984.[27]

In 1985, Xerox sold all of its publishing subsidiaries including University

Microfilms and R. R. Bowker.[40]
In 1989, Xerox won the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award for
Business Products and Systems.

1990s

Xerox "Pixelated X" logo used from 1994 to 2008

In 1990, Paul Allaire, a Xerox executive since 1966, succeeded David

Kearns, who had reached mandatory retirement age.[41] Allaire
disentangled Xerox from the financial services industry. [41]

The development of digital photocopiers in the 1990s and a revamp of the

entire product range again gave Xerox a technical lead over its
competitors. In 1990, Xerox released the DocuTech Production Publisher
Model 135, ushering in print-on-demand. Digital photocopiers were
essentially high-end laser printers with integrated scanners. Soon,
additional features such as network printing and faxing were added to
many models, known as multi-function machines, or just MFMs, which
were able to be attached to computer networks. Xerox worked to turn its
product into a service, providing a complete document service to
companies including supply, maintenance, configuration, and user
support.

To reinforce this image, the company introduced a corporate signature in

1994, The Document Company, above its main logo and introduced a red
digital X. The digital X symbolized the transition of documents between
the paper and digital worlds.[42]

In April 1999, Allaire was succeeded by Richard Thoman, who had been
brought in from IBM in 1997 as president.[43] The first "outsider" to head
Xerox, Thoman resigned in 2000.[44]

2000s
 A small, much-used Xerox photocopier at
an American high school, 2004

After Thoman's resignation, Allaire again resumed the position of CEO and
served until the appointment of Anne M. Mulcahy, another long-term
Xerox executive.[45] Xerox's turnaround was largely led by Mulcahy, who
was appointed president in May 2000, CEO in August 2001 and chairman
in January 2002.[46] She launched an aggressive turnaround plan that
returned Xerox to full-year profitability by the end of 2002, along with
decreasing debt, increasing cash, and continuing to invest in research and
development.

In 2000, Xerox acquired Tektronix color printing and imaging division in

Wilsonville, Oregon, for US$925 million.[47][48] This led to the current Xerox
Phaser line of products as well as Xerox solid ink printing technology.

In September 2004, Xerox celebrated the 45th anniversary of the Xerox

914. More than 200,000 units were made around the world between 1959
and 1976, the year production of the 914 was stopped. Today, the 914 is
part of American history as an artifact in the Smithsonian Institution.

In November 2006, Xerox completed the acquisition of XMPie. XMPie, a

provider of software for cross-media, variable data one-to-one marketing,
[49]
was the first acquisition of Xerox to remain independent entity, as a
Xerox company and not a division, and to this day is led by its original
founder Jacob Aizikowitz.

Xerox headquarters moved from Stamford, Connecticut, to Norwalk in

October 2007.[50]
 Street stand in India offering Xerox
services, 2007

In October 2008, Xerox Canada was named one of Greater Toronto's Top
Employers by Mediacorp Canada, which was announced by the Toronto
Star newspaper.[51]

On July 1, 2009, Ursula Burns succeeded Anne Mulcahy as CEO of Xerox.

[52]
Burns was the first African American woman to head a company of that
size.[53]

On September 28, 2009, Xerox announced the intended acquisition

of Affiliated Computer Services, a services and outsourcing company, for
$6.4 billion. The acquisition was completed in February 2010. Xerox said it
paid 4.935 Xerox shares and $18.60 cash for each share of ACS, totaling
$6.4 billion, or $63.11 a share for the company. [54]

2010s

Fuji Xerox ApeosPort-II5010 photocopier in

Mauritania, 2011

In May 2011, Xerox acquired NewField IT for an undisclosed sum. [55]

In December 2013, Xerox sold its Wilsonville, Oregon solid ink product
design, engineering and chemistry group and related assets previously
acquired from Tektronix to 3D Systems for $32.5 million in cash.[56]
In December 2014, Xerox sold the IT outsourcing business it had acquired
in 2009 from Affiliated Computer Services to Atos for $1.05 billion.[57] This
move was taken due to the relatively slow growth of this business relative
to some other Xerox units.[57]

In January 2016, Xerox—reportedly under pressure from activist

shareholder and corporate raider Carl Icahn—announced that by the end
of the year it would spin off its business services unit, largely made up of
Affiliated Computer Services, into its own publicly traded company. The
name and management of the new company had not been determined at
the time of the announcement. Icahn would appoint three members of the
new company's board of directors, and he would choose a person to
advise its search for a CEO.[58] In June, the company announced that the
document management business would retain the name Xerox and the
new business services company would be named Conduent. It also
announced that Ashok Vemuri would serve as Conduent's CEO and that
Icahn would control three seats on the new company's board. It continued
to seek a CEO for Xerox; in May, Burns announced her intention to step
down as CEO but continue as chairman of the document management
business.[59] In June 2016, the company announced that Jeff
Jacobson would become the new CEO following the completion of the
company's planned separation.[60] This became effective in January 2017.
[61]

On January 31, 2018, Xerox announced that Fujifilm had agreed to acquire
a 50.1% controlling stake in the company for US$6.1 billion, which was to
be combined into their existing joint venture Fuji Xerox (having a value of
$18 billion post-acquisition).[62][63][64]

Fuji Xerox Document Centre 505 at a 7-

Eleven store in Taiwan, 2013

On May 1, 2018, it was announced that chairman Robert Keegan and CEO
Jeff Jacobson and four other directors would resign as part of a deal with
investors Carl Icahn and Darwin Deason, who had mounted a proxy fight
to oppose the Fujifilm deal. On May 4, Xerox backed away from the deal
after stipulations about ceasing litigation were not met. [65] Icahn and
Deason responded with an open letter to shareholders blaming the board
and management.[66] On May 13 a new deal was reached that additionally
cancelled the Fujifilm transaction.[67]

