Chapter 5:
CAD Modeling Techniques
CAD TCIOE
1
5.1 Features based Modeling
SESSION 1
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Features
Features can be viewed as information sets that refer to aspects
of form or other attributes of a part, in such a way that these sets
can be used in reasoning about design, performance and
manufacture of the part or the assemblies they constitute.
Pockets, keyways, and so on, soon came to be called features.
A feature is not just a bunch
of lines and curves. It is a
shape that carries extra
information - like its size,
depth, material, and how we
should make it.
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Features
Feature has become an integral part of parametric modeling. It is
a generic shape with which engineers associate certain
properties or attributes and knowledge useful in reasoning about
a product.
Geometry is defined in terms of real world “features” as
opposed to abstract geometric entities.
For example:
➢ work with holes as opposed to cylinders
➢ cuts and extrusions rather than blocks and wedges.
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Feature-based design
Feature-based design dates at least to the early 1980s or late 1970s. It
was originally an attempt to organize and simplify computer
numerical control (CNC) programming of machine tools. Feature-
based modeling has become the preferred method of constructing
solid models.
Design ✕
Blind Thread ✕
Function :
Positioning ▾ Feature
Crankcase Crankcase ✕
M10 ▾
Diameter :
Crankshaft Cylinder Hole
20 ▾
Cooling Hole Fix
Depth : Crankcase Hole Through
M Hole Blind Blind
Cylinder Head Thread Hole
Depth
Blind Thread
Blind Thread ✕
Standard Features
Standard Features
User-defined Feature
The location of the blind threaded hole maps to the function ‘Positioning’. The diameter
and depth map to the function ‘Fastening and Mechanical Strength’.
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Feature-based modeling
Feature-based modeling is an attempt to make modeling a more
efficient process more in tune with how designers and engineers
actually work.
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Feature-based modeling
Advantages
Disadvantages
• very intuitive and easy to use
• restrictive when dealing with
• can simplify other aspects of CIM nonstandard features
(eg. If a standard feature is used • interaction of features can be
there will be a standard process hard to estimate
plan to make that feature).
• a complete set of all possible
• emphasizes the use of standard features would be very large.
components
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Interactive feature definition
Firstly, a geometric model is
Interactive
created or loaded and inserted Geometric Geometric Feature
modeller model Graphic Model
to a generic geometric System
modelling interface.
Feature
The second step involves Recognition
System
the interaction of the
designer.
The user picks entities Feature Library
according to the features that user
are needed to be specified.
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Feature model
A feature model is a data structure that represents a part or an
assembly in terms of its constituent features.
Feature models are created by organizing the constituent
features in a suitable structure that express the required
relationships between the various features.
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Summary on Feature based
modelling
"Feature-based" means SKETCH
SKETCH NO SKETCH
building the model OPTIONAL
incrementally by identifying REQUIRED
(Uses profiles or
(Applied directly to
functional shapes and applying (Create profile first) edges/faces)
processes to create them. paths)
Features are the building Extrude Loft Fillet
blocks of the parts-from simple Revolve Sweep Chamfer
holes to complex organic
surfaces. Rib Blend Draft
Advantage: You modify the Hole Wizard Shell
model by changing feature
parameters (dimensions), not Wrap Flex
by redrawing geometry. (Base & Boss (Transitional & (Finishing &
features) Complex shapes) Aesthetic features)
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Design Tree
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Geometric features
Geometric features are closely related to the geometry of a
model and can be differentiated into
1. Form features : portions of nominal geometry defining a
feature’s shape.
2. Tolerance features : deviation from nominal definition of
shapes, size or location.
3. Assembly features : grouping of various features to define
assembly relations such as mating conditions, position and
orientation, kinematic relations etc.
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Example Form Feature
Example – The Coffee Mug:
1. The cylindrical body of the mug.
2. The flat circular bottom.
3. The curved handle attached to the side.
4. The hollow pocket inside where you pour the coffee.
In engineering terms, these are Extrusions, Revolves, Holes,
Pockets, and Fillets. Form features answer the question: 'What
does it look like?'"
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Example Tolerance Feature
1. Imagine you are a quality inspector. You need to check if the
mug's handle is exactly 10cm above the bottom.
2. What do you measure from? You place the mug upside down on
a flat table.
3. The flat bottom rim of the mug is your Tolerance Feature
(specifically, a Datum Surface).
4. You measure the 10cm height starting from this flat bottom.
The deviation (e.g., ±0.5mm) is the tolerance value- it is an
attribute, not a feature itself.
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Example Assembly Feature
The Coffee Mug and its Lid:
1. Imagine you have a travel mug with a screw-on lid.
2. Mating Condition: The lid has a external thread, and the mug has
a internal thread. These two features mate together.
