7 D.C. Circuits What You TT Tay Perera Pee ee eee resistance related in a Bit Telcatl| De en ee ea) eee eee ed parallel circuit? Te OT Ted How are transducers used in potential OTs To erg If you walk along Tengeh Reservoir, you will come across several of these gigantic floating solar photovoltaic systems. These panels, when combined together, can generate power of 50 megawatt-peak (MWp, the maximum potential output of power). Little or no carbon dioxide is produced in the process. On the other hand, to produce an equivalent amount of power, gas turbine electric generators would give off about 28 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide. Do you know that the electric currents generated by these panels are direct currents? This is different from electric currents which are produced by all other sources of electricity. What are direct currents? 303Chapter 17°" Electicity and Magnetism Word Alert Electrical components: devices that affect dlectrons or their sssociated fields 17.1 How Are Current, Potential Difference and Resistance Related in a Series Circuit? Learning Outcomes + Draw circuit diagrams with power sources, switches, lamps, resistors, variable potential divider (potentiometen), fuses, ammeters and voltmeters bells light-dependent resistors, ‘thermistors and light-emitting diodes. + State that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same and apply the principle to new situations orto solve related problems. + State that the sum of the potential differences in a series circuit is equal to the potential difference across the whole circuit and apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems. Direct current (4.c) circutts are used in many electronic products such as mobile phones, laptops, smartwatches and other devices that are operated by batteries. What are dc. circuits? In dc. circuits, current flows in only one direction and the applied voltage is usually quite low. This is different from an alternating current (a.c) circult. Ina. circults, current changes direction fifty or sixty times every second. Asimple dec. circuit contains a d.c. power supply, a switch, and a component such as a resistor. ‘Such cicults can be represented using a diagram called circutt diagram. Circuit Diagrams ‘Acircutt diagram, or an electrical diagram, is simplified dlagrammatic representation of an electric circuit. t shows the connections between electrical components, which are often represented by symbols. Figure 17.1 shows an example of a cicult dlagram. Figure 17.1(a)An actual electric circuit and (b) its equivalent circuit diagram[Link] " Chapter 17 ‘Some common circuit symbols are given in Table 171. ‘Table 17.1 Common circuit symbols of electrical components ~~ — ‘switch o wires joined oo galvanometer tl a ee battery fined resistor | (Vm voltmeter i Ac powersupply | mrgien “ape TestOr wo-may witch wan V Game = -4.C power supply — fuse a ‘earth connector <= light bulb TID coll of wire =i light-emitting 2, fees || oe | oes | | ee y ' 6. sour > ~ Series Circuits ‘There are two basic ways in which components of acitcuit may be connected together — in series or in parallel ‘Aseries connection is one in which the components are connected one after another ina single loop (Figure 17.2). Circuits that have components ‘connected in series are called series circults. Resistors R, and R,inseries E Figure 172The currents =1=1, | poe) om! mustbe equal. Ina series circuit, since there is only one single loop, the electric current has only one path to flow through. D> Ina series circuit, the current at every point is the same, InFigure 172. the currents Z, =k, 305Chapter 17 # Recall from Chapter 16: Electricity and Magnetism ‘The potential difference (pad, across a resistor is the work done per unit charge in driving the ‘charges through that resistor. Thus, there must bea fallin electrical potential as the charge flows across resistors R, and R, in Figure 17.2. ‘These potential differences can be measured using a voltmeter 2s shown in Figure 17.3.1he ‘electromotive force of the cell Eis equal to the sum of the potential differences across R, and R,. Rocitre Rand, in srise = os Figure 17.3 The voltage across the source Eis the sum of ¥, and V;- v, > Ina series circuit, the total potential difference supplied to the circuit Eis equal to the sum of the individual potential differences across the resistors. ‘Mathematically, in reference to Figure 1733, we write: E=K+% since y= sR: v= H+ IR, RARE We can defingan effective resistance nsuch that aR tR= Hence, the circuit diagram of Figure 17.3 can be replaced by ‘an equivalent circult diagram shown in Figure 174. In general, if there are n resistors connected in series, then: EaV AV HV Since pd. =/R: ‘This means that when resistors are connected in series, they can be represented by an effective resistance of R.. > Ina series circu, the effective resistance j. is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.