In November 2019, Xerox began to pursue a hostile takeover of PC and

printer manufacturer HP, declaring its intent to "engage directly" with
shareholders after HP rejected two unsolicited bids for the company. [68]
[69]
Xerox stated in January 2020 that it would pursue the replacement of
HP's board.[70] HP criticized the proposed purchase as a "flawed value
exchange" based on "overstated synergies", and instituted a shareholder
rights plan and other measures designed to quell the bid,[71][72] which the
company believed was being orchestrated by Icahn. [70]

2020s

Fuji Xerox multicopy printer available for use in

Japan, 2021

In February 2020, Xerox announced the hiring of Tali Rosman as VP of

Xerox's 3D business. She joined Xerox from NiCE, where she was vice
president and head of business operations for the Americas. She would
report to CTO Naresh Shanker.[73]

On March 5, HP revealed that its board of directors had unanimously

declined Xerox's $24 a share cash-and-stock offer. [74]

On March 13, Xerox revealed that it was putting its campaign to acquire
HP on hold by postponing additional presentations, interviews with the
press and meetings with HP shareholders. Xerox vice chairman and chief
executive John Visentin cited the COVID-19 pandemic as a main reason
and said, "In light of the escalating Covid-19 pandemic, Xerox needs to
prioritize health and safety of its employees, customers, partners and
affiliates over and above all considerations, including its proposal to
acquire HP."[75]

On March 31, 2020, Xerox canceled its $24 a share offer. [76]
In September 2020, Xerox opened its North Carolina Center of Excellence
in Cary, North Carolina.[77] The center includes the research and
development operations, the 3-D printing lab, and th eXerox Digital
eXperience IT organization.[77]

In September 2021, Xerox announced it was transferring its stock ticker

from the New York Stock Exchange to the Nasdaq after 60 years. The
transfer went into effect on September 21, 2021.[9]

In December 2024, Xerox announced an agreement to acquire Lexmark

International, a Chinese-owned maker of printers and printing software
based in Lexington, Kentucky, in a $1.5 billion deal.[78][79] The acquisition
was completed on July 2, 2025.[80][81]

Digital printing

The laser printer was invented in 1969 by Xerox researcher Gary

Starkweather by modifying a Xerox 7000 copier.[82] Xerox management
was afraid the product version of Starkweather's invention, which became
the 9700, would negatively affect its copier business so the innovation sat
in limbo until IBM launched the 3800 laser printer in 1976.

Xerox 1200 Computer Printing System

The first commercial non-impact printer was the Xerox 1200, introduced in
1973,[83] based on the 3600 copier. It had an optical character generator
designed by optical engineer Phil Chen.[84] It was used in mainframe
computer environments for large-volume printing for business
applications.[85]

In 1977, after IBM had produced the first laser printer, the Xerox 9700 was
introduced. It was also used in mainframe environments and could handle
even larger amounts of paper and printing.[85] Laser printing eventually
became a multibillion-dollar business[when?] for Xerox.[86]

In the late 1970s, Xerox introduced the Xerox 350 color slide machine.
This product allowed the customer to create digital word and graphic 35-
millimetre slides. Many of the concepts used in today's photo editing
programs were pioneered with this technology.

In 1980, Xerox announced the 5700 laser printer, a much smaller version
of its 9700, but with touch-screen capabilities and multiple media input
(word processing disks, IBM magcards, etc.) and printer 'finishing' options.
This product was allegedly never intended to make the commercial
markets due to its development cost, but rather to show the innovation of
Xerox. It took off with many customers, but was soon replaced with the
smaller and lower cost Xerox 2700 Distributed Electronic Printer offering in
1982.[87]

Palo Alto Research Center

Main article: Xerox PARC

The Xerox Alto workstation was developed at

Xerox PARC.

In 1970, under company president C. Peter McColough, Xerox opened the

Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, known as Xerox PARC. The facility
developed many modern computing technologies such as the graphical
user interface (GUI), laser printing, WYSIWYG text editors, and Ethernet.
From these inventions, Xerox PARC created the Xerox Alto in 1973, a small
minicomputer similar to a modern workstation or personal computer. This
machine can be considered the first true Personal Computer, given its
versatile combination of a cathode-ray-type screen, mouse-type pointing
device, and a QWERTY-type alphanumeric keyboard. But the Alto was
never commercially sold, as Xerox itself could not see the sales potential
of it. It was, however, installed in Xerox's own offices, worldwide and those
of the US Government and military, who could see the potential. Within
these sites the individual workstations were connected together by a
Xerox PARC-developed Local Area Network (LAN) technology, Ethernet,
which is ubiquitous in computing even to this day. Data was sent around
this system of heavy, yellow, low loss coaxial cable using the packet data
system. In addition, PARC also developed one of the
earliest internetworking protocol suites, the PARC Universal Packet (PUP).
[88]

In 1979, Steve Jobs made a deal with Xerox's venture capital division: He
would let them invest US$1 million (equivalent to $4.44 million in 2025) in
exchange for a look at the technology they were working on. Jobs and the
others saw the commercial potential of the WIMP (Window, Icon, Menu,
and Pointing device) system and redirected development of the Apple
Lisa to incorporate these technologies. Jobs is quoted as saying: "They just
had no idea what they had."[89]

In 1980, Jobs invited several key PARC researchers to join his company so
that they could fully develop and implement their ideas. [90]

The Xerox Star 8010

In 1981, Xerox released a system similar to the Alto, the Xerox Star. It was
the first commercial system to incorporate technologies that have
subsequently become commonplace in personal computers, such as a
bitmapped display, window-based GUI, mouse, Ethernet networking, file
servers, print servers, and e-mail. The Xerox Star and its successor
the Xerox Daybreak, despite their technological breakthroughs, did not
sell well due to its high price, retailing at US$16,000 per unit (equivalent
to $57,000 in 2025). A typical Xerox Star-based office, complete with
network and printers, would have cost US$100,000 (equivalent to
$354,000 in 2025).[citation needed]