3. Position & Orientation: The lid must be centered exactly over the
mug opening (coaxial). The lid must sit flush against the top rim
(coincident).
4. Kinematic Relation: When you twist the lid, it moves down
linearly relative to the mug. That is a kinematic relationship
(helical motion).
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Non-geometric Features
If you give a machinist a 3D model of a perfect cylinder, they will ask
you three questions:
1. What is this cylinder for? (Is it a shaft, a pin, or a handle?)
2. What material should I make it from? (Steel, plastic, or aluminum?)
3. How smooth does it need to be? (Do I polish it, or leave it rough?)
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Non-geometric features
Non-geometric features are generally related to technological
information such as;
1. Functional features : set of features related to a specific
functions like design intent, parameters related to function
and performance, etc.
2. Material features : material composition, treatment, surface
finish, etc.
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Feature-based design
The two principal techniques for the semi-automated capture
of past (and the creation of new) designs:
Generative (procedural) methods
Variant design methods
Example; Custom Spur Gear:
Instead of drawing the teeth manually, we build a generative model. Variant design methods;
we input only 3 numbers into the software: Number of teeth (e.g., 20); Example – A Standard Bolt:
Module (tooth size); Pressure angle. Already have a catalogue of standard
The software then automatically: Calculates the pitch diameter; Calculates components.
the tooth profile mathematically; Extrudes the base; Cuts all the teeth
using a circular pattern and Adds the central hole and keyway.
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Generative Methodology
This method adopts a procedural
technique to create a parametric model
for a given design.
The Generative Model is essentially a
sequential list of events, or
instructions, that represent the
design’s construction process.
Real numbers, representing geometry,
are replaced with variables, by
editing this data structure.
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Variant Methodology
Although similar in operation, the Variant
approach to storing solid geometric models
differs primarily in the construction of its
models.
Whereas the generative approach involves the
often-tedious operation of editing a complex
data structure to enable parameterization, the
Variant Method makes use of Parametric and
Variant Modelling techniques and Feature
Based Design, in particular User Designed
Features to interactively draft a geometric
model.
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L-bracket with a through
pocket feature
Synthesis Destructive modeling
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History tree of feature based
modeling
Final Part
Part3 Shell
Part2 Hole
Part1 Fillets
Base Slot
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An example of feature-based
solid modelling
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Assembly Modeling
An assembly design consists of two
or more components assembled
together at their respective work
positions using parametric relations.
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Assembly Modeling
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Assembly Modeling
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Assembly Modeling
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Assembly Modeling
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Assembly Modeling
Types of Assembly Design Approaches:
1. Bottom-up Assembly Design Approach
2. Top-down Assembly Design Approach
3. Combinational approach
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Bottom-up Assembly Approach
• The traditional and the most widely preferred approach of
assembly design.
• First part is known as base and fixed
• In this assembly design approach, all components are created as a
separate part documents, and then they are placed and referenced in
the assembly as external components.
•In this type of approach, the components are created in the Part
mode and saved.
•After creating and saving all components of the assembly, you
need to start a new assembly document and insert the components
in it using the tools provided in the Assembly mode. After inserting
the components, you can assemble them using the assembly mates
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Top-down Assembly Design Approach
•In the top-down assembly design approach, the components are
created in the same assembly document, but saved as separate
part files.
•Therefore, the top-down assembly design approach is entirely
different from the bottom-up design approach.
•In this approach, you will start your work in the assembly
document and the geometry of one part will help in defining the
geometry of the other.
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Types of Constraints
Ground Constraint enables to constrain
Ground constraints a special point.
Dimensional constraints control the size
Dimensional constraints
and proportions of a design.
Geometric constraints Geometric constraints are used to determine the
relationships between 2D geometric objects or
points on objects relative to each other.
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Ground constraints
Ground constraints are added to your sketch to define which of
the pair of lines involved is the movable line.
The Ground Constraint enables to constrain a special
point (an endpoint or center point) in a 2D profile or a
3D profile so that it remains fixed relative to the
Reference System.
Ground constraints
• Vertical
• Horizontal
• Angular
• X,Y
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Dimensional Constraints
Dimensional constraints specify the length, radius, or rotation
angle of the geometric elements in your sketch. Geometric
constraints force the profile to conform to a specific shape.
Dimensional constraints, on the other hand, add the
parametric characteristic to the profile. You can change a
dimension at any time and its new value will be
immediately reflected in the design.
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Geometric Constraints
Geometric constraints control the shape of the profile.
Geometric constraints are used to define the shape of your 2-D
geometry and determine the relationships between 2-D
geometric objects or points on objects relative to each other.
Geometric constraints • Parallel
• Project • Perpendicular
• Join • Collinear
• Xvalue • Coincident
• Yvalue • Tangent
• Radius • Horizontal
• Vertical
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Geometric Constraints
Topological constraint
A topological constraint
defines the topology of a
primitive solid itself by
specifying the connection
between the geometric
elements.
