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Lecture 9
Individual Behaviour

Concept –

Behaviour is what a person does. The observable and measurable activity of human
beings is known as overt behaviour and non-observable or measurable activity of human beingsis
known as covert behaviour.

Process of Behaviour

The process of behaviour is explained through the under mentioned models

S-R Model

The S-R model of human behaviour suggests that the behviour is caused by certain
reasons. The reasons may be internal feelings (motivation) and external environment (stimulus).
A stimulus is an agent, such as heat, light, information, etc. that directly influences the activity
ofthe organism (person). The entire process has been traditionally described as ‘Stimulus-
Response’ (S-R) process.

S-R Model: Stimulus-Response process

Input Output

S-O-R Model

The S-O-R model is based upon the proposition that the stimulus processed by the
organism (O) and followed by a behaviour (Response ‘R’.) This ‘O’ is viewed as mediating,
maintenance, and adjustive function between S and R. As mediating function, the ‘O’ is
constantly active, scanning its surroundings, monitoring its own actions, seeking certain
conditions and avoiding others. As a maintenance function, organs of ‘O’ are responsible for its
health and growth. The adjustment function of the ‘O’ monitors the person’s activities so that he
can overcome obstacles and satisfy his needs.

S-O-R Model: Stimulus-Organism-Response process

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 S-O-B-C Model: Situation-Organism-Behaviour-Consequences process

The S-O-B-C model incorporates more complex mechanism of human behaviour. In this model,
‘S’ stands for situations which is more comprehensive than stimuli of S-O-R model and
incorporates all aspects of the environment – immediate stimulus, physical environment, and
socio-cultural environment. ‘O’ is the organism but does not represent physiological being as in
the S-O-R model but also the psychological being which is more complex. ‘B’ stands for pattern
of behaviour.

Lecture 10

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Nature of Individual Differences

1. Importance to Intrinsic Reward to the Job

2. Compensation Plan

3. Style of Supervision

4. Schedule of Work Hours

5. Tolerance to Stress and Ambiguity

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 Factors Causing Individual Differences

The factor causing individual differences can be categorized in two broad categories. They are -

INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES SITUATIONAL VARIABLES

1. Physiological Variables 1. Organizational Variables

(a) Intelligence (a) Organization Structure

(b) Physical Ability (b) Organizational Process

(c) Age (c) Organizational Culture

(d) Gender

(e) Race

2. Socio-psychological Variables 2. Job Variables

(a) Personality (a) Nature of Job

(b) Perception (b) Work Environment

(c) Learning

(d) Attitude and Values

(e) Emotional Intelligence

(f) Motivation

The factors causing individual differences in behavior, as categorized into Individual Variables and
Situational Variables, are essential for understanding variations in how individuals respond in
organizational settings. Below is a detailed explanation of these categories:

1. Individual Variables
These are intrinsic to the individual and arise from their physiological and socio-psychological
characteristics.

1.1 Physiological Variables

(a) Intelligence:
Individuals differ in their intellectual capabilities, which affect their decision-making, problem-
solving skills, and adaptability.
(b) Physical Ability:
Variations in strength, endurance, and motor skills influence the suitability of individuals for
specific roles.
(c) Age:
Age impacts experience, maturity, and physical stamina. Younger individuals may adapt quickly
to change, while older individuals bring wisdom and stability.

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 (d) Gender:
Gender differences may influence communication styles, leadership approaches, and
interpersonal dynamics.
(e) Race:
Cultural and ethnic backgrounds influence values, beliefs, and social behaviors.
1.2 Socio-Psychological Variables
(a) Personality:
Traits like introversion, extroversion, openness, and conscientiousness shape individual
responses to situations.
(b) Perception:
People interpret the same event differently based on their unique experiences and cognitive
frameworks.
(c) Learning:
Individuals’ ability to acquire knowledge and apply it influences their behavior and growth in the
workplace.
(d) Attitude and Values:
Positive attitudes toward work and alignment with organizational values lead to constructive
behavior.
(e) Emotional Intelligence:
The ability to manage one’s emotions and empathize with others affects interpersonal
relationships.
(f) Motivation:
Internal and external drives that influence an individual's actions, like career aspirations or
recognition, vary widely among individuals.

2. Situational Variables
These factors stem from external conditions related to the organization and the job.

2.1 Organizational Variables

(a) Organization Structure:
The hierarchy, communication channels, and decision-making processes influence how
individuals behave and interact.
(b) Organizational Process:
Systems such as performance evaluations, promotions, and conflict resolution impact individual
motivation and engagement.
(c) Organizational Culture:
Shared norms, values, and practices within the organization create an environment that shapes
individual behavior.

2.2 Job Variables

(a) Nature of Job:
The type of tasks, whether routine or creative, influences individual motivation and performance.
(b) Work Environment:
Physical conditions like lighting, noise, and ergonomics, as well as psychological aspects like
team dynamics, affect individual behavior.

Lecture 11

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MODELS OF MAN (INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR) IN AN ORGANIZATION

The following are the models of man -

1. Rational Economic Man,

2. Social Man,

3. Organizational Man,

4. The Self Actuating Man,

5. Complex Man.

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1. Rational Economic Man,

The basic assumptions of the concept of ‘Rational Economic Man’ are as follows:

1. People are motivated primarily by economic incentives. They will do things

which get them the greatest economic gain.
2. As the organization controls the economic incentives, human beings are essentially
passive agents, who are manipulated, motivated and controlled by the organization.
3. The feelings of the people are essentially irrational and must be controlled to
achieve rationality and self interest.
4. Organisations can and must be designed in such a way so as to neutralize and
control people’s feelings and therefore their unpredictable traits.