In the mid-1980s, Apple considered buying Xerox; however, a deal was

never reached.[91][citation needed] Apple instead bought rights to the Alto GUI
and adapted it into a more affordable personal computer, aimed towards
the business and education markets. The Apple Macintosh was released in
1984, and it was the first personal computer to popularize the GUI and
mouse among the public.[92]
In 2002, PARC was spun off into an independent wholly owned subsidiary
of Xerox.[93]

In April 2023, Xerox announced that it would donate the lab and its related
assets to SRI International. As part of the deal, Xerox would keep most of
the patent rights inside PARC, and benefit from a preferred research
agreement with SRI/PARC.[93][94]

Chief executives

Chief executives

Name Title Tenure Photo

George C.
President 1906–1912
Seager

Gilbert E.
President 1912–1938
Mosher

Joseph R.
President 1938–1946
Wilson

Joseph C. President 1946–1966

Wilson CEO 1961–1967

C. Peter
CEO 1968–1982
McColough
 1982 – July 31,
David T. Kearns CEO
1990

August 1, 1990 –
Paul A. Allaire CEO
April 6, 1999

G. Richard April 7, 1999 –

CEO
Thoman May 10, 2000

May 11, 2000 –

Paul A. Allaire CEO
July 31, 2001

Anne M. August 1, 2001 –

CEO
Mulcahy June 30, 2009

July 1, 2009 –
Ursula Burns CEO December 31,
2016

January 1, 2017 –
Jeff Jacobson CEO
May 15, 2018

CEO and Vice May 16, 2018 –

John Visentin
Chairman June 28, 2022[95]

Steve CEO and Vice June 29, 2022 –

Bandrowczak [96]
Chairman March 29, 2026

March 30, 2026 –

Louie Pastor[97] CEO
present

Products and services

 Xerox WorkCentre 6605

Xerox manufactures and sells office equipment including scanners,

printers, and multifunction systems that scan, print, copy, email and fax.
These model families include WorkCentre, Phaser, and ColorQube. [2] For
the graphic communications and commercial print industries, the Xerox
product portfolio includes high-volume, digital printing presses, production
printers, and wide format printers that use xerographic and inkjet printing
technologies. Products include the iGen, Nuvera, DocuPrint, and Impika
series, as well as the Trivor, iPrint, and Rialto (inkjet) machines. [98]

Corporate structure

Xerox logo 1968–2008, designed

by Chermayeff & Geismar

Although Xerox is a global brand, it maintained a joint venture from 1962

to 2021, Fuji Xerox, with Japanese photographic firm Fuji Photo Film Co. to
develop, produce, and sell in the Asia-Pacific region. Fujifilm announced in
January 2020 that it would not renew its technology agreement with
Xerox, with Fuji Xerox being renamed to Fujifilm Business Innovation in
April 2021.[99]

Xerox India, formerly Modi Xerox, is Xerox's Indian subsidiary derived from
a joint venture formed between Dr. Bhupendra Kumar Modi and Rank
Xerox in 1983. Xerox obtained a majority stake in 1999 and aims to buy
out the remaining shareholders.[100]

NewField IT is a wholly owned subsidiary of Xerox that implements and

supports third-party software for MPS providers.[101]

Rank Xerox

Main article: Rank Xerox

Rank Xerox logo used in 1980s

The European company Rank Xerox, originally a joint venture between
Xerox and the British company The Rank Organisation, later extended to
Asia and Africa, has been fully owned by Xerox since 1997. The Rank
Xerox name was discontinued following the buyout, and the Rank Xerox
Research Centre was renamed to the Xerox Research Centre Europe.
[102]
The laboratory, based in France, was acquired by South Korean IT
company Naver in 2017,[103] and later became Naver Labs Europe.[104]

Sponsorship

Xerox now sponsors the Factory Ducati Team in the World Superbike
Championship, under the name of the "Xerox Ducati".

In November 2024, Aston Martin F1 Team announced a partnership with

Xerox commencing in 2025.[105]

Accounting irregularities

On May 31, 2001, Xerox announced that its auditors, KPMG, had certified
Xerox's financial statements for the three years ended December 31,
2000; the financials included some restatements. [106] On March 31, 2002,
Xerox restated its financials which reflected the reallocation of equipment
sales revenue of more than $2 billion.[107] On April 11, 2002, the
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission filed a complaint against Xerox.
[108]
The complaint alleged Xerox deceived the public between 1997 and
2000 by employing several "accounting maneuvers", the most significant
of which was a change in which Xerox recorded revenue from copy
machine leases – recognizing a "sale" when a lease contract was signed,
instead of recognizing revenue over the entire length of the contract. At
issue was when the revenue was recognized, not the validity of the
revenue. Xerox's restatement only changed what year the revenue was
recognized. On December 20, 2002, Xerox Corporation reported that it
had discovered an error in the calculation of its non-cash interest expense
related to a debt instrument and associated interest rate swap
agreements, resulted in after-tax understatement of interest expense of
approximately $5 million to $6 million or less than 1 cent per share in
each of the four quarters of 2001 and for the first three quarters of 2002.
[109]

In response to the SEC's complaint, Xerox neither admitted nor denied

wrongdoing. It agreed to pay a $10 million penalty and to restate its
financial results for the years 1997 through 2000. On June 5, 2003, six
Xerox senior executives accused of securities fraud settled their issues
with the SEC and neither admitted nor denied wrongdoing. They agreed to
pay $22 million in penalties, disgorgement, and interest. The company
received approval to settle the securities lawsuit in 2008. [110]
On January 29, 2003, the SEC filed a complaint against Xerox's auditors,
[111]
KPMG, alleging four partners in the "Big Five" accounting firm
permitted Xerox to "cook the books" to fill a $3 billion "gap" in revenue
and $1.4 billion "gap" in pre-tax earnings. In April 2005 KPMG settled with
the SEC by paying a US$22.48 million fine.[112] Meanwhile, Xerox paid a
civil penalty of $10 million.[113] As part of the settlement KPMG neither
admits nor denies wrongdoings.

