Research Methods

The Independent Variable (IV) is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher to
check its effect on the dependent variable.

The Dependent Variable (DV) is the variable being measured by the researcher.

Research Methods
Experiments
Experiments look for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is
manipulated to cause a change in the dependent variable.

Experiment types:

 Laboratory experiment – the experiment is conducted in an unnatural and

controlled environment. The IV is manipulated by the researcher.

 Field experiment – the experiment takes place in natural settings, and the IV is
manipulated by the researcher.

 Natural experiment – the experiment takes place in a natural setting and the IV
is not directly manipulated by the researcher. It happens naturally by chance.

 Quasi-experiment – the researcher has lots of control over the procedure, but
not over the allocation of participants.

Laboratory Experiments Evaluation

Strengths:

 Allows extraneous variables such as participant variables (individual differences)

to be controlled. This helps raise validity.

 Causal relationships can be determined with the scientific data gathered

(quantitative data) since lab experiments attempt to make studies as scientific as
possible.

 Standardised procedures help raise reliability and allow replication.

Weaknesses:

 Since the experiment takes place in artificial settings, there are chances of
participants exhibiting demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
  Participants could act on the demand characteristics as a response and alter their
behaviour which would lead to lower validity and ecological validity.

 Furthermore, the mundane realism of any tasks involved in the lab exp. would be
low. Mundane realism is the extent to which any tasks involved in a study
represent real-world activities.

Field Experiments Evaluation

Strengths:

 Participants are in natural settings showing their natural behaviour, hence they
are likely to show their true behaviour. This would make the results highly valid,
ecologically valid, and representative.

 If participants are unaware that they are in a study, there is very less chance of
participants exhibiting demand characteristics, in comparison to lab experiments.

Weaknesses:

 There are chances of uncontrolled, extraneous variables affecting the experiment

process, which could lead to obscure results. This means the reliability and
replicability of the research lowers since not all variables can be factored in again.

 The researcher will be less sure that changes in the DV are caused by changes in
the IV, in comparison to lab experiments. This leads to lower validity.

 The participants are unaware that they are in a study, and this raises the ethical
issues of privacy, confidentiality, and lack of consent.

Natural Experiments Evaluation

Strengths:

 Natural experiments help to study real-world issues.

 When participants are in natural settings, their behaviour is likely to be true, and
representative. This means the ecological validity is high.

 As participants are unaware of their participation in the research, there are very
less chances of demand characteristics affecting the experiment.

 They help researchers investigate variables which wouldn’t be practical or ethical

to manipulate.
Weaknesses:

 Natural experiments are only possible to conduct when changes in variables occur
naturally.

 Extraneous variables are often very difficult to control.

 As the researcher isn’t manipulating the IV, they will be less sure of the cause of
changes in the DV, so a causal relationship cannot necessarily be established.

 They are hard to replicate as controls and standardization are hard to implement,
so the reliability may be low.

Experimental Design: how participants are allocated to the conditions of the study.
Experimental Design types:

 Independent measures design – different groups of participants are used for each
level of the IV.

 Repeated measures design – each participant takes part in every condition of the
study.

 Matched Pairs Design – participants are matched in pairs according to a

characteristic they have, that is similar.
How to reduce participant variables:

 Implement the repeated measures design.

 Random Allocation – Participants are randomly distributed to each level of the

IV to reduce the effect of individual differences (which is a confounding variable)
affecting the study’s results.

Order effects occur when participants take part in more than one condition of
the study.

 Practice effect – due to familiarity or learning how to solve the task.

 Fatigue effect – Participants’ performance declines when participating for too

long, due to boredom or tiredness.

Use counterbalancing to overcome the order effects from impacting the study’s results,
when implementing the repeated measures design.

When implementing the repeated measures design in a study, there are chances of order
effects impacting the study’s results. Therefore, counterbalancing can be used to reduce
order effects.
Counterbalancing – When the order in which each group attends each level of the IV is
the opposite. A,B. B,A.

How to improve generalisability: Use randomization to select the sample for the
study.
Randomisation: when you choose your sample for the study randomly.