2. Social Man

The following assumptions about social man can be made

1. Human beings are basically motivated by social needs and all their efforts are
directed towards getting this satisfaction by maintaining relationships with
others.
2. A human being is more responsive to the pressures and sanctions of his social
group than to the incentives and controls of the management.
3. Generally people do not act or react as individuals but as members of a group.
4. Management should change and organize work in such a way that it provides
more belongingness not only in terms of interpersonal and group relationships, but
also man’s relationship with his job.

3. Organizational Man
In Organizational Behavior (OB), the "Organizational Man" is a concept describing an
employee who prioritizes group harmony, organizational loyalty, and conformity, often
sacrificing personal individuality for the collective good, a model popularized by William
Whyte's work, contrasting with other models like the "rational" or "social man" and representing
a key, though sometimes critiqued, perspective on workplace behavior. This type values
belonging and cooperation, finding meaning through group activity and organizational goals,
reflecting a shift from purely economic motivators to social integration in management theory.
Key Characteristics of the Organizational Man:

 Group-Centric: Believes the group, not the individual, is the primary source of activity and
meaning.

 Loyalty & Cooperation: Values being loyal to the organization and working cooperatively with
colleagues.

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 Sacrifice of Self: Willing to subordinate personal interests for the benefit of the group or
company.

 Belonging: Seeks a sense of belonging and integration within the organizational structure.

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 4. The Self Actualizing Man

The following assumptions can be made:

1. The various needs of a man can be put in the order of priority.

2. In the process of self actualization, there are various changes in the behaviour of
the individual and he moves from immaturity to maturity.

3. Man is primarily self motivated and self controlled.

4. If a man is left free, he will put in his maximum efforts.

5. Complex Man.

The assumptions of Complex man are:

1. Man is motivated by complex variables.

2. Man is capable of learning many motives out of interaction with the organization.

3. There are variations among people in the same organization.

4. The understanding of human need may not be final step in understanding human
behaviour.

5. Man can behave differently if we take into account his need pattern, lack of direct
cause-effect relationship between need and behaviour, and individual differences.

Lecture 12

PERSONALITY
Concept

The term personality has been derived from Latin word ‘persona’ which means ‘to speak
through’.

Definition
"Personality refers to the unique and stable qualities that characterize an individual's behavior across
different situations over time." - Clifford T. Morgan

“Personality is a set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and
differences in the behaviour (thought, feelings, and actions) of people and have continuity in
time and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological
pressures of the moment”. - S.R. Maddi

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 PERSONALITY THEORIES

Theory Proponent Key Idea Focus

Personality arises from
Psychoanalytic Sigmund Id, Ego, Superego,
unconscious conflicts and
Theory Freud unconscious mind.
childhood.

Socio- Adler,Erich Social interactions and culture shape Society and

Psychological Fromm personality. relationships.

Personality is a
Trait Gordon Identifying measurable
collection of stable
Theory Allport, others traits to predict behavior.
traits.
Self Carl Self-concept and personal Self-actualization and
Theory Rogers growth are central. individual perception.

Psychoanalytic Theory –

Sigmund Freud is main contributor to this theory.

The Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud emphasizes that personality is shaped by

unconscious motives, desires, and early childhood experiences. Freud proposed that personality
comprises three components: the Id, which seeks immediate gratification of basic instincts; the Ego,
which operates on the reality principle, balancing the id’s demands with the external world; and the
Superego, representing morality and societal values.
1. Id: Id represents unconscious part of human personality. It remains a driving force
throughout life and important source of thinking and behaving

2. Ego: Ego represents conscious and logical part of human personality and is associated
with reality principles. In order to resolve the conflict, the ego get support from the super
ego.

3. Super Ego: Super Ego represents social and personal norms and serves as an ethical
constraint on behaviour. The supper ego provides norms to ego to determine what is wrong
or right.

Socio-psychological Theory

- Adler, Horney Fromm and Sullivan are the name associate with this
theory.

The Socio-Psychological Theory by Erich Fromm highlights the influence of social interactions
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and cultural context on personality development. Fromm argued that personality is shaped by the
way individuals adapt to their societal environment.

1. Social variable important determinants in shaping personality.

2. Behaviour motivation is conscious; man knows his needs and wants and his behaviour
is directed to meet these needs.

Trait Theory - (Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck)

The Trait Theory views personality as a collection of stable traits or characteristics that influence
behavior. Gordon Allport introduced the concept of traits as enduring qualities that define an
individual’s behavior A trait may be defined as the distinguishable, relatively enduring way in
which one individual differs from another.

Three basic assumptions of this theory are:

1. Traits are common to many individuals and vary in absolute amounts between
individuals.

2. Traits are relatively stable and exert fairly universal effects on behaviour regardless of
the environmental variable.

3. Traits can be inferred from the measurement of behavioural indicators.

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 Self Theory

The Self Theory by Carl Rogers focuses on the individual’s self-concept and their innate drive
toward self-actualization, which is the realization of one’s full potential. Rogers emphasized that
personality development depends on the congruence between the real self (who you are) and the
ideal self (who you want to be). A mismatch between these can lead to anxiety and affect growth.