During a settlement with the Securities and Exchange Commission, Xerox

began to revamp itself once more. As a symbol of this transformation, the
relative size of the word "Xerox" was increased in proportion to "The
Document Company" on the corporate signature, and the latter was
dropped altogether in September 2004, along with the digital X. However,
the digital X and "The Document Company" were still used by Fuji
Xerox until April 2008.

Character substitution bug

In 2013, German computer scientist David Kriesel [de] discovered

an error in a Xerox WorkCentre 7535 copier. The device would substitute
number digits in scanned documents, even when OCR was turned off. For
instance, a cost table in a scanned document had an entry of 85.40,
instead of the original sum of 65.40.[114] After unsuccessfully trying to
resolve this issue with Xerox's customer support, he publicised his findings
on his blog. Providing example pages that would lead to the bug
occurring, it was confirmed that this bug was reproducible on a wide
variety of Xerox WorkCentre and other high-end Xerox copiers.

The source of the error was a bug in the JBIG2 implementation, which is an
image compression standard that makes use of pattern matching to
encode identical characters only once. While this provides a high level of
compression, it is susceptible to errors in identifying similar characters.

A possible workaround was published by Kriesel, which involved setting

the image quality from "normal" to "higher" or "high". Shortly afterwards,
it was found that the same fix had been suggested in the printer manual,
which mentioned the occurrence of character substitutions in "normal
mode", indicating that Xerox was aware of the software error. [115] In Xerox's
initial response to a growing interest by the media, the error was
described as occurring rarely and only when factory settings had been
changed.[116][117] After Kriesel provided evidence that the error was also
occurring in all three image quality modes (normal, higher and high)
including the factory defaults, Xerox corrected its statement and released
a software patch to eliminate the problem.[118][119] Despite the problem
being present in some instances also in higher quality mode, Xerox
advises users that they can use this mode as an alternative to applying
the patch.[120]

Trademark

See also: Generic trademark

The word xerox is used as a synonym for photocopy (both as a noun and
a verb) in many areas: for example, "I xeroxed the document and placed it
on your desk" or "Please make a xeroxed copy of the articles and hand
them out a week before the exam". Though both are common, the
company does not condone such uses of its trademark, and is particularly
concerned about the ongoing use of Xerox as a verb as this places the
trademark in danger of being declared a generic word by the courts. The
company is engaged in an ongoing advertising and media campaign to
convince the public that Xerox should not be used as a verb. [121][122]

To this end, the company has written to publications that have used Xerox
as a verb. It has also purchased print advertisements using "xerox" as a
verb, stating that "You can't Xerox a Xerox on a Xerox." [123] Xerox continues
to protect its trademark in most if not all trademark categories. [124] Despite
its efforts, many dictionaries continue to include the use of "xerox" as a
verb, including the Oxford English Dictionary. In 2012, the Intellectual
Property Appellate Board (IPAB) of India declared "xerox" a non-generic
term after "almost 50 years (1963–2009) of continued existence on the
register without challenge, and with proof of almost 44 years of use
evident (1965–2009)",[125] but as of 2025, most Indians still use it as a
synonym for photocopying.[126]

The company has also advertised its trademark concerns, in an attempt to

persuade journalists and others not to use "Xerox" as a verb. [5]

In the 2025 science fiction film "M3GAN 2.0" copyright and trademark
issues were circumvented by naming the company "Xenox" (substituting
an n for the r).

The process begins with transitioning the machine from an unpowered or

power-saving state into an operational state. This involves electrical
initialization, internal hardware calibration, and diagnostic checks.

Turning on the Machine and the Warm-Up Phase

When you flip the main power switch, the machine initiates a Power-On
Self-Test (POST). This routine checks critical internal components like
sensors, motors, laser scanners, and the touchscreen interface.

 The Fusing Unit: This is the most power-hungry component. It

consists of two rollers that melt toner powder onto the paper using
 heat and pressure. The machine cannot print until this unit reaches
its operational temperature, which is usually between 150°C and
200°C.

 The Polygon Mirror Motor: The laser scanning assembly contains

a tiny, multi-sided mirror that spins at ultra-high speeds. It must
stabilize its rotation speed before scanning can begin.

 The Toner and Developer Mixers: Internal paddles rotate to

agitate the toner powder, ensuring it is evenly distributed and
statically charged for crisp printing.

Power-Saving States vs. Hard Boots

Modern machines use different power modes to balance convenience with

energy efficiency:

[Off State] --(Hard Boot)--> [POST / Long Warm-Up] ----> [Ready State]

[Sleep Mode] ----(Low-Power Wake / Short Warm-Up)-----------|

 Sleep/Low-Power Mode: The machine turns off the display and

drops the fuser temperature to a low baseline. Waking the machine
from this state takes only a few seconds because the fuser requires
very little time to heat back up.

 Hard Boot (Cold Start): Turning the machine off via the main
breaker cuts all power. Booting up from this state takes significantly
longer because the fuser must heat up from room temperature, and
the entire operating system must reload.

2. Document Acquisition and Optical Scanning Mechanics

This stage captures the physical document and converts it into a digital
image. This is done using either the flatbed glass or an Automatic
Document Feeder (ADF).

[Flatbed Glass] [Automatic Document Feeder (ADF)]

| |

Face-Down Placement Face-Up Tray Loading

| |
 Stationary Document Moving Document

Moving Scanner Carriage Stationary Scanner Bar

| |

+-------------------> [CCD/CIS Sensor] <---+

[Digital Image Generation]

Flatbed Scanning (Platen Glass)

 Placement: The user places the document face-down on the glass,

aligning it with the top-left corner index mark.