~ Worked Example 17A ‘Two resistors with values 2.0 0 and 4.0 © are connected in series toalaVveell. (a) Calculate the current flowing in the circuit. (b) Cakulate the potential difference across each resistor [Link] " Chapter 17 (c) Draw a graph on the axes in Figure 17.5, showing wane um ‘the changes in electrical potential along the circult. Wy Thought Process (a) The keywords for this example are ‘connected in series! The current at every point ina series circuit fs the same. ‘The sum ofthe pa. na series circurts equal to the pd. across the whole circuit. Since V = Jk, if is the current flowing inthe circuit, then 27 and 47 are the pad. of the resistors. ‘The sum of these pd. isequal to 12V, which isthe pi. cross the whole arcu. ‘An alternative method is to consider replacing the two resistors by ts effactiva resistance Then the current flowing nthe reuits7= 2 7% (Once the current flowing in the series crcutis found, the pd. ‘across each resistor can be obtained from the equation, v= /R. {The cell has energy inthe chemical potential store. The electric current transfers energy from the chemical potential store of the callto the internal stores of the resistors. Thus, the temperature of the resistors increases when the current flows through them. ‘The net change In potential energy for a charge making a round trip around a complete circuit must be zero. Answer (a) The effective resistance of the ciicult Re = 20 2+ 4.00=6.00 Therefore, the current /flowing in the circuit = 224 =2.0 A ‘Sum of pd. in the series circuit —21+ 4 ‘The pad. across the whole ccult = e:m4. of battery =12V. Hence, 6!=12V T=20A (b) PA. across 20 resistor = 20 x200=40¥ Pa. across 4 0 resistor = 20A x 4.00=80V {c) The changes in electrical potential along the circuit are as follows: ay 208 400: Figure 175 Disciplinary idea Conservation lve ‘constrain the changes a stems. “theconservation of ‘energy has tobe observed, ‘Theenergy supplied by the cells sequal to the total energy dissipated in the circuit Hence, ‘the drop in potential across a circuits equal to the dlectromouwe force ‘generated by the sources inthe circuk. 307Chapter 17 # Electricity and Magnetism Let’s Investigate 17A + Alm ‘To verify that the sum of the potential differences in a series circuit is equal FesistorsR, and R, insevies to the potential difference across the a whole circuit it Procedure 1 Set up the circuit shown in Figure 176. — 2 Record the readings on the voltmeters Vy Vand V,. 3 Add another dry cell of the same type wl in sorios to the power supply. nen Le! Le 5 Repeat steps 3and 4 until at least three sets of readings have been obtained. Figure 17.6 ‘Observation ‘The sum of the readings on V, and V, is almost equal to V,- ‘Questions 11 What are the possible reasons that the sum of the readings in V, and V, is not exactly V,? 2 Would your results be more accurate if larger readings in R, and R, are used? (~ Let’s Practise 17.3. 4 In Figure 177, two resistors with values 20 and 1Q are connected in seriesto a 15 V cell, 1sv 10 20 —_ i Figure 177 Calculate: (a) the effective resistance of the circu; and (©) the potential difference across each resistor. 2 The 20 resistor in Figure 177 is replaced by an unknown resistor Link with value of g Qand the current in the circuit is found to be 0:1 A. Theory Workbook ‘What Is the value of R? ‘Workshicet 174 J[Link] " Chapter 17 Pra ARG Potential Difference and Pee Ure ai eteR i E- MRLs Learning Outcomes + State that the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel ‘circuit is equal to the current from the source and apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems. « State that the potential difference across the separate branches of a parallel circuit is the same and apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems. += Recall and apply the formulae for the