WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Introduction:
In physics, the term work has a specific meaning that differs significantly from its everyday usage. While
we often consider any physical or mental effort as "work" in daily life, physics defines work in terms of
force and displacement. For work to be done on an object, a force must cause a displacement in the
direction of that force.
For example, if a body is initially at rest on a frictionless surface and we wish to displace it from its initial
position, then an external force must be applied on the body. This applied force supplies the necessary
energy for to the body to get displaced. Then we say that work has been done by that force.
F

m m
Rest S
Fig: 1. Applied force displaces the object
Let us understand this concept in more detail.

Work:
In physics, work is said to be done when an external force is applied to a body, causing it to move or
displace from its initial position.
Based on nature of applied force, work done can be determined using two different methods.
1. Work done by a constant force.
2. Work done by a variable force.

Work done by a constant force

Work done by a constant force is defined as the scalar product of force in the direction of displacement
and the magnitude of displacement. 
F
W = Component of force along the displacement  Displacement.
W = ( F cos  ) S
F cos 
m m
W = FS cos
d
In vector form,
  Fig: 2
W = F S
Where, F = Force, S = Displacement
and ′𝜃′ is angle between F and S.

Nature of work done:

1. Positive Work:
Work is positive when 𝜃 is acute (  90 ) , as cos is positive.
W = FS cos

Fig:3
Examples:
• When a book is lifted upward, the applied force and the displacement are in the same direction
( 𝜃=0°), therefore, the work done by applied force is positive.
• When a body freely falls under gravity, the gravitational force acts in the direction of
displacement (𝜃 = 0°), resulting in positive work done by gravity.
• When a spring is stretched, the applied force acts in the same direction as the displacement,
and hence, the work done is positive.

2. Negative Work:
Work is negative when  is obtuse (  90 ) , as cos is negative.
W = −FS cos
  90 negative work

F motion

   90

s

Fig:4
Examples:
• Suppose a body is pushed across a rough surface; in this case, friction acts in direction opposite
to that of the displacement. Therefore, the work done by the force of friction is negative.
• When a body falls freely under gravity, air resistance acts upward – opposite to the direction of
motion. As a result, the work done by air drag is negative.

3. Zero Work:
Work done is zero when force acts perpendicular to displacement i.e.  = 90 or F = 0 or S = 0 .
W =0
 = 90 work done is zero

F motion

s

Fig:5
Examples:
• Book resting on a table - no displacement, therefore, Work is zero.
• Pushing a wall with all strength - no displacement. Hence, work is zero.
• Particle moving in a circular motion, force and displacement are perpendicular to each other.
Hence, work is zero.

Dimensions and Unit of Work:

Dimension: Work = Force  Displacement
W = MLT −2  L 

W = ML2T −2 
Unit: SI unit of work is joule(J)
joule: Work is said to be one joule, when a force of one newton displaces a body by one meter in the
direction of force.

Important points:
• Work is a scalar. Work may be +ve, − ve or zero.
 
• If the force is applied normal to the displacement. i.e. F ⊥ s then  = 90, W = 0 .
Ex: A weight lifter holds a 50 kg mass for 30 s -No work is done by gravitational force.
• When there is no force, then no work is done. i.e. F = 0 then W = 0.
Ex: If a body moves on a smooth horizontal surface -Work done by frictional force is zero.
Examples of Constant force:
1. Gravitational force near the earth’s surface.
2. Tension in a massless rope (ideal rope).
3. Frictional Force.

Work done by a variable Force:

Constant forces are very rare in real-world situations. In nature, we mostly encounter variable forces,
whose magnitude and direction continuously changes over time.
Consider a variable force acting in one dimension that displaces a body from an initial position x i to
final position x f (refer to Fig:6). To calculate work done by this force, the path from x i to x f is divided
into infinitesimally small elements, x , within which force can be considered approximately constant.
Work done in small displacement from x to x + x will be,
W = F ( x ) .x
Area = A = F ( x ) x
F (x)

O xi xf x
Fig: 6
Now, the total work done can be determined by summing the work done over all the successive small
intervals from x i to x f
i.e. W = F1 ( x ) .x1 + F2 ( x ) .x2 + F3 ( x ) .x3 +   
xf
W =  F ( x ) x
xi

If the displacements are allowed to approach zero i.e. x → 0 , then the number of terms in the
summation increases significantly, making the calculation more complex.
In such cases, method of integration can be used, i.e. by replacing the summation with an integral, with
limits ranging from x i to x f
xf xf
W =  F ( x ) x =  F ( x ) dx
xi xi
Energy:
Energy is capacity of the body to do work.
Energy exists in various forms and it can be converted from one form to another.
Most common forms of energy in mechanics are,
(i) Kinetic energy
(ii) Potential energy