 Mechanism: The document remains perfectly still. A scanning

carriage containing a light source (LED or fluorescent lamp) and a
series of mirrors moves slowly beneath the glass.

 Optics: The light reflects off the page, bounces through the moving
mirrors, and strikes an optical sensor.

Automatic Document Feeder (ADF)

 Placement: The user stacks pages face-up in the feeder tray.

 Mechanism: The scanning carriage remains locked in a stationary

position beneath a small, narrow strip of glass (the glass scanning
slit). Rollers grab the pages from the tray one by one and pull them
past the light source at a constant speed.

 Duplex ADFs: Advanced feeders can scan both sides of a page at

once. They do this either by flipping the paper over internally
(Reversing ADF) or by using two separate optical sensor bars to
scan both sides in a single pass (Single-Pass Duplex).

Optical Sensors: CCD vs. CIS

The light reflected from the page is captured by one of two types of sensor
technologies:

Contact Image Sensor

Feature Charge-Coupled Device (CCD)
(CIS)

Uses a complex arrangement of Uses a row of LEDs placed

Light
mirrors and lenses to focus light immediately beneath the
Path
onto a small, highly sensitive chip. glass to capture light directly.
 Low. The document must be
Depth High. Can clearly scan thick books
perfectly flat against the
of Field or three-dimensional objects.
glass to stay in focus.

Extremely compact,
Size & Larger, heavier, and requires more
lightweight, and highly
Power electricity.
energy-efficient.

3. Digital Image Processing and User Control Interface

Once the sensor captures the raw data, the machine's internal computer
processes it based on the settings selected via the graphic user interface
(GUI).

[Raw Optical Input]

▼
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐

│ Internal Image Processing │

│ • Contrast / Brightness Enhancement │

│ • Halftoning / Dithering (for gradients) │

│ • Background Suppression (removes yellow paper tint) │

└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

▼
[Processed Digital Bit Map] ---> Sent to Print Controller

Job Programming and UI Interactions

The touchscreen panel acts as the control center where the user programs
the copying job:

 The Copy Application: Opening this menu brings up options for

quantity, color modes, and layout styles.

 Digital Memory (RAM & Storage): The system does not print
directly from the scanner. Instead, it converts the scanned images
into digital files and temporarily saves them to internal storage. This
allows the machine to scan a multi-page document once and print
hundreds of copies from memory without rescanning.
Advanced Image Tweaking

The internal print controller applies several algorithms to clean up the

scanned digital image:

 Background Suppression: This filters out unwanted background

tints, such as the yellowed look of newspaper or bleed-through text
from thin paper.

 Text/Photo Optimization: The machine separates text areas from

image areas. It sharpens the edges of text characters for readability
while applying smooth gradient filtering (halftoning) to photos.

 Electronic Collation: When copying a multi-page document

multiple times, the machine sorts the digital pages in memory. It
then prints them in order (Pages 1-2-3, 1-2-3) rather than printing
stacks of identical pages (Pages 1-1, 2-2, 3-3).

4. Media Management, Paper Path Mechanics, and Scaling

This stage handles the movement of blank paper through the machine
and manages any scaling or layout modifications.

Paper Trays and Feed Mechanisms

Blank paper is held in adjustable trays that use built-in sensors to

automatically detect paper size (e.g., A4, Letter, Legal) based on the
positions of the tray guides.

[Paper Tray]

▼
(Pick-up Roller) --> Pulls top sheet

▼
(Feed & Separation) --> Stops double-feeds using a friction pad

▼
(Registration Roller) --> Delays sheet to align perfectly with the image

1. Pick-up Roller: A rubber roller lowers onto the paper stack and
rotates to pull the top sheet forward.
 2. Feed/Separation Roller: To prevent multiple sheets from feeding
at once, a separation roller or friction pad applies reverse pressure,
ensuring only one sheet moves forward.

3. Registration Roller: This roller temporarily holds the paper back,

forcing it to pause right before entering the printing zone. It releases
the paper at the exact millisecond the image area is ready, ensuring
the text prints straight and perfectly centered.

Digital Scaling Algorithms

When you change the zoom percentage, the image processor recalculates
the pixels of the digital image before printing:

 Reduction: The system removes pixels using interpolation

algorithms to shrink the image while preserving readability.

 Enlargement: The system adds pixels by calculating the values of

neighboring pixels, expanding the image without making it look
overly pixelated or blurry.

5. Electrostatic Xerography and Laser Printing Science

This is the core chemical and physical process that transfers the digital
image onto physical paper. It relies on the law of electrostatics: opposite
charges attract, like charges repel.

Step 1: Charge --> Drum is coated with uniform negative charge.

Step 2: Expose --> Laser discharges specific areas to create a "hidden"

image.

Step 3: Develop --> Negatively charged toner sticks only to the

discharged areas.

Step 4: Transfer--> Positive charge under the paper pulls toner off the
drum.

Step 1: Charge

An internal component called a Scorotron Corotron or a Charge Roller

uses high voltage to apply a uniform, negative electrical charge across the
entire surface of a rotating Photoreceptor Drum. This drum is coated
with a special photoconductive material that holds a static charge in the
dark but conducts electricity when exposed to light.

Step 2: Expose
A laser diode flashes rapidly on and off as it scans back and forth across
the rotating drum. The light hits the drum and neutralizes the negative
charge in those exact spots, leaking it to the grounded core. This creates
an invisible, uncharged pattern on the drum that matches your document,
known as the Latent Electrostatic Image.

Step 3: Develop

The drum rotates past the Developer Unit, which contains a mix of iron
magnetic particles and toner powder. The toner is given a negative
electrical charge through friction. Because like charges repel, the negative
toner avoids the negatively charged parts of the drum and sticks only to
the discharged areas exposed by the laser. This turns the invisible image
into a visible toner image on the drum.