There are four factors in self concept.

1. Self-image: The self image is the way one sees oneself. Every person has certain beliefs about
who or what he is; take together, these beliefs are a person’s self-image or identity.

2. Ideal-self: The ideal-self denotes the way one would like to be. The ideal-self differs from
self- image in the fact that the self-image indicates the reality of a person as perceived by him,
while ideal-self indicates the ideal position as perceived by him.

3. Looking glass-self: The looking-self is the perception of a person about how others are
perceiving his qualities and characteristics.

4. Real-self: The real-self is what one really is. The first three aspects of self-concept are the
functions of individual perception and they may be same as real-self or different from it.

Lecture 13

Personality Development

Human personality development is a continuous process. It starts since the child is in fetal stage.
After birth, the child develops and learns and this process continues throughout his life.
Therefore personality development can be seen through different stages of age of an individual.

Stages of Personality Development

1. Freudian Stages and

2. Erikson’s Psychological stages.

Freudian Stages

According to Sigmund Freud, personality develops as a result of interaction of four main

sources of stress i.e. (1) physical growth process, (2) frustration, (3) conflicts, and (4) threats.
These source affect differently at each stage of the life of a person and these stages can be
classified into five categories – (1) oral stage, (2) anal stage, (3) phallic stage, (4) latency stage
and (5) genital stage.
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 Freudian Stages

 Oral Stage (0–1 year)

Focus: Mouth (sucking, chewing, swallowing).

 Anal Stage (1–3 years)

Focus: Anus (toilet training).

 Phallic Stage (3–6 years)

Focus: Gender (awareness of gender differences).

 Latency Stage (6–12 years)

Focus: Sexual feelings are dormant as energy is redirected to hobbies, learning, and friendships.

 Genital Stage (12 years and onward)

Focus: Mature relationships.

Erikson’s Psychological Stages

Stage of Development Age Crisis

Oral sensory stage 0-1 Trust versus mistrust

Mascular and Anal Stage 1-2 Autonomy versus doubt

Locomotor Genital Stage 3-5 Initiative versus guilt

Latency Stage 6-puberty Industry versus inferiority

Puberty and Adolescence 12-19 Identity versus confusion

Early Adulthood Early 20s Initmacy versus isolation

Young and Middle Adulthood Late 20s Generativity versus stagnation

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Mature Adulthood 30s Integrity versus despair

Brief description of Erikson’s Psychological Stages is given below.

1. Oral Sensory Stage: This is the stage of infancy and the child tries to resolve the crisis
of trust versus mistrust. The infant who is cared well develops trust in people while the
infant who is not cared will develops mistrust. This stage makes a serious impact on a
child that influences his behaviour for the remaining life.

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2. Mascular and Anal Stage: This the early childhood stage of the life in which the child
develops the sense of autonomy if his behaviour is approved by the parents and other
people. If the child faces disapproval by the elders, he develops a sense of doubt and
shame.

3. Locomotor Genital Stage: This is play stage of the lofe and the child tries to resolve the
crisis of initiative versus guilt. He tries to discover how much he can do. If the child is
encouraged to experiment and to achieve reasonable goals, he develops the sense of
initiative. If the child is blocked and made to feel incapable, he develops a sense of guilt
and lack of self-confidence.

4. Latency Stage: This is the school going stage of the life and child tries to develop many
new skill and social abilities. If the child experiences progress at a rate compatible with
his abilities, he develops a sense of enterprise. In the reverse case, he develops a sense of
inferiority.

5. Puberty and Adolescence: This is the teenage stage of the life and the adolescent person
tries to gain a sense of identity; a sense of feeling who he is and tries to establish himself
as socially different from his parents. The autonomy, initiative and enterprise developed
at the earlier stages of the life are very important in helping the teenager to resolve the
crisis of identity versus confusion and to prepare himself for the adulthood.

6. Early Adulthood: This stage of early 20s of the life in which the person tries to resolve
the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. The sense of identity developed during the teenage
stage helps the early adult to develop deep and lasting relationships.

7. Young and Middle Adulthood: This is the late 20s stage of the life in which the person
tries to resolve the crisis of generativity versus stagnation or self-absorption. Generative
persons attach more importance to the society as compared to themselves. Self-observed
persons do not develop an ability to look beyond themselves. They remain preoccupied
with their own development and do not show concern for future generation.

8. Mature Adulthood: This is the 30s stage of the life in which the person faces the crisis
of integrity versus despair. At this stage, the person gets maturity, wisdom, and
perspective that can guide the younger generations.

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Determinants of Personality

There are various determinants of personality and these has been categorized in different ways.
McClelland has categorized these factors into four fundamental theories – traits (acquired
propensity to respond), schema (beliefs, frame of reference, major orientations, ideas and
values), motives (inner drives), and self-schema (observation of one’s own behaviour).
However,for the purpose of analysis, these can be classified in to four broad categories.