Self Reports
1. Questionnaires – research method using written questions.
Question types:
o Close-ended (pre-set answer choices, quantitative data)
Evaluation:
0. Easier to analyse than interviews as it isn’t affected by researcher bias when
calculating results.

a. Simple to summarise, and derive results, & conclusions from.

b. Responses may be limited – low validity as they can’t explain the reason.

o Open-ended (qualitative data).

Evaluation:

0. Produces in-depth and detailed responses.

a. Difficult to quantify.

b. There is a chance that researcher bias might affect the interpretation of results.
General Questionnaire Evaluations:
 Easy for participants to ignore questions – low generalisability.

 When 2 researchers interpret results there may be a lack of inter-rater reliability.

2. Interviews – research method using verbal questions asked directly.

Interview types:
o Structured (fixed questions)

o unstructured (questions depend on the answer of the respondent)

o semi-structured (fixed and unwritten questions).

Evaluation: Interpretations of self-reports by the researcher must be objective.

Case Studies are detailed investigations about a single person or a small group. The
maximum amount of qualitative and quantitative data is gathered.
Strengths:
 The data collected is highly valid.

 The researcher builds rapport with the subject, making it likely for them to open
up and provide true information.

 The subject is less likely to show demand characteristics as case studies are
longitudinal studies.

Weaknesses:

 The researcher’s findings may be biased due to the close relation with the
subject.

 The data is low in reliability and replicability.

 The data is only internally valid.

Observations
Naturalistic & controlled observations
 An observation is a non-experimental method which
involves observing and recording behaviours in either naturalistic or
controlled settings

 Observers can only investigate observable behaviours i.e. what they

can see e.g.

o a child hits a Bobo doll with a mallet

o a doctor ignores a patient asking them a question

o members of a 'doomsday' cult discuss the impending apocalypse

 Observers cannot infer motive, intention, feeling or thought from an

observation e.g.

o a child hits a Bobo doll because they are naturally violent

o a doctor ignores a patient because the doctor is in a bad mood

o the cult discuss the impending apocalypse because they have all been
brainwashed

 All that can be recorded is the action/behaviour which is then linked to the topic of
the investigation with no assumption of cause-effect
Naturalistic observation
 A naturalistic observation is one in which the researcher observes and records
behaviours in a natural setting, away from the lab, with no manipulation or a
complete absence of an independent variable (IV)) e.g.

o children are observed interacting in the school playground

o shoppers are observed choosing items in a supermarket

o the home crowd is observed at a football match

 Naturalistic observations are used when it would

be inappropriate/unfeasible to run an experiment to investigate the topic e.g.

o attempting to implement an IV and run a controlled

conditions experiment to study how children interact in the playground is
rife with logistical problems and would essentially invalidate itself

 Participants in a naturalistic observation may be unaware that they are being

observed as they are simply going about their regular, everyday activities

o Festinger (1956) and confederates infiltrated a 'doomsday' cult which

believed that the world would end and that cult members would be saved
by escaping on flying saucers

o This was a naturalistic observation as the researchers mingled amongst

the cult members and secretly recorded their observations in note form

Evaluation of naturalistic observations

Strengths
 Naturalistic observations are high in ecological validity

o This is because behaviour is observed in a real-world setting as

participants are going about their daily activities

o This means that their behaviour is natural and unforced

 If the naturalistic observation is covert, participants are unaware they are being
observed and are therefore unlikely to experience the Hawthorne effect

o This is the tendency to change behaviour simply because one knows they
are being studied

o Therefore data collect has high validity

Limitations
 Naturalistic observations cannot be easily replicated due to the uncontrolled
nature of the setting

o No variables are controlled, which makes it difficult to apply scientific

rigor

o This reduces the reliability of the findings

 If the naturalistic observation is covert, serious ethical concerns arise

 o Participants cannot give informed consent, cannot exercise their right
to withdraw, and it may not be possible to debrief them afterward

o If the observation is overt, these ethical concerns are reduced but the risk
of demand characteristics increases

Controlled observation
 A controlled observation is one in which the researcher implements a level of
control, implementing replicable procedures and (sometimes) an IV

 The procedures and phases of a controlled observation must be carefully

designed by the researcher along with the predetermined behavioural
categories to be measured e.g.