Step 4: Transfer

The registration roller pushes a blank sheet of paper beneath the rotating
drum. A Transfer Roller located under the paper applies a strong
positive charge to the back of the sheet. This powerful positive charge
pulls the negatively charged toner particles away from the drum and down
onto the paper.

6. Thermal Fusing, Output Delivery, and Quality Control

The final stage permanently bonds the loose toner to the paper, cleans
the internal hardware for the next job, and delivers the finished document.

[Paper with Loose Toner]

▼
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐

│ Fusing Assembly │

│ • Heat Roller (Melts resin/wax in toner) │

│ • Pressure Roller (Forces liquid toner into paper) │

└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

▼
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐

│ Post-Print Cleaning │
 │ • Blade scrapes leftover toner off the drum │

│ • Erase Lamp removes remaining charge │

└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

▼
[Finished Output]

The Fusing Process

At this stage, the toner is just loose powder sitting on top of the paper. If
you touch it, it will smudge off. The paper passes directly into the Fusing
Assembly:

 Heat Roller: A Teflon-coated cylinder heated internally by a

halogen lamp or induction coil melts the plastic resins and waxes
inside the toner powder.

 Pressure Roller: A highly durable rubber roller presses the paper

firmly against the heat roller. This forces the melted toner deep into
the fibers of the paper. As the paper cools, the toner solidifies,
permanently bonding the image to the page.

Post-Print Mechanical Cleaning

The photoreceptor drum must be completely refreshed before it can print

the next page. As it continues to rotate, it passes through two final
maintenance steps:

 Cleaning Blade: A resilient polyurethane blade gently scrapes

across the drum to remove any leftover toner particles that failed to
transfer to the paper. This waste toner is channeled into a collection
bottle.

 Erase Lamp: A row of LEDs floods the entire drum with light,
neutralizing any remaining electrical charges so the drum is
perfectly clean and ready for the next cycle.

Output Routing and Exit Sensor Verification

The finished print passes through exit sensors that track its progress. If
the paper fails to trigger a sensor within a strict timeframe, the machine
immediately stops and flags a paper jam.

Depending on your settings, the page is routed to a basic output tray or

sent through an internal duplex track to be flipped over for two-sided
printing. Advanced machines can also route pages into a finisher unit to
be automatically stapled, hole-punched, or folded into booklets.

To help explore this in more detail, let me know if you would like to:

 Look into the chemistry of toner and why it requires specific

temperatures to fuse.

 Breakdown the common causes of paper jams and how sensor

systems detect them.

 Explore how color copying works by overlaying Cyan, Magenta,

Yellow, and Black (CMYK).

Step-by-Step Instructions on How to Use a Photocopier

1. Turn on the Photocopier

Before you begin, make sure the photocopier is plugged in and
powered on. Most photocopiers have a power button located on the
side or front panel. Press the button to turn on the machine and wait
for it to warm up. This process may take a few seconds to a minute,
depending on the model.

2. Place Your Document on the Scanner Glass or in the

Document Feeder

o Using the Scanner Glass: Lift the photocopier lid and place
your document face down on the scanner glass. Align it with
the top-left corner or follow the placement guide on the glass
surface. This method is best for single-page documents or
bound materials like books.

o Using the Automatic Document Feeder (ADF): If you

have multiple pages to copy, use the ADF. Place your stack of
documents face up in the feeder tray, ensuring they are
aligned and not folded or crumpled. The ADF is perfect for
batch copying as it automatically feeds each page into the
scanner.

3. Select the Copy Settings

On the control panel or touchscreen display, you can choose your
desired copy settings:

o Number of Copies: Enter the number of copies you need

using the numeric keypad or touch screen.
 o Colour or Black & White: Choose between colour copies or
black and white. Colour copying typically takes longer and
uses more toner.

o Paper Size and Type: Select the correct paper size (A4, A3,
letter, etc.) and type (plain, glossy, etc.) for your documents.

o Copy Quality: Choose the copy quality setting based on your

needs. Higher quality settings are ideal for documents with
images or graphics, while standard quality is sufficient for text
documents.

o Duplex (Double-Sided) Copying: If you want double-sided

copies, select the duplex option. This is useful for saving
paper and creating professional-looking documents.

4. Adjust Scaling and Image Quality

If you need to resize your document or adjust the image quality:

o Scaling: Most photocopiers offer scaling options to reduce or

enlarge the document size. You can set a specific percentage
or choose preset options like “Fit to Page” or “100%”.

o Image Quality: Adjust settings such as brightness, contrast,

and sharpness to enhance the quality of your copies. These
settings are useful when copying faded or heavily inked
documents.

5. Press the Copy Button

Once all your settings are configured, press
the Start or Copy button to begin copying. The photocopier will
scan your document and produce the desired number of copies. If
you’re using the ADF, the machine will automatically feed and copy
each page.

6. Collect Your Copies

After the copying process is complete, collect your copies from the
output tray. If you used the ADF, ensure all pages have been copied
correctly, especially if you selected duplex copying. Double-check
for any missing or misaligned pages.

7. Review and Repeat if Necessary

Review the copies to ensure they meet your expectations. If any
adjustments are needed, make the necessary changes and repeat
the process. For large copying jobs, consider making a test copy first
to verify the settings before proceeding with the entire batch.
Tips for Using a Photocopier Effectively

 Regular Maintenance: Keep the photocopier clean and regularly

check for paper jams, low toner levels, and dust build-up on the
scanner glass to ensure optimal performance.

 Use the Correct Paper: Always use the recommended paper type
and size to avoid paper jams and poor-quality copies.

 Organize Your Documents: Arrange your documents in the

correct order before copying to save time and avoid confusion.

 Save on Toner: Use the “Toner Save” mode for draft copies or
internal documents to reduce toner usage and extend cartridge life.

 Preview Your Copies: If your photocopier has a preview function,

use it to check how the document will look before making multiple
copies.