For example, a prism is composed of 8 vertices,
12 edges, and 6 faces, and is defined by the
binary relations between components, such as
all the vertices being shared by 3 edges.
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Geometric Constraints
Structural constraint
A structural constraint gives the primitive solid the
character of a particular feature.
Groove, square hole, and step features have the same
topological structure of “4-sided prism” but are distinguished
by their relations to the base object.
For example, if the prism has top and bottom faces that are
common to the base object, then it is called a square hole. If
the top and bottom faces and one of the side faces are
common to the base object, it is called a groove.
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Geometric Constraints
Dimensional constraint
Dimensional constraints define the size and location of a
feature. There are two constraints:
• the distance between geometric elements.
• angle between geometric elements.
These correspond to dimensions in drawings. Dimensional
constraints can be applied not only between the elements
inside a primitive, but also between the elements in different
primitives.
For example, the depth of a step feature is a dimensional constraint inside a primitive, but
if we focus on the object after the step has been removed, the height of the remaining part
is important.
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Parametric solid
Parametric is a term used to
describe a dimensionʼs ability
to change the shape of model
geometry if the dimension
value is modified.
Parametric solid can be defined
as a solid whose actual shape is
a function of a given set of
parameters and constriants
upon them.
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Parametric Modeling
Parametric solid modeling is a key technology to define and
manipulate solid models through high-level parametrized steps.
These steps can be modified by users and instantiated to
specific parameter values and constraint configurations.
A parametric solid model is an information structure that
permits deriving specific solid models, in the sense of
Requicha and Voelcker, using deterministic algorithm (Feature
tree).
H.B. Voelcker, A.A.G. Requicha, Geometric Modeling of Mechanical Parts and
Processes, Computers, Vol.10 (12), (1977) pp.48-57.
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Design intent
In parametric modeling, dimensions control the model. Design
intent is how your model will react when dimension values are
changed.
Design intent is a method used in CAD that defines
relationships between objects, so that a change to one
propagates automatically to others.
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Design intent
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Design Intent Enforcing
Tool What it does Example
Links numbers with
1. Dimensional Equations 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒_𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ/2
formulas.
Defines logical Making two
2. Geometric Constraints relationships (Parallel, holes Symmetric about the
Symmetric). centerline.
Parent features must come Sketching the hole after the
3. Feature History Order
before child features. base block is created.
Design Intent is giving your CAD model a brain. It ensures the part behaves predictably
(not breaking), remains manufacturable, and clearly communicates the designer's logic to
anyone who opens the file later.
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Other Features:
• Extrusion
• Revolutions
• Sweeping
• Lofting
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Other Features:
• Extrusion
• Revolutions
• Sweeping
• Lofting
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Sweep
Representation
The basic notion embodied in sweeping schemes is simple.
A set moving through space may trace or sweep out volume
(a solid) that may be represented by the moving set and its
trajectory.
Sweeping is used to create
objects for B-rep and CSG
representations. Thus it
becomes an input option in
many types of
representations.
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Sweep
Representation
The simplest form of sweep is that produced by sweeping a two-
dimensional area along an axis perpendicular to its plane. This
form of sweep is most useful in representing objects which are
extruded with constant cross section or for objects which are
machined to a given profile.
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Applications
The modeling of sweeping by moving solids can be
important in many application areas. The examples of these
applications are;
➢NC machining verification (Virtual Dry-Run)
➢Mold design with set-theoretic operations on swept solids
➢Motion planning of manipulators in robotics to avoid
collisions with objects of the environment
➢Blending a solid with a desired surface by rolling a ball
(Fillet/smooth junction)
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Sweep Representation
Solids that have a uniform thickness in a particular direction
and axisymmetric solids can be created by what is called :
Transitional (Extrusion) Sweeping Rotational (Revolution) Sweeping
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Definition
Two types of sweeping are usually distinguished. They are
sweeping by a planar contour or “2D solid” (called also
extrusion) and sweeping by a moving solid.
Sweeping can be generally defined as follows:
Where,
𝐺(𝑡) : moving solid or a generator.
𝑡: parameter in the interval [𝑡1, 𝑡2]
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Sweeping
Profile: Sweeping only
supports a single profile
sketch. It must be a closed,
non-self-intersecting boundary.
However, the sketch can
contain multiple contours-
either nested or disjoint.
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Sweeping
Guide curves: Sweeps can
contain multiple guide curves
which are used to shape the
solid. As the profile is swept,
the guide curves control its
shape. One way to think of
guide curves is to visualize
them driving a parameter such
as radius.