1. Biological Factors

2. Family and Social Factors

3. Cultural Factors

4. Situational Factors

A brief description of these factors is presented below:

1. Biological Factors
Biological factors play a significant role in shaping an individual's personality and behavior, as
they are influenced by genetic and physiological elements.
(a) Heredity:
Heredity refers to the traits, characteristics, and tendencies passed down from parents to children
through genes. This includes aspects like intelligence, temperament, and even certain
predispositions to mental health conditions. For example, some individuals might inherit traits
like being more extroverted or introverted, which influences how they behave in social settings.
(b) Brain:
The structure and function of the brain significantly impact behavior. Differences in brain
chemistry and neural activity can affect emotions, decision-making, and cognitive abilities. For
example, a highly active amygdala can lead to heightened emotional reactions, while differences
in the prefrontal cortex may influence impulse control and problem-solving abilities.
c) Physical Features:
Physical features, such as height, body type, and appearance, can also influence how individuals
are perceived and how they behave. Studies suggest that people with certain physical traits (e.g.,
taller individuals) may be treated differently, which can shape their self-esteem and behavior in
social contexts.

2. Family and Social Factors

An individual's behavior is greatly shaped by their family and social environment, especially in
the formative years.
(a) Home Environment:
The environment in which a person grows up significantly influences their personality. A
nurturing, supportive home environment can lead to greater emotional stability, while a stressful
or abusive home environment can contribute to behavioral issues, anxiety, or low self-esteem.
The availability of resources like education, nutrition, and emotional support also plays a crucial
role.
(b) Family Members:
Interactions with parents, siblings, and other family members shape an individual's values, social
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 skills, and attitudes. For example, authoritative parenting (balancing control with warmth) tends
to result in individuals who are more independent and responsible, while neglectful or overly
controlling parenting may lead to insecurity or rebellious behavior.
(c) Social Groups:
People are influenced by the groups they interact with, such as friends, peers, and colleagues.
Social norms within these groups impact behavior, as individuals often conform to group
expectations or seek acceptance. Peer pressure, for example, can shape behavior in adolescence
and influence choices related to academics, substance use, and social interactions.

3. Cultural Factors
Culture provides the broader context in which an individual develops, shaping their worldview,
behavior, and social interactions.
(a) Beliefs:
Cultural beliefs (e.g., religious beliefs, national values) shape how individuals perceive the world
and interact with others. For instance, in collectivist cultures, individuals may prioritize family
and group needs over personal desires, while in individualist cultures, personal achievement and
independence are emphasized.
(b) Attitude:
Attitudes toward authority, work, relationships, and other societal norms are influenced by
cultural upbringing. For example, cultures that value respect for elders will shape individuals to
show deference in social interactions, while cultures that emphasize equality may encourage
more direct communication and less hierarchical behavior.
(c) Values:
Values are deeply embedded in culture and determine what is considered "good" or "bad." For
example, honesty, hard work, and respect for others might be highly valued in one culture, while
another culture may prioritize flexibility, creativity, or family bonds. These cultural values guide
behavior and decision-making throughout life.

4. Situational Factors
Situational factors refer to the external conditions and immediate context in which an individual
is placed, which can influence their behavior at a given time.

 Context of the Situation:

Situational factors include the specific environment, social setting, or context in which behavior
occurs. For example, a person may behave very differently in a formal work setting compared to
a casual social gathering, as they adjust to the expectations and norms of the situation.

 Immediate Environment:
The physical environment (e.g., office, home, public space) and the presence of certain people
(e.g., authority figures, peers) can have a strong influence on individual behavior. Stressful
situations or conflicts can also trigger defensive or aggressive responses, while supportive
environments can encourage cooperation and openness.

 External Influences:
Things like economic conditions, political climate, and social events can significantly impact
behavior. For example, a person might act differently during a period of financial insecurity
compared to a time of economic stability, as their priorities and stress levels change.

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 Determinants of Personality

Lecture 14

PERSONALITY TRAITS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS

1. Agreeableness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Emotional Stability
4. Extroversion
5. Openness

1. Agreeableness

People high in agreeableness are friendly, empathetic, and cooperative. They value getting
along with others and are often supportive and understanding. They are likely to trust others and
work well in teams. On the other hand, individuals low in agreeableness tend to be more
competitive, critical, and less concerned with others' feelings.

2. Conscientiousness

Individuals high in conscientiousness are organized, responsible, and dependable. They excel in
planning, managing tasks, and completing goals in a timely and efficient manner. People low in
conscientiousness are more spontaneous, less organized, and may struggle with long-term
planning or following through with commitments.

3. Emotional Stability (Neuroticism)

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 Emotional stability is the opposite of neuroticism. Individuals with high emotional stability are
calm, resilient, and able to handle stress well. They are less prone to mood swings and emotional
distress. People low in emotional stability (high neuroticism) may experience anxiety, sadness,
and frustration more often, and find it difficult to cope with stress.

4. Extraversion
Extraversion refers to the degree to which a person is sociable, outgoing, and energetic. Extraverts
enjoy being around people, engaging in social activities, and seeking excitement. In contrast,
introverts (those low in extraversion) prefer solitude or smaller gatherings and may feel drained by
large social events.
5. Openness

Openness refers to a person’s willingness to explore new ideas, experiences, and ways of
thinking. Individuals high in openness are imaginative, curious, and enjoy learning about
different cultures and ideas. People low in openness prefer routine and are often resistant to
change or unconventional ideas.