o Bandura’s (1961) Bobo doll study used a standardised procedure in lab

conditions across three distinct phases

 phase 1 was exposure to an aggressive model or non-

aggressive model

 phase 2 was the 'arousal' phase

 phase 3 was the observation of the child alone in a room full of

toys plus the Bobo doll

o Ainsworth's (1970) 'Strange Situation' study used seven different phases of

the procedure with distinct categories pre-determined as key
indicators of the baby's attachment style e.g.

 separation anxiety

 stranger anxiety

 reunion behaviours

 Participants know that they are taking part in a controlled observation as they
must be recruited for the study and then set a specific task which is likely to be
quite removed from their everyday activities/experience

Evaluation of controlled observations

Strengths
 Replicable procedures can be set up which adhere more to a scientific method

o The researcher may manipulate an IV

o Participants are tested using the same standards and materials

o Thus this method has good reliability, particularly if more than one
observer is used throughout (known as inter-observer reliability)

 The researcher can be more confident of a cause-effect relationship with a

controlled observation

o In Bandura's study only the children who had observed the aggressive
model performed imitative acts on the Bobo doll
 o This supports the validity of the researcher's hypothesis

Limitations
 The use of controlled conditions and artificial tasks means that controlled
observations are low in ecological validity

o Ainsworth's study placed a mother and baby pair in an unfamiliar

environment including a stranger

o This means that both mother and baby may have been responding in ways
which did not truly represent their attachment style

 Demand characteristics may impair a controlled observation

o The children in Bandura's study may simply have been aggressive because
they thought that this was expected of them (as they had seen an adult
behaving aggressively)

o This would lower the validity of the findings as it would not be a true
effect of the IV on the DV

Covert & overt observations

Covert observation
 In a covert observation:

o participants are not aware that they are being observed and will not have
been informed of this in advance

o participants may not be able to see the researcher observing them

 The only ethical way to conduct a covert observation is to observe behaviour in

a public context that would be happening anyway, regardless of the observation
taking place e.g.

o shoppers in a mall

o a crowd at a football match

o office workers in the workplace

 Covert observations are more likely to occur with naturalistic observations, as

the researcher is keen to preserve the natural and unforced quality of the
behaviour

o E.g. Rosenhan (1973) and confederates covertly observed staff and

patients of several mental hospitals in the USA by faking
symptoms and being admitted as patients themselves

Evaluation of covert observations

Strengths
 As the researcher is hidden from the participants, this means that the behaviour
being observed is more likely to be real and uncontrived

o This means that this type of observation is high in ecological validity

  As the participants are unaware of the researcher, they may behave in ways
which would not necessarily emerge if they knew they were 'on display'

o Piliavin et al. (1969) staged an emergency on a New York subway train

and observed the reactions of passengers

o The covert nature of the observation meant that passengers

were unguarded and open in their responses

o This increases the validity of the findings

Limitations
 There are ethical issues with covert observations

o In Piliavin's New York subway study, the passengers were deceived into
thinking that someone had collapsed in their carriage, which could have
caused them great distress

o Thus, covert observations lack ethical validity

 It is problematic for a researcher if they wish to replicate a covert observational

study

o Rosenhan's covert observation of mental hospital staff could not be

replicated due to the intrusive and unethical nature of the study

o Piliavin's study could not be replicated not only due to ethics but for
the very sound reason that anyone acting suspiciously on public
transport in the 21st century would attract the attention of the security
forces!

Overt observation
 In an overt observation, participants

o are aware that they are being observed and may have been informed of
this in advance

o might be able to see the researcher observing them

 Overt observations are more likely to occur in controlled lab conditions as the
researcher is keen to test the effect of the IV on the DV e.g.

o Bandura tested the effect of observing an aggressive adult model on acts

of imitative aggression in children

o Ainsworth tested the effect of separation anxiety and stranger anxiety on

young babies

 As each of the above studies was a controlled observation it would not have
benefited the study to use covert methods

Evaluation of overt observations

Strengths
 Ethics can be preserved as the researcher makes themselves known to the
participants, who are aware that they are being observed
 o Zimbardo's prison experiment was an overt observation

o Participants knew that they were being observed

o Knowledge of the overt nature of the observation meant that the

participants could more easily exercise their right to withdraw, as there
was no pretence that this was 'real life'

Limitations
 Participants are aware that they are being observed and that their behaviour is
being measured which could give rise to participant reactivity

o This is a type of demand characteristic which involves participants

responding too actively to the research process i.e. trying too hard/not
trying hard enough

o This in turn damages the validity of the findings

 Overt observations may suffer from researcher bias

o The researcher may set up the observation schedule and tasks to align
too closely with their hypothesis

o If so, the researcher has succumbed to confirmation bias as they are

striving to look for behaviours which support their hypothesis rather
than keeping an open mind

Participant & non-participant observations

Participant observation
 In a participant observation:

o The researcher (and possibly confederates of the researcher) join the

group they are observing, becoming part of them

o Participants may not be aware that the researcher is an 'outsider' (in fact
it is highly likely that the observation is covert) e.g.