Kinetic energy:
It is the energy possessed by the moving body. Kinetic energy is expressed as,
1
K = mv 2
2
Where, m-mass, v-velocity of the particle
• Kinetic Energy is always positive.
• Kinetic energy depends on the frame of reference as speed depends on frame of reference.
• Relation between kinetic energy and linear momentum
We have, p = mv
1 2
Squaring, p = m v = 2m  mv  = 2mK
2 2 2

2 
i.e., p = 2mK

Relationship between work and Kinetic energy: Work-Energy theorem

Work done by all the forces (Conservative, non-conservative, external or internal) on the body is equals
to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
i.e. Work done by all the forces = Change in Kinetic energy
1 1
𝑊 = 𝛥𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2
2 2

Proof: Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ moving with an initial velocity ‘u’. When a constant force F is
applied on the body, the velocity of the body changes to final velocity ‘v’ and it covers a displacement
S.
1 u
Initial Kinetic energy = mu  F v
2 m m
1
Final Kinetic energy = mv  S
2
Fig: 9
W.K.T For constant acceleration
v2 –u2 = 2 aS
Multiply by m and divide by 2 on both the side
1 1
mv 2 − mu 2 = ma.S
2 2
Kf − Ki = F.S
Kf − Ki = W  W = F .S 

K = W
“Change in KE is equal to work done by all the forces”
Proof of Work-Energy theorem for variable force:
Let us consider a body moving with a velocity v under the influence of variable force.
1
The KE of the body is, K = mv 2
2
Now, differentiating the above equation with respect to time t,
dK d  1 
=  mv 2 
dt dt  2 
m dv
= .2v .
2 dt
dv
= mv .
dt
dv
= m .v
dt
 dv 
= F.v  F = m dt 
 
dx  dx 
=F v =
dt  dt 
dK = [Link]
Integrating the above equation on both the side with appropriate limits,
kf xf

 dK =  [Link]
ki xi
xf
K kkfi =  [Link]
xi

 xf 
Kf − Ki = W  W =
  [Link], for variable force
 xi 
K = W

Conservative and Non-Conservative force:

Conservative Force:
• A force is said to be conservative if the work done by the force depends only on the initial and
final positions and not on the path taken.
• Work done by the conservative force in a closed path is zero i.e., W = 0.
• It is path independent.

Examples:
1. Gravitational force.
2. Spring force.
3. Electrostatic force.

Non-Conservative Force:
• A force is said to be non-conservative if the work done by the force depends on the path.
• Work done by the non-conservative force in a closed path is not zero i.e., W  0 .
• It is path dependent.
Examples:
1. Frictional force.
2. Air drag force.
3. Viscous force.

Potential Energy:
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its position or configuration in a
conservative force field.
• Potential energy is a stored energy.

Gravitational Potential energy:

Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ which is resting on the ground, which is then raised to height ‘h’.
Now, work done by the gravitational force in moving the body from ground to heigh ‘h’ is,
 
W = Fg  s
m
= Fg h cos 
= mgh ( −1)  Fg = mg  g
W = −mgh h
W.K.T., U = −WC
Uf − Ui = − ( −mgh )
Uf − 0 = mgh  Uf = 0
U = mgh

Potential energy of a spring:

Let us consider a spring with one end fixed while another end is free to move.
• In this case, if no external force is applied on the spring, Unstretched
then there will be no elongation, and consequently, no spring PE = 0 Elastic
spring/restoring force will act on it. Potential
Energy
• When a force is applied to a spring, then there will be 1
PE = kx 2
elongation, and a restoring force is generated in the direction 2

opposite to that of the applied force.

This was explained by the scientist Robert Hooke. x

Hook’s Law: The elongation produced in an ideal spring is

Directly proportional to spring force.
i.e., F x
F = −kx
Where, F = restoring force, k = spring constant, and negative sign indicates that the restoring
force acts in a direction opposite to the elongation.
Expression for Potential energy of a spring:
Spring force is a variable force. Therefore, work done by a spring force in stretching a spring by length
x is,
x x
W =  F .dx =  ( −kx ) .dx
0 0
x
 x 2
=  −k  
 2  0
1
W = − kx 2
2
Now, W.K.T U = −W
 1 
Uf − Ui = −  − kx 2 
 2 
1 2
Uf − 0 = kx
2
1 2
U = kx
2

Work done by spring force

A kx B F

x1 x2

Consider a case, wherein a block is moved form position A to position B under the action of spring force.
Here, k is spring constant, x1 is extension at point A and x 2 is extension at point B.
Work done by spring during an elementary displacement dx is given by
dW = kx  dx cos180 = −kx dx
x
 1  2 1
( )
x
W = 2
−kx  dx =  − kx 2  = − k x22 − x12 .
x
1  2  x1 2

Also, it can be computed from Force-Displacement graph.