effective resistance of a number ofresistors in series and in parallel to new situations or to solve related problems. + Recall and apply the relevant relationships, including f - vTand those for current, potential differences and resistors in series and in parallel ‘citcutts, in calculations involving a whole circuit. Parallel Circuits ‘Aparallel connection is one in which Aasistors 8 and paral the components are placed next to e ‘each other in parallel and the ends are connected like the rungs of a It ofcharge ladder (Figure 17.8). Circuits that el have components connected in parallel are called parallel circutts Ar Figure 178The “ currant Fe spit, inthe parallel cuttin Figure 17:8, atjunction Kinto the electric current Fis split into two Saari ee paths at junction [Link], the sum x lk whi ofthese two electric currents /, and jenn Z,1n the two parallel branches must bbe equal to J These two electric currants then recombine at junction ¥ into [. ‘Mathematically, in reference to Figure 17.8, we waite: Tahal, Ina parallel circuit, the total current flowing into or out of the parallel > branches is equal to the sum of the individual currents In each parallel branch.Chapter 17 # Electricity and Magnetism ‘esistorsR and Rin parallel ‘The potential difference across each branch must be the same as the electromotive force of the cell. ‘This is because the cells are directly connected to 1 the components. This is shown in Figure 179 = R yo Thus, yavy=¥y ~ FE Ina parallel cicuit, the p.d. across the parallel > branches is the same. Figure 179 The voltages Vy Yond V, imustbe equal since they are connected in In Figure 179,sipcer 1,12 Parallel o each other using only wires. Re ‘We can define an effective resistance &, such that: ! we ‘The reciprocal of the effective resistance s the sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances. If we simplify the equation further: Helpful Note 1 Bak ‘[Link] way o remember RR the formula fr efectve ta, resistance of two parallel Rain resistors is ‘product of ‘resistance over sum of In the special case where R, = R, = R. applying the formula above will give R_=. 4 In addition, resistances’ ‘the current in each branch ofthe parallel circuit is “_. Thisis intuitive, since we can expect that half the current will flow in one branch and the othr alfin another branch, ‘The circuit diagram of Figure 17.9 can be replaced by an equivalent circuit diagram shown in Figure 17.10. fF = “The voltages across these n number of branches are the same, that iS: Figure 17-j0The two resistorsin parallel canbe replacedbya resistor with an effective resistance of Ry In general, if there are n number of parallel connections, then the main current is the sum of the individual currents flowing in the differant branches. That is: Tal+1,+.041, y Rea ans Inother words, the effective resistance ofall the resistors connected in parallel can be represented by a single resistor R, such that a, can be found using the equation above. > Ina parallel circuit, the reciprocal of the effective resistance of resistors -! is equal to the 310 sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances. esWorked Example 1B $$ ‘Two resistors with values 2 Q and 4 0 are connected in parallel toa lav battery. Calculate: (a)the current flowing through the 2 0 resistor; (b)the current flowing through the 4 0 resistor; {c) the current flowing from the battery;and (a)the equivalent resistance of the two resistors. Thought Process enn ‘Since the resistors are connected in parallel, the pad. across the ‘separate branches is the same. Therefore, the p.d. across the 2 tesistor is equal to the em4f of the battery. This information can be sed to find the current flowing through the 20 resistor. “The same method is used to find the current flowing through the 4Qresistor. (c The sum of the currents in the separate branches ofa parallel circuit {sequal tothe current from the source. Therefore, the sum of these ‘currents found gives the current flowing from the battery, whichis also the total current in the circuit. (ayThe effective resistance p. of the two resistors can be found by, emt state £2pf Thisshould be theseme as using: t= t+ Answer (2) Cutrent flowing through the 20 resistor - BV —6 A (b) Current flowing through the 40 resistor = 12 (c) Current flowing from the battery =6 A +3. A= () Effective resistance of the two resistors = 12 -shek % 2040 ih i R-40=1330 [Link] " Chapter 17 Helpful Note Itcan be seen tha! when resistors are connected. n paalle, te effecuve resistance islower than the individual resistances ofthe resistors. 