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Sweeping
Sweep Path: The helps determine
the length of sweep by its
endpoints. This means that if the
path is shorter than the guides,
the sweep will terminate at the
end of the path.
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Requirements
➢The sweep profile may consist of multiple segments but
must be continuous (no gaps).
➢The sweep profile must form a closed loop in order to
create solid geometry.
➢The sweep profile must exist within a single plane.
➢The sweep path must continuous.
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Concerns
Concerns care must be used in
defining sweep geometry such
that it does not self-intersect.
If the sweep path includes arcs
or splines of a small radius as
compared to the profile being
sweep, self- intersection may
occur.
In general keep sweep
profiles as simple as
possible.
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Sweeping
The sweeps can be compared to
the extrude option; whereas the
extrude option creates a feature
by protruding a section along a
straight trajectory; the sweep
option creates a section along
user- defined trajectory.
This trajectory can be either user
sketched or selected on the work
screen.
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Translational sweeps
(Extrusions)
Volume defined by sweeping specified parent geometry
through a direction vector.
Some software permit scaling of the cross-sectional parent
geometry may be applied during the sweep to produce a
tapering of the object (draft)
p1 p2
P(u)
p0 P3
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Rotational sweeps (Solids of
Revolution)
Volume defined by the rotational sweep of specified parent
geometry through a defined angle about a defined axis.
Axis of rotation
p1 p2
P(u)
p0 p3
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Rotational sweeps
Rotational sweeps are defined by
rotating an area/surface about the
rotational axis.
If we use rotation axis
perpendicular to the plane of spline
cross-section, two-dimensional
shapes are generated.
if we rotate the cross-section about
the axis containing the cross-
section, three- dimensional shapes
such as torus can be generated.
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General Sweeps
Volume defined by
sweeping parent
geometry of a section
profile (closed) through a
path defined by a curve of
arbitrary shape.
A solid is defined in this
scheme in terms of volumes
swept out by two-
dimensional or three-
dimensional as they move
along a curve.
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Helical Sweeps
As its name implies, the
Helical sweep option is
useful for creating parts that
consists of helical features.
Two features often created
with the helical sweep
options are spring and
threads.
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Types of sweeping
Closed profile Path
Linear Linear or circular vector
Nonlinear Higher order curves
Hybrid Boolean sweep
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Linear sweep
In linear sweep, the path is a
linear or circular vector described
by a linear, most often
parametric.
Linear sweep can be divided into
translational and rotational sweep.
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Linear sweep
In translational sweep, a
planar two-dimensional
point set described by its
boundary (or contour) can
be moved a given
distance in space in a
perpendicular direction (called
the directrix) to the plane of the
set.
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Non-linear sweep
In non-linear sweep, the path is a
curve described by a higher-order
equation (quadratic, cubic or
higher) .
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Hybrid Sweep
The objects with hybrid sweeps
possess motions along the two
coordinate axes; followed by
gluing at the contact surface.
It combines linear and/or non-linear
sweep via set operations. In this case,
two point sets are swept in two
different directions and the two
resulting swept volumes are glued
together to form the final object.
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Hybrid Sweep
Hybrid sweeps, wherein, one rectangular surface moves
along the x- axis and other rectangular surface, having a
circular hole, along the y- axis.
Thus, the two boundaries are swept
in different directions and the two
volumes are glued together to form
the object.
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Sweeping vs. Lofting
Most solid geometry is created via sweeping and lofting
operations. Sweeps and lofts are intuitive processes by which
to construct objects.
There are also some general differences between sweeping
and lofting that will influence which method to use.
In essence:
• Sweeping uses a single profile sketch
• Lofting uses multiple profile sketch
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Lofting
Lofting is a feature used to create a
smooth transition between two or more
different cross-sectional profiles
(sketches) placed at different positions
in space.
Key Requirements:
1. At least 2 profiles (minimum).
2. Shape: The cross-section changes
(morphs) along the length (e.g.,
square to circle).
3. Path: No path is required. The
software connects the profiles
automatically.
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Lofting
Orientation of profiles may be
limited
–may restrict profiles to parallel
planes
Number of curve segments per
profile may be limited
–may require the number of curve
segments per profile to be the same
The limitation of Lofting is that the basic lofters require profiles on
parallel planes, or you risk twisting.
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Blended features
The blend option can also be compared
to the extrude option. Primarily, the
blend option creates a feature by
protruding along a straight trajectory
between two or more user-defined
sections. A partially revolved blend can
be created also.
Three types of blends are available:
➢Parallel
➢Rotational
➢General 172
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Swept blend
A swept blend is a combination of a
sweep and a blend. A swept feature
is a section protruded along a
defined trajectory.
This trajectory can be either
sketched or selected.
A parallel blended feature is a feature
protruded along a straight trajectory
between two or more user-defined
sections.
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