Summary Chart of the Big Five Personality Traits

Trait High in Trait Low in Trait

Cooperative, empathetic, trusting,
Agreeableness Competitive, critical, less empathetic
supportive
Organized, responsible, reliable, goal-
Conscientiousness Disorganized, spontaneous, careless
oriented
Calm, resilient, emotionally balanced, Anxious, moody, prone to stress and
Emotional Stability
stress-resistant mood swings
Outgoing, energetic, social, seeks
Extraversion Reserved, quiet, prefers solitude
excitement
Curious, imaginative, creative, open to
Openness Prefers routine, resistant to change
new experiences

Big Five Personality Traits

Degree of Personality Trait

High Low
Agreeableness
Compassionate, warm, trusting, eager to Hard-headed, cold, proud, disagreeable,
cooperate and to avoid conflict. antagonistic.
Conscientiousness
Pursuing few or one goal at one time, Well Pursuing many goals at a time, easy-
organized, systematic, careful, thorough, going, not very well organized,
persistent, strong desire to get results. impersistent, lack of strong desire to get
results.
Emotional Stability

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Emotionally stable, poised, calm, Emotionally unstable, day-dreamer,
confident, independent, secure. anxious, nervous, dependent, insecure.
Extroversion
Extrovert, gregarious, outgoing, to be Introvert, reserved, timid in public in
around people, sociable. public interaction, tendency to have
limited friends.
Openness
Prone to accept new ideas, curious, Resistant to new ideas, less creative, and
imaginative. imaginative.

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Implication of Big Five Personality Traits

Understanding of Big Five Personality Traits can help organization in recruiting employees of
suitable traits who matches the most to the job requirement. Managers who can understand these
Big Five Personality Traits in their employees will be in good position to understand how and
why they behave as they do. And in turn this will help them in better managing their workforce.

Affect of Big Five Personality Traits on Job Performance

Personality Trait Relevance Behavioural outcomes

Agreeableness More compliance of Lower level of deviant
organizational norms, least behaviour.
conflict.
Conscientiousness Better planning & execution, Persistent result achievement.
hard working.
Emotional Stability Positive thinking, behavioural Rational decision making,
maturity. better people interactions.
Extroversion Better interpersonal skills, Enhanced leadership.
create social acceptance.
Openness Enhanced creativity, better Innovation, more adaptable to
learning, flexibility. change.

Personality Measurement Methods

1. Projective Method

(a) Rorschach Ink Blot Test

(b) Thematic Apperception Test

2. Interview Method

3. Case History Method

4. Observation Method

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Lecture 15

PERCEPTION
Concept

Perception is the process through which an individual organizes and interprets his sensory
impressions to give meaning to his environment.

- Stephens P Robbins
Features

1. Cognitive or Psychological Process

2. Intellectual Process

3. Subjective Process

Difference between Sensation and Perception

Sensation Perception
Sensation is a physical process during which Perception is the process through which an
sensory systems respond to stimuli and provide individual organizes and interprets his sensory
data for perception. impressions to give meaning to his
environment.
By sensation, the person becomes aware of By perception, the person derives meaning of
stimulus like colour, shape, smell taste, etc. the stimulus.
The person is comparatively less active in The person is more active in perception as he
sensation. involves in giving meaning to sensation.
Only human sensory organs & nerves are Almost whole body becomes active in
active in sensation. perception.
Sensation is part of perception process. Perception is a comprehensive process in
which sensation is a starting step.
Sensation is a simple mental process. Perception is comparatively complex mental
process.

Importance of Perception

1. Interpersonal Working Relationship

2. Selection of Employee

3. Performance Appraisal

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 PERCEPTION PROCESS

1. Perceptual Inputs: Stimuli

2. Perceptual Throughput: Receiving, Selecting, Organizing, Interpreting

3. Perceptual Output: Actions

1. Perceptual Inputs: Stimuli

This is the initial stage where sensory information (stimuli) from the environment enters the perceptual
system. Stimuli can come from various sources, including visual, auditory, tactile, and even emotional
cues. For example, when you walk into a room, the lighting, sounds, and the people around you are the
stimuli that your brain begins to process.
Example: The sound of someone calling your name, the sight of a colleague’s facial expression,
or a traffic light turning green.
2. Perceptual Throughput: Receiving, Selecting, Organizing, Interpreting
This stage involves the cognitive process of making sense of the sensory information (stimuli) received.
It consists of four steps:
 Receiving: This is when the brain first registers sensory information. This step involves the
activation of sensory organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.) to receive external stimuli.
 Selecting: The brain selects which stimuli are important or relevant. Given that we are constantly
surrounded by a massive amount of information, we filter out irrelevant stimuli and focus on
what catches our attention or is necessary for the task at hand.
 Organizing: Once relevant stimuli are selected, the brain organizes the information into patterns
or categories. This can involve grouping stimuli based on prior experiences or expectations.
 Interpreting: Finally, the brain assigns meaning to the organized stimuli. This is where
perception becomes subjective—individuals may interpret the same stimuli differently based on
their experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and cultural backgrounds.
Example: When you hear a colleague’s voice, your brain processes the sound (receiving),
focuses on their words (selecting), recognizes their tone as friendly (organizing), and concludes
that they are asking for help (interpreting).
3. Perceptual Output: Actions
The final stage of the perception process is when the interpretation of the stimuli leads to a response or
action. Based on the perception, individuals act, make decisions, or communicate their thoughts and
emotions.
Example: If you interpret a colleague’s tone as friendly, you may smile back and engage in
conversation. Alternatively, if the tone is perceived as harsh, you may respond defensively or
withdraw.
Summary of the Perception Process
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Stage Description Example

Perceptual Sensory information (stimuli) entering

Sounds, sights, smells, tactile sensations.
Inputs the system from the environment.