 Rosenhan and confederates had themselves falsely admitted to

mental hospitals and kept a record of what they observed during
their time there

 Festinger and confederates infiltrated a 'doomsday' cult and kept

a record of their conversations and behaviours

 Piliavin and confederates blended in with New York subway

passengers in their study of bystander behaviour

Evaluation of participant observations

Strengths
 Participant observations mean that the researcher (and confederates) can get
fully involved with the group that they are observing

o This increases the validity of the study as access to real thoughts,

feelings, and conversations is possible (as the participants believe the
researcher to be 'one of us')
  As the researcher is so immersed in the situation they may become aware of
other topics or theories that could be investigated in the future

o In Piliavin's New York subway study, the observers noted that many of
the female passengers did not help in the emergency which could give rise
to further research on gender roles

Limitations
 Participant observations could result in the researcher having a restricted
view of what they wish to observe and thus missing some important behaviours

o In Rosenhan's study, the researcher and confederates did not have full
access to every part of the hospital and all of the staff

o This limits the usefulness of participant observations

 As the researcher is so immersed in the situation they could begin to

lose objectivity

o They may begin to identify with those they are observing, particularly
with long-term studies

o This would damage the validity of the findings

Non-participant observation
 In a non-participant observation:

o The researcher stays separate and apart from the group they are
observing

o Participants may or may not be aware that they are being observed

 This type of observation can be overt or covert

o The researcher takes no part at all in the procedure(s)

 Bandura's study involved the researcher observing the children’s

behaviour from another room via a one-way mirror

 Ainsworth observed baby-mother interactions via a one-way

mirror

Evaluation of non-participant observations

Strengths
 The researcher can keep an objective distance from what is being observed

o This means that they are unlikely to become biased or subjective in

their recording of behaviour

o Thus the validity of the study stays intact

 The researcher is more likely to have a good vantage point from which to
observe behaviour as they are not restricted to particular times, rooms, areas or
locations which could occur with a participant observation
 o This increases the scope of the observation so that more data can be
gathered

Limitations
 Being removed and at a distance from the 'action' means that a non-participant
observation may lack key detail and insight only made possible through the
use of participant observational methods

o This means that a non-participant observation may lack explanatory

power

 As the researcher is apart from what they are observing it is possible that they
could misinterpret some behaviours

o They would not be able to ask the participants for clarification as a

researcher in a participant observation could

o This means that non-participant observations may lack some validity

Structured & unstructured observation

Structured observation
 A structured observation may be chosen by a researcher when observing large
samples in busy environments where many different behaviours are likely to
occur

 Selecting a structured observation allows the researcher to observe a

few specific, clearly defined behaviours rather than trying to make sense of
too much information e.g.

o ignoring instructions/obeying instructions

o dropping litter/putting litter in a bin

o helping/not helping

 The emphasis in structured observation is on gathering quantitative data e.g.

o the number of times shoppers go over to look inside a box when the
instruction 'Look inside this box' is placed next to it

o the frequency with which litter is dropped in a school playground at

lunchtime

o the number of times pedestrians help a confederate, who is pretending

to be blind, cross the road

 Researchers conducting structured observations are interested in a limited set of

behaviours

o This allows them to quantify the observed behaviours

o Rather than recording every single behaviour available, they focus only on
the predetermined areas of interest
Evaluation of structured observation
Strengths
 Using quantitative data is a quick and easy method which can be
presented visually in graphical form or converted to percentages and
statistics

o This is a strength as the data can show trends and frequencies of

behaviour across a large sample

o Large samples and quantitative data lead to reliable results

 Using predetermined categories means that the researcher is not likely to

become distracted or unfocused

o They can ignore any behaviours which do not align with the behavioural
categories they have decided upon