Troubleshooting Common Photocopier Issues

 Paper Jams: Open the machine’s compartments carefully, following

the on-screen instructions to clear any jammed paper. Ensure all
pieces are removed to prevent future jams.

 Streaks or Lines on Copies: Clean the scanner glass and the

document feeder rollers to remove any dust or debris causing
streaks or lines.

 Faded or Poor-Quality Copies: Check the toner levels and replace

the cartridge if needed. Adjust the copy quality settings for better
results.

 Error Messages: Refer to the user manual or on-screen

instructions to troubleshoot specific error codes.

Paper Tray

The paper tray is a fundamental component of a photocopier,

responsible for holding and feeding paper into the machine for copying.
Understanding how to properly use and maintain the paper tray on
photocopy machines can ensure smooth operation, reduce the risk of
paper jams, and improve the quality of your copies.
How to Use the Paper Tray

1. Load the Paper

o Check Paper Size: Ensure that the paper size you are
loading matches the settings on your photocopier. Most
machines have adjustable trays that can accommodate
different paper sizes such as A4, A3, letter, or legal.

o Adjust the Paper Guides: Before loading the paper, adjust

the paper guides in the tray to match the size of the paper.
This helps prevent paper jams by keeping the paper aligned
as it feeds into the machine.

o Load the Paper Stack: Fan the paper stack to separate the
sheets and prevent sticking. Place the paper in the tray with
the print side facing down (for most machines) and ensure the
stack is evenly aligned with the paper guides.

2. Set the Paper Tray

o Check for Proper Alignment: Make sure the paper is evenly

stacked and not overfilled. The paper stack should not exceed
the maximum fill line indicated on the tray.

o Adjust Tray Settings: If your photocopier has digital settings

for paper type or size, ensure these settings match the paper
you’ve loaded. This ensures that the photocopier feeds the
paper correctly and adjusts print settings accordingly.

3. Close the Paper Tray

o Secure the Tray: Gently push the tray back into the
photocopier until it clicks into place. Ensure it’s fully seated to
prevent paper feed issues.

Paper Size

Paper size is a crucial aspect of printing, photocopy process and copying,

as it determines the dimensions of the paper used in various devices such
as photocopiers, printers, and scanners. Understanding paper sizes helps
ensure that documents are printed correctly and fit the intended format.
How to Select the Right Paper Size

1. Determine the Purpose of the Document

o Standard Documents: For everyday use, A4 or US Letter is

typically sufficient.

o Large Format Documents: For posters, presentations, or

architectural drawings, A3 or B4 might be more appropriate.

o Booklets or Small Flyers: A5 or A6 are ideal for smaller

publications or marketing materials.

2. Check Printer or Photocopier Specifications

o Ensure that your printer or photocopier supports the paper

size you plan to use. Most devices have adjustable trays and
settings to accommodate different sizes.

3. Consider Layout and Design

o Margins and Layout: Choose a paper size that complements

your document layout. Ensure that your margins and design
elements fit within the paper dimensions.

4. Regional Standards

o Be aware of regional paper size standards. For example, A4 is

the standard in most countries outside North America, while
US Letter is common in the US and Canada.

Photocopy Machine

A photocopy machine is a versatile tool for duplicating documents

quickly and efficiently. Whether you’re using it in an office, school, or
home setting, understanding how to operate a photocopy machine
correctly can save you time and ensure your copies are of high quality.

Correct Paper Size

Selecting the correct paper size is essential for achieving accurate and
professional results in printing and copying. Using the right paper size
helps ensure that your print documents are formatted properly,
preventing issues like cut-off text or misaligned content.
How to Determine the Correct Paper Size

1. Identify the Purpose of the Document

o Standard Documents: For everyday documents such as

letters and reports, use A4 or US Letter.

o Large Format Documents: For posters, banners, or large

charts, A3 or B4 may be more appropriate.

o Booklets and Flyers: Use A5 or A6 for smaller publications

or marketing materials.

2. Check Printer or Photocopier Specifications

o Verify that your printer or photocopier supports the paper size

you need. Refer to the user manual or manufacturer’s website
for details on supported sizes.

3. Adjust Printer or Photocopier Settings

o Paper Size Settings: Ensure the settings on your printer or

photocopier match the paper size loaded in the machine. This
prevents issues such as content being cut off or improperly
scaled.

o Software Settings: Adjust paper size settings in your print

dialog box or document settings to match the physical paper
size.

4. Consider Regional Standards

o Be mindful of regional differences in paper size standards. For

example, A4 is widely used outside North America, while US
Letter is common in the US and Canada.

Knowing how to use a photocopier efficiently can save you time and
ensure your documents are of high quality. By following these simple
steps and tips, you can master the art of the photocopying process,
whether in the office or at home. Remember to maintain your photocopier
regularly and troubleshoot common issues to keep it running smoothly.
With a bit of practice, you’ll be making perfect copies in no time!

FAQs

1. What is a photocopier?

A a photocopier machine is a machine used to make copies of documents

and images quickly and efficiently. It works by scanning the original
document and then printing the scanned image onto paper. Photocopiers
are commonly found in offices, schools, and other settings where copying
documents is frequently required.

2. How do I turn on a photocopier?

To turn on a photocopier, locate the power button, usually found on the

front or side of the photocopy machine step above. Press the button, and
wait for the machine to warm up. Most photocopiers will display a ready
status on their screen once they are fully operational.

3. How do I place a document on the photocopier?

To place a document on the photocopier, lift the lid and place the
document face down on the glass surface (platen). Align it with the guides
or markings on the edges of bond paper and the glass. If you have
multiple pages to copy, use the document feeder on top of the machine.
Make sure the pages are aligned and free of any obstructions like staples
or paper clips.

4. How can I make double-sided copies?

To make double-sided (duplex) copies or scan documents, use the

photocopier’s control panel to select the duplex option. Most modern
photocopiers offer an automatic duplex function that allows you to copy
on both sides of the paper without needing to manually turn the pages.
Simply choose “double-sided” or “duplex” from the settings menu before
starting the copy job.