Fs
Fs = −kx

A B
x
O
D

C
Work done by spring force = Area ABCD
W = Area OBC – Area OAD
 1   1  1
 2   2  2
( )
W =  − kx2  x2  −  − kx1  x1  = − k x22 − x12 .
Total energy v/s Displacement graph:

In spring-block system the kinetic energy gets converted to

potential energy and vice-versa, however, the total
mechanical energy remains constant. Hence, total sum of
KE and PE is constant
Parabolic plot of PE, and KE of a block attached to a spring.
The two plots are complementary, one decreasing as the
other increasing. But total mechanical energy E = K + V
remains constant.

Conservation of Mechanical energy:

Total mechanical energy of the system is conserved, if the forces doing work on the system is
conservative.
Or Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to
another.
Total energy, TE = PE + KE = conserved
Proof for conservation of mechanical energy:
Let us consider a body of mass ‘m’ dropped from rest at point A, located at hight ‘h’ above the ground.
At point A:
PE = mgh; K=0 m A

Therefore, TE = PE + KE = mgh + 0 = mgh

At point C: h m B
1
PE = 0; KE = mv 2
2 m C
v = 2gh so KE = mgh
TE = PE + KE = 0 + mgh = mgh Ground

At point B: Intermediate point between A and C

1
PE = mgx; KE = mv 2
2
Where, v = 2 g (h − x) so KE = mg(h – x)
TE = PE + KE = mgx + mg(h – x) = mgh
During the motion of the ball at any position total energy remains same. From this example we can
conclude that total mechanical energy of the system is conserved.

Power:
• Power is rate at which work is done.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊
Power = ; P=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
• Average Power: It is the ratio of total work done to the total time taken.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 ∆𝑊 𝑊2 −𝑊1
Average power = ; Pav = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 ∆𝑡 𝑡2 −𝑡1

• Instantaneous Power: Work done at a particular instant of time.

𝑑𝑊
Instantaneous power, Pinst =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐹⃗∙𝑆⃗) 𝑑𝑆 ⃗
Since, W= 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑆⃗, Pinst = = 𝐹⃗ . = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑣⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Where, v is instantaneous velocity of the particle.
• Power is a scalar quantity.
• SI unit of power is J/s or watt (W).
• Dimensions of power = [ML2T-2].
• 1 horsepower (hp) = 746W.
• 1 watthour (Wh) =3600J.
• 1 kilowatt hour (KWh) =3.6 × 106J = 1 Unit.

Collisions:
In Physics, collision is one body affecting velocity of another body.
There are two types of collisions.
(i) Elastic Collision.
(ii) Inelastic Collision.
In any kind of Collision,
1. Linear momentum is Conserved.
i.e., Initial momentum = Final momentum
2. Total energy is always conserved.
(i) Elastic Collision in one dimension:
In elastic collision,
1. Linear momentum is conserved.
i.e., Initial momentum = Final momentum
2. Kinetic energy is conserved.
i.e., Initial Kinetic energy = Final Kinetic energy
 K i = Kf
If these two conditions are satisfied then such type of collision is called perfectly elastic
collision.

Let us consider two bodies with masses m1 and m2, moving with initial velocities u1 and u2,
respectively. After a collision, they move with final velocity v1 and v2.
u1  u2
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2  m1 m2

Before collision After collision

Since, we know that

i. Linear momentum is conserved
i.e., pi = pf
 m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
 m1 ( u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v 2 − u2 ) … (i)
ii. Kinetic energy is also conserved
Ki = Kf
1 1 1 1
∴ m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v 22
2 2 2 2
 m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v 22

( ) (
m1 u12 − v12 = m2 v 22 − u 22 ) … (ii)

Dividing equation (ii) by (i),

m1 ( u1 + v 2 )(u1 − v1 ) m2 (v 2 + u2 )(v 2 − u2 )
=
m1 ( u1 − v1 ) m2 (v 2 − u2 )
u1 + v1 = v 2 + u2 … (iii)

From equation (iii),

(u1 − u2 ) = (v 2 − v1 )