311Chapter 17 312 Figure 17.11 What appenswhen switch Sis dosed? 1 Electricity and Magnetism Series and Parallel Circuits ‘The circuit diagram in Figure 17.11 contains resistors arranged both in series and in parallel. ‘What happens when switch S is closed? Recall what we have learnt about both series and parallel circuits: + The current at each point in a series circuit is the same. + The total current flowing into or out of the parallel branches is equal to the sum of the individual currants in each parallel branch. ‘Assuming that each of the bulbs (A, B, C and D) has the same resistance, we can expect that bulbs A and C have the same brightness since the current flowing through them is the same. Bulbs B and D are half as bright as bulbs A and Csince half the current flows to bulb 8 and the ‘other half flows to bulb D. ‘A comparison of the effect of electrical components arranged in series and parallel on the resistance, current and potential difference of a circuit is summarised in Table 172. “able 17.2£ffect ofthe diferent arangements of electrical components on the resistance, current and Parallel Circuit [| +i potential difference ofthe circuit 1 Ces 4 etsNe [Link] " Chapter 17 When you replace the dry cells in your flashlight or a remote control, you usually use more than one dry cell Figure 17.12). ‘Axe the dry cells connected in series or in parallel? Why do we sometimes connect circuits in series and somatimes in parallel? Circuits are connected in series or parallel to meet voltage and current requirements. These days, most flashlights use light emitting diode (LED) ‘bulbs. However, the older flashlight bulbs use filament bulbs that work on +3 V. When 3 V are applied to these bulbs, they light up at their designed brightness. Ifless than 3 Vare applied to these bulbs, then, they are less bright. Since most dry cells are rated at 1.5 V, we need to connect two dry cells in series to supply the required 3 V. ‘The effective resistance of a circuit changes if the electrical components are arranged differently. For instance, we connect resistors in series if we ‘want to achieve a higher resistance. This is because when the resistors are connected in series, the effective resistance is the sum of the resistances of the individual resistors. “There are advantages and disadvantages when arranging electrical ‘components in series or parallel. Consider the series and parallel circuits that are made up of identical bulbs in Figure 17.13 a _ i - 2D A, @ Te tage acs tho bulbs inthe series ‘ceancions tlhe otag the ee cart eatetter Te bubsin pr wilt bgt than ftctontre tne te bral seal ate.) eran, ‘atape essen bub= "+ “s nts the ane se "rmoreparalel antes ae ded tte pael Qe te pte earepcesate putea mee . now ‘thepowe source The power sure deleted ‘Crretthreugh each bub ART hn each bab )) mor qui. aciruitrequesaconstantcurent, parle ooectonssheuldbe ave. fone ofthe butsbows the eect ath would fon ofthe babs blowy, th ther Paral connections ersurthat on bulb be oenand the ohe bulb wile up. bulb remain it. 2 lows, theres ofthe us a mat afetd. igure 17.13Comparison of series and parallel circuits 313Chapter 17 314 (~ Let's Practise 17.2 Electricity and Magnetism ~ Worked Example 17¢ In Figure 1714 calculate the pd. ‘Thought Process «To ind the pd. y, we need to know the value of the current / flowing through the 1 0 resistor since v=" 9), «+ Lishalfof since 7=1, + J,and J,=1, because the resistance in each branch s the same. «+ To find J, we need to know the effective resistance of the circutt. This can be done by first replacing f, and , with an equivalent resistor. The effective resistance isthe sum of the resistances of the equivalent resistor and the 1 0 resistor. Answer Figure 17:14 ‘This simplifies the circuit to an equivalent circuit shown, onthe right. ‘The effective resistance of this circuit is Cet +l, and since, ‘Current J, can be found from I- T=05A Therefore. pd. visaiven by: V—Ha~ (0.5 AKT.O)~ OSV 1 Figure 17:15 shows two resistors 10 ‘connected in parallel toa 1.5 Vcell. Tg Calculate the current flowing through and the potential difference across each Tv resistor. 2 Determine theems. of the cell in Figure 17.16. na 10 r i, 00 Figure 17.16