5. What should I do if the copy machine or the photocopier shows a

paper jam?

If the photocopier displays a paper jam error message, open the

appropriate compartments where the paper is jammed, usually indicated
on the machine’s display screen. Carefully remove any jammed paper,
ensuring you pull it out in the direction it entered to avoid tearing. Follow
any on-screen instructions to clear the jam completely and close all
compartments securely before resuming copying.

The 5 Key Components

A typical photocopier consists of five main components that work together

to take your original and successfully duplicate it:

1. Scanner

The scanner uses bright light to capture images from original documents
placed facedown. Mirrors and lenses reflect light towards a light-sensitive
photoreceptor that detects light and dark areas forming text/images as
electrical signals, digitizing the layout at a pixel level like a digital camera.

Copiers employ CCD technology using hundreds of tiny sensors for

precision high-resolution scanning. Some scanners also deploy CIS
(Contact Image Sensor) technology using long thin LED arrays with tiny
sensor chips below the glass plate.

2. Toner

Toner is the key printing substance, typically black/coloured powder, that

recreates scanned documents onto paper by sticking to electrically
charged photoreceptor drum areas matching the original layout.

Copiers hold toner in replaceable cartridges inside the toner hopper

reservoir and deploy the powder at precise times. Quality toner featuring
evenly sized 5-10 micron polymer particles ensures sharp, high-definition
prints with good readability. Inside the fuser, tiny polymers melt above
350 degrees Fahrenheit to firmly anchor printed output onto paper.

3. Photoreceptor Drum

The rotating photoreceptor drum lies at the heart of photocopying using

electrical charges and lasers to recreate document images with toner. As
it spins rapidly, electromagnets give an overall uniform positive charge
first.

Next, lasers accurately expose and neutralize negative areas on the

organic photoreceptor coating precisely tracing your document's scanned
digital layout. This discharged electrostatic image attracts toner particles
before transferring the completed toner image onto paper.

4. Fuser

Applying high heat and pressure, the fuser unit bonds toner onto paper for
smudge-proof photocopies. Paper acquires a negative charge first to pull
positively charged toner particles off the drum as it passes.

Adhering lightly initially, precision metal rollers with heat lamps inside
heat the toner above 350 degrees Fahrenheit while firmly compressing to
permanently fuse the polymers by melting and anchoring them into the
paper's fibers. Non-stick coatings on rollers prevent hot melty toner from
sticking. Cooling fans stabilise paper temperatures before the next printed
sheet enters.

5. Printer

Digital copiers feature fully integrated printer components to output

physical photocopies from scanned files. Unlike analog copiers that could
only reproduce directly, integrated scanning and printing extend
possibilities - you can save or email files digitally, upload copies online for
others or modify as needed instead of just compulsory printing.

Touchscreen printers offer sophisticated utilities like duplexing, collating,

booklet-making, and paper sorting/finishing alongside standard printing
expected of photocopiers.

Also Read -Five best printers for home and office use with key
specifications

How A Photocopier Machine Works?

The process starts by placing the original paper document on the glass
plate. When the copy button is pressed, a bright light illuminates the
document and reflects off its surface. This reflected light then bounces off
a mirror inside the machine towards a lens.

The lens focuses this light onto a photoreceptor drum which is coated in a
light-sensitive material. Wherever the light hits the drum, it neutralizes
the electrical charge on the drum's surface. This creates an inverted copy
of the document in the form of an electrostatic latent image.

Toner powder is then electrically attracted to the charged parts of the

drum. Next, paper passes below the drum and the toner image transfers
onto it with heat and pressure rollers. Finally, the paper exits the machine
with a printed copy of the original document.

Also Read- What are the Types of Printers and their Uses?

The Most Common Photocopier FAQs

Before we dive into photocopier anatomy, let's answer some of the most
frequently asked questions about these machines:

Q- Which photocopier machine is best?

Ans- The "best" photocopy machine ultimately depends on your specific

business needs regarding printing and copying volume, speed, capability,
security features, etc. Top multifunctional copiers come from reputable
brands like Xerox, Canon, and Kyocera, with a balance of great
performance across core parameters.

Q- What is a photocopy machine called?

Ans- Photocopy machines have several synonymous names like copy
machine, photocopier and the ubiquitous shorthand Xerox machine (after
the leading photocopier manufacturer). The official term is
electrophotographic copier.

Q- How much is a photocopy machine?

Ans- Basic small office black-and-white copiers start from around Rs.
15000, while heavy-duty colour multifunction copiers for large enterprises
can cost upwards of Rs 3 Lakh.

Q- How much does a copier machine cost?

Ans- Copier costs are variable based on print speeds, monthly copy
volumes, paper sizes, colour scanning ability, etc. - from basic Rs. 15000
home models to premium Rs 50,000 office systems. Average good-quality
copiers fall in the Rs 30000 to 40000 range. Recurring toner expenses are
also there.

Operating an office photocopier is straightforward. Turn the machine on,

place your document face down on the glass or in the document feeder.
Select your preferences (color, number of copies, and single or double-
sided) on the touchscreen, then press start. [1, 2, 3]

Modern office devices are typically Multifunction Printers (MFPs) that

combine copying, scanning, printing, and sometimes faxing. To get the
most out of your office equipment: [1]

 Document Feeder: Use the top document feeder for quick copies
of multi-page, single-sided stacks.

 Glass Platen: Use the glass screen for bound documents (like
books) or fragile/damaged paper.

 Duplexing: Set the device to double-sided (duplex) printing to cut

paper usage in half and promote sustainable office practices.

 Finishing Options: Take advantage of automated stapling, hole-

punching, or sorting if your unit has an attached finisher.

 Troubleshooting: Address issues like paper jams or low toner

promptly using the machine's on-screen prompts.