Cognitive processing of stimuli: Hearing a colleague’s voice, selecting

Perceptual
receiving, selecting, organizing, and relevant info, recognizing tone, and
Throughput
interpreting. interpreting intent.

Perceptual The action or response based on the Smiling, speaking, withdrawing, or taking
Output interpretation of the stimuli. action based on the interpretation.

Lecture 16

Perceptual Selectivity

Perceptual Selectivity refers to the process by which individuals selectively focus on certain stimuli
that they find interesting, relevant, or aligned with their needs, while ignoring or disregarding other
information. This means people tend to pay attention to what they desire or expect to perceive, and filter
out stimuli that don't meet these criteria.
There are external and internal factors that influence perceptual selectivity. These factors
determine what stimuli are perceived and how they are processed.

External Factors in Perceptual Selectivity

These are environmental or situational factors that affect how we perceive stimuli from the
outside world.

1. Size
Larger stimuli are more likely to capture attention. For example, a large billboard in the middle
of a busy street is more noticeable than a smaller one.

Example: A big red sale sign in a store catches more attention than smaller, less vivid signs.

2. Intensity
The stronger or more intense a stimulus is, the more likely it is to be perceived. Bright colors,
loud sounds, or strong smells draw attention due to their intensity.

Example: A loud siren or a flashing light is more likely to attract attention than a soft sound or steady
light.

3. Repetition
Repeated exposure to a stimulus makes it more likely to be noticed. The more frequently
something is encountered, the more familiar and attention-grabbing it becomes.

Example: Repeated advertising of a product on TV can make people more aware of it.

4. Novelty and Familiarity

New or unusual stimuli tend to stand out more than familiar ones. Novelty captures attention,
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 while familiarity may lead to less focus.

Example: A new product launch will capture more attention than an old product that has been available
for years.

5. Contrast
Stimuli that differ from their surroundings tend to stand out. This can be in terms of color, size,
shape, or other distinguishing characteristics.

Example: A bright yellow car parked among dark-colored vehicles stands out because of the contrast.

6. Motion
Moving stimuli naturally draw attention, as motion is more dynamic and noticeable than
stillness.

Example: A moving object in your peripheral vision is more likely to be noticed than a stationary one.

Internal Factors in Perceptual Selectivity

These are factors based on an individual's psychological state, experiences, and mental
framework that influence how they perceive and select stimuli.

1. Self-Concept
People are more likely to notice and pay attention to stimuli that align with their self-image or
self-concept. For example, a person who views themselves as a health-conscious individual
might focus on ads for healthy food products.

Example: A fitness enthusiast might notice advertisements for gym memberships or health supplements.

2. Beliefs
Existing beliefs or attitudes shape how individuals interpret information. People tend to perceive
stimuli in ways that confirm their beliefs and opinions (a phenomenon called confirmation
bias).

Example: If someone believes that a particular brand is the best, they may ignore negative reviews
about that brand.

3. Expectations
Expectations about what should happen or what we are likely to encounter influence perception.
We often look for stimuli that align with our expectations and overlook those that contradict
them.

Example: If you expect a meeting to be boring, you might ignore interesting points during the meeting
because they don't fit your expectations.

4. Inner Needs
Personal needs or desires can influence what stimuli we perceive. If an individual is hungry, they
may be more likely to notice food-related advertisements or smells.

Example: A person who is tired might be more attuned to messages related to rest or relaxation.

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Summary of Factors Causing Perceptual Selectivity
Factor Type Factors Description
External Size, Intensity, Repetition, Novelty Environmental or situational
Factors and Familiarity, Contrast, Motion aspects that grab attention.
Psychological or personal
Internal Self-Concept, Beliefs,
factors that influence
Factors Expectations, Inner Needs
perception.

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Lecture 17

INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION

Interpersonal perception is the perception about a person by another person. There may be
various factors which may lead to distortion in perception. They are –

1. Factors in Perceiver

2. Factors in Person Perceived

3. Situational Factors

Factors in Perceiver

1. Personality: Personality of the perceiver greatly influences the perception of other

persons. Personality influences perception because of two reasons. First, the perceiver tries to
project his personality attributes in others, known as projection. Second, the perciever tries to fit
his attitudes, beliefs expectations to reality, known as the process of self-fulfilling prophecies.

2. Mental set: Mental set is the tendency one has to react in a certain way to a given situation.

3. Attribution: Attribution is the process by which individual individuals interpret events

as being caused by particular aspects in the setting around them. For example, if a person is
bypassed in promotion he may attribute the reason of his bypassing in terms that other have
beenpromoted not because of their ability but because of their being close with high-ups.

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4. First Impression: It is very common that people evaluate others on the basis of first
impression. The evaluation based on first impression may be correct it is based on adequate and
significant evidence. It may not be true if it lacks adequate and significant evidences.

5. Halo Effect: Halo effect, a perception error, occurs when the perceiver judges or perceives a
person on the basis of his one trait.

6. Stereotyping: Stereotyping, a perception error, occurs when the perceiver judges or perceives
a person on the basis of characteristics of the group to which he belongs. The person is not
perceived as an individual; with specific set of his characteristics but on the basis of his group
characteristics.