 Relative velocity   Relative velocity 

 = 
 before collision   after collision 
In perfectly ideal elastic collision,
Velocity of approach = Velocity of separation.
Now, From equation (i)
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v 2
For perfectly elastic collision,
We can use, from equation (iii)
v 2 = u1 − u2 + v1 … (iv)
Substituting equation (iv) in (i)
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2u1 − m2u2 + m2v1
m1u1 − m2u1 + m2u2 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v1
( m1 − m2 ) u1 + 2m2u2 = ( m1 + m2 ) v1
(m1 − m2 ) 2m2
v1 = u1 + u2 … (v)
(m1 + m2 ) (m1 + m2 )
Similarly substituting v1 = v 2 − u1 + u2 in equation (iv)
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v 2 − m1u1 + m1u2 + m2v 2
m1u1 + m1u1 + m2u2 − m1u2 = m1v 2 + m2v 2
2m1u1 + ( m2 − m1 ) u2 = ( m1 + m2 ) v 2

( m2 − m1 ) 2m1
v2 = u + u
( m1 + m2 ) 2 ( m1 + m2 ) 1

Special cases:
1. If the target body ( m2 ) is initially at rest, i.e., u2 = 0 , then

( m1 − m2 )
v1 = u
( m1 + m2 ) 1
2m1u1
v2 =
m1 + m2

2. And If two bodies are of equal masses.

i.e., m1 = m2 then,
v1 = 0 & v 2 = u1
 m1 suddenly stops → m2 takes off with the initial velocity of m1
3. If 𝑚2 >> 𝑚1 then,
v1 = −u1 , v 2  0

The heavier body is undisturbed and the lighter mass reverses its velocity.

Coefficient of Restitution (e):

u1  u2
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2  m1 m2

Approach Separation

Coefficient of restitution is defined as,

Velocity of separation Relative velocity after collision
e= =
velocity of approach Relative velocity before collision
v 2 − v1
e=
u1 − u2
(i) For Elastic collision: e = 1
(ii) For Inelastic collision: e  1
(iii) For Perfectly Inelastic collision: e = 0

Elastic Collision in two dimensions:

u1  u2
1
2

u u2 m1 1
m1 1 m2 
m2
2
1
2
m2
u1 & u2 → Initial velocity
v1 & v 2 → Final velocity
Momentum is conserved
 According to law of conservation of momentum
• x - component:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v 1 cos 1 + m2v 2 cos 2 … (i)
• y - component:
Pi = 0
 0 + 0 = m1v1 sin1 − m2v2 sin2 … (ii)
❖ K.E. is conserved:
 K i = Kf
1 1 1 1
m2u22 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v 22 … (iii)
2 2 2 2
 • In order of study the outcome of 2D collision, we need four parameters→ v1, v 2 , 1 &  2
• We have only three independent equations
So, if one of these parameters is given in problems then the outcome can be calculated.

(ii) Inelastic Collision:

In perfectly inelastic collision,
After collision both bodies stick together & move.
• Momentum remains conserved (system)
• K.E. is not conserved
 Ki  Kf (system)
i.e, some K.E is lost during collision
Let us consider:
u1  u2
u1 u2
m1 m2  m1 m2 v combined

Before collision Deformation → & After collision

Momentum is conserved
Pi = Pf (system)
K.E. is lost in deformation
 K i  Kf

Expression for Final velocity:

Let’s consider ' a ' bullet of mass ' m ' moving with velocity ' u ' collides with target of mass
' M ' which is at rest.
Target
u
VC
M 
m
Zest (T + B )
W.K.T, According to conservation of momentum,
Pi = Pf
m1u + m2 0 = ( m1 + m2 ) v com
m1u
v com = ...(i)
( m1 + m2 )
Expression for loss of Kinetic energy:
Similar to before.
u1 u2
m1 m2  m1 m2 v combined

Rest
Before collision After collision
1
K.E. before collision: K i = m1u 2
2
1
K.E. after collision: Kf = ( m1 + m2 ) v c2
2
Now, K = Ki − Kf
 1 1
K k = m1u 2 − ( m1 + m2 ) v c2
2 2
Substitute equation (i) in above equation
2
1 1  m1u 
K = m1u 2 − ( m1 + m2 )  
2 2  m1 + m2 
1 1 m12u 2
= m1u 2 −
2 2 ( m1 + m2 )
1  m12u 2 + m1m2u 2 − m12u 2 
=  
2  ( m1 + m2 ) 
1 m1m2u 2
=
2 ( m1 + m2 )
1  m1m2  2
K  0  K =  u
2  m1 + m2 