Factors in Person Perceived

1. Status: Status is relative ranking of a person vis-à-vis other. The ranking may be based
on one or more of these characteristics: social or organizational position, intelligence and
knowledge, amount of wealth, etc.

2. Visibility of Traits: Visibility of traits also influences perception of perceiver. There are
many traits which are not visible on surface, such as, honesty, loyalty, etc. In such cases,
evaluation is made on the basis of one’s own experiences/knowledge, which may not be correct.
The closeness among people provides opportunities to perceive the traits correctly.

Situational Factors

Situational factors also affect the perception. They may be structural characteristics of the place
indicating the characteristics of person occupying it. Thus, a person is likely to be perceived by
place. For example, a person is perceived differently if he meets with others in a five-star hotel
as compared to an ordinary place. In many cases, these may not reflect the true value but may
only distort people’s perception who might be dealing with them.

DEVELOPING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS

The following are the few guidelines for developing perceptual skills.

1. Perceiving oneself Accurately

2. Enhancing Self-concept
3. Having Positive Attitude
4. Being Empathic
5. Communicating more Openly
6. Avoiding Common Perceptual Distortion

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Lecture 18

LEARNING
learning refers to the process of gaining knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors through
experience, training, or observation. It helps employees adapt to changes, improve performance,
and contribute effectively to the organization.
Definition

Learning is relatively enduring change in behaviour brought about as a consequence of

experience. - F.H. Sanford

Nature

1. Learning involves Change in Behaviour – improvement

2. Behavioural Change Relatively Permanent

3. Behavioural Change based on Practice or Experience

4. Practice or Experience Reinforced

Components of Learning

1. Drive
2. Cue Stimuli
3. Response
4. Reinforcement
5. Retention

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Factors Affecting Learning

1. Motivation

2. Mental Set

3. Nature of Learning Material

4. Practice

5. Environment

Summary of Components and Factors Affecting Learning

Components of Learning Description

Drive Internal motivation or need that triggers the learning process.
Cue Stimuli External signals that guide the learning process.
Response The behavior or action taken in reaction to the drive and cue stimuli.
Reinforcement Strengthening or weakening of a response through consequences.
Retention The ability to remember or retain learned material over time.
Factors Affecting Learning Description
Motivation The internal drive or desire to learn, influencing effort and engagement.
Mental Set The learner’s mindset and attitude towards the learning task.
Nature of Learning Material The complexity and structure of the material being learned.
Practice Repeated engagement in a task to strengthen the learned skill.
Environment The physical and social setting that impacts learning.

Lecture 19

LEARNING THEORIES

1. Conditioning Theory

(a) Classical Conditioning

(b) Operant Conditioning

2. Cognitive Learning Theory

3. Social Learning Theory

CONDITIONING THEORY
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 (a) Classical Conditioning

- Ivan P. Pavlov

The Classical Conditioning Theory was proposed by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
According to this theory, behavior is learnt by a repetitive association between the response and
the stimulus.

The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is developed through
the interactions with the environment. Also, the environment shapes the behavior and internal
mental state such as thoughts, feelings, emotions do not explain the human behavior.

Here, an organism learns to transfer response from one stimulus to a previously neutral stimulus.
Classical conditioning is comprised of four elements:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Which invariably causes to react in a way.

2. Unconditioned Response (UR): Takes place when the US is presented.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The object that does not bring about the desired response
4. Conditioned Response (CR): a particular behavior that an organism learns to produce, when
the CS is presented.

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Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and measured the amount of saliva secreted by a dog, with
a use of a surgical procedure, when it is exposed to different stimulus or object. At first, when
Pavlov presented a piece of meat (US) to the dog, he noticed a great amount of salivation (UR)
whereas, in the second time, when he just rang the bell, he observed there was no effect ofa bell on
the dog’s salivation.

After this, Pavlov rang the bell accompanied with meat and noticed the salivation of a dog. He
repeated this process several times, and finally, one day he just rang the bell without meat and
observed that dog still salivated to the bell alone which was originally a neutral stimulus.

Thus, he found out, that the dog has become classically conditioned (CR) to the sound of the bell
(CS). And every time he rings the bell the dog salivates.

Before Conditioning

Meat (US) Salivation (UR)

Bell (Neutral Stimulus) No response

During Conditioning

Meat + Bell (CS) Salivation (UR)

After Conditioning

Bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

(b) Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning is a learning theory developed by B.F. Skinner that explains how
behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments. It suggests that people tend to repeat behaviors
that have positive outcomes and avoid behaviors that lead to negative consequences.

Key Elements of Operant Conditioning:

1. Positive Reinforcement – Rewarding good behavior to encourage it.

Example: An employee gets a bonus for meeting targets, so they work hard again.

2. Negative Reinforcement – Removing something unpleasant to encourage good behavior.

Example: A manager stops micromanaging when an employee starts performing well.

3. Punishment – Giving negative consequences to reduce bad behavior.

Example: A salary deduction for frequent late arrivals discourages tardiness.

4. Extinction – Ignoring or removing rewards for a behavior so that it stops.

Example: If a manager stops praising an employee’s extra effort, the employee may stop
putting in extra effort.
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Real-World Application:

In workplaces, operant conditioning is used in performance appraisals, employee motivation

programs, and disciplinary actions to influence employee behavior.

It suggests that basic principle of learning new behaviour involves the relationship between three
elements.

1. Stimulus Situation (important event in the situation)

2. Behavioural response to the situation

3. Consequence of the response to the person

Implication of Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning has much greater impact on human learning that classical conditioning.
Most behaviour in organizations are learned, controlled and altered by consequences.

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 Management can use Operant Conditioning process successfully to control and influence the
behaviour of its employees by designing the suitable reward system.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY - Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory – 4 stages

Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years)

Children learn through senses and motor activities like touching, seeing, and moving. They develop
object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when not seen).

Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)

Thinking is symbolic (use of words, images), but illogical and egocentric. Children struggle to see
others’ viewpoints and cannot perform mental operations properly.

Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years)

Children begin logical thinking about concrete objects and events. They understand conservation,
classification, and cause–effect relationships.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years & above)

Thinking becomes abstract, logical, and hypothetical. Adolescents can solve problems, think
scientifically, and reason about future possibilities.

Lecture 20

Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura

Social learning theory posits that learning can also take place via vicarious or modeling.
According to it, learning occurs in two steps:

1. the person observers how others act and then acquires a mental picture of the act and its
consequences (reward or punishment)

2. The person acts out the acquired image and if the consequences are positive, he will tend to do
it again. It the consequences are negative, the person will not do it again.

3. Social Learning Theory, developed by Albert Bandura, explains that people learn by
observing, imitating, and interacting with others. It suggests that behavior is shaped not just
by rewards or punishments (like in operant conditioning) but also by watching others and
understanding the consequences of their actions.
Key Concepts of Social Learning Theory:
Observation – Learning by watching others (e.g., employees learn by seeing how their manager
handles clients).

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Imitation – Copying behaviors of role models (e.g., a new employee adopts the work habits of a
successful senior).

Modeling – People look up to leaders, mentors, or influencers and try to behave like them.

Reinforcement – Seeing someone rewarded for good behavior increases the chances of copying it
(e.g., if a colleague gets praised for teamwork, others may try to collaborate more).

Self-Efficacy – Believing in one’s ability to succeed influences learning and motivation.

Example:

A new employee learns office etiquette by watching how senior colleagues interact.

A child learns manners by observing parents.

A salesperson improves their pitch by watching successful salespeople.

Application in Organizations:

Used in mentoring programs, leadership development, workplace training, and team

collaboration to encourage positive behaviors through role models and observation.
Reinforcement

Reinforcement is anything that increases the strength of a response and tends to induce repetition
of the behaviour that preceded the reinforcement. Reinforcement is very important for learning
because behavioural response is conditioned by reinforcement.

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Types of Reinforcement

1. Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and
required behaviour. For example - immediately praising an employee for coming early for job.
This will increase probability of desirable behaviour occurring again.

Positive reinforcement is further classified into the following:

(a) Extrinsic Reinforcement & Intrinsic Reinforcement

An extrinsic reinforcement has no direct relationship with the behaviour itself. It is artificial and
often arbitrary, such as, payment of money to the employees for new ideas. Intrinsic rewards, on
the other hand, are natural consequences of behaviour; they create a psychologically expected
relationship with the behaviour itself, such as, acquisition of new skill, work performance to the
capacity, assuming more responsibility, etc.

(b) Primary Reinforcement & Secondary Reinforcement

Primary reinforcer is innately satisfying to the person and directly reduces his primary
motivational drive. Such reinforcers are independent of past experiences. As such,
unconditionedstimulus is an unlearned reward for the person. For example – food a primary
reinforcer satisfy physiological need. Secondary reinforcement, on the other hand, depends on
the individual and his past reinforcement history. Thus, these are primarily learned ones.
Examples of such reinforcers are praise, recognition, advancement, etc.

2. Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement strengthens and increased behaviour by the termination or withdrawal of

an undesirable consequences. For example, if an employee wears casual dress at workplace
which is not in accordance with official norms, he may be criticized by his superior. In order to
avoid criticism (a negative consequence), the employee may start wearing formal dress
(desirable behaviour).

Conclusion

It can be conclude from the above description that positive reinforcement increases the
probability of desired behaviour for getting desirable consequence and negative reinforcement
increases the probability of desirable behaviour to avoid undesirable consequence.

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Shaping of Human Behaviour

In order to shape human behaviour in an organization, the following may be used.

1. Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is the process of increasing the

likelihood of a behavior by presenting a pleasant or rewarding stimulus after the
desired behavior is performed.
Example: A teacher praises a student for completing their homework, which
encourages the student to do their homework more often in the future. The reward
(praise) increases the behavior (doing homework).

2. Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement involves increasing the

likelihood of a behavior by removing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus after the
desired behavior occurs.

Example: A student’s teacher stops giving extra assignments to a student who

regularly turns in their homework. The removal of extra assignments encourages
the student to continue submitting homework on time.

3. Punishment: Punishment is presenting an aversive or unpleasant consequence

contingent upon a behavior, typically to decrease the frequency of an
undesirable behavior.
Example: A child who talks back to their parents might be punished by being
sent to their room (positive punishment), or their favorite toy might be taken
away (negative punishment). Both actions reduce the likelihood of the child
engaging in the behavior again.

4. Extinction: Extinction is the process by which a behavior decreases and

eventually stops occurring because it is no longer reinforced or is ignored.

Example: If a child’s tantrum behavior is no longer reinforced by attention (such

as being ignored when they throw a tantrum), the behavior will eventually
extinguish, as the child learns that tantrums do not yield desired results.

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