o This ensures that what is being observed is relevant to the research aim

Limitations
 Quantitative data can shed light on what was observed but not on why that
behaviour occurred

o This means that structured observations lack explanatory power

 Using pre-determined categories means that the researcher is unable to

include any behaviours which may be interesting and highly relevant to the
study if they have not been included in the categories beforehand

o This limits the usefulness of structured observations

Unstructured observation
 An unstructured observation may be chosen by a researcher when
observing small samples in more intimate
environments where interpersonal interaction is the focus of the observation

o Selecting an unstructured observation allows the researcher to

observe everything that is happening throughout the session e.g.

 a married couple discussing their feelings about

how equitable their relationship is

 a group of five-year-old children playing with gendered toys

 identical twins talking about the costs and benefits of being

identical

 Unstructured observations are more flexible and open-ended than structured

observations because:

o they are likely to be conducted in a fairly relaxed manner

o they will generally not use predetermined behavioural categories but

instead they simply 'go with the flow' of the observation session
  The emphasis in unstructured observation is on gathering qualitative data e.g.

o verbal and non-verbal communication

o the use of the environment e.g. where people choose to sit/stand/place

themselves

o the quality of conversation and spoken utterances e.g. light-

hearted/serious/aggressive/bored/confused/sarcastic etc.

 Researchers conducting unstructured observations are interested in the full

range of behaviours on display

 Observing all behaviours allows them to see 'inside' the behaviour by

not restricting it to a few, limited categories

Evaluation of unstructured observation

Strengths
 This type of observation allows a researcher to gain rich, insightful data full
of depth and detail

o The recorded data is likely to be highly subjective and personal to those

being observed

o Thus it is high in ecological validity

 By focusing on the unique experiences, opinions and personal 'journey' of a

participant an unstructured observation is a good method to use when conducting
a case study

o The data from the observation session(s) can then be used in conjunction
with other methods

o This would result in the triangulation of data and

method which increases the validity of a study

Limitations
 Due to the highly personal and subjective nature of unstructured
observations, the researcher may lose their sense of objectivity

o They may become too close to the participants

o They may use confirmation bias when analysing their record of the
sessions

o They may (consciously or unconsciously) overlook or miss some

important details from the observation sessions

o A lack of objectivity means that the findings would be unreliable

 Analysing the data from unstructured observations is time-consuming and

depends largely on the researcher's interpretation of the data

o This means that the published findings may not be a valid account of the
observation process
Behavioural categories
 Behavioural categories are used to record specific behaviours during one
observation session

 The categories must be designed to only record observable behaviours; there

can be no ambiguity about what is being observed e.g.

o punching/kicking/shoving rather than just 'aggressive behaviour'

o crossing arms/frowning/pursing lips rather than just 'defensive body

language'

o pressing a button/looking at a notice/stopping at a sign rather than just

'obedient behaviour'

 The researchers will have previously agreed on which specific

behaviours should be recorded so that all observers agree before the
observation begins

 The behaviour categories should be unambiguous e.g.

o in an observation of children’s aggression the categories could be:

 ABL = Aggressive body language

 AGB = Aggressive behaviour

 NABG = Non-aggressive behaviour

 These behavioural categories would then have to be operationalised to make

sure that they are specific and cannot be confused with anything else e.g.

o ABL could be subdivided into ‘pointing’, ‘shaking fist’, ‘baring teeth’

o AGB could be subdivided into ‘punching’, ‘kicking’, ‘shoving’

o NABG could be subdivided into ‘smiling’, ‘arm-linking’, ‘hugging’

 These categories could then be arranged into whether it is boys or girls who
are being aggressive/non-aggressive and to whom the aggression/non-aggression
is directed e.g.

o aggression towards another boy(s) or another girl(s) for even

more detail and insight into the behaviour

 Even when categories of behaviour are firmly established an observation can still
be affected by researcher bias

 Researchers can test the reliability of their observations by comparing them with
another researcher's recording of their behaviours

o The level of consistency between the two records is then compared

 Inter-observer reliability is the level of consistency between two or more

trained observers when they conduct the same observation
 o All observers must agree on the behaviour categories and how they are
going to record them before the observation begins

o The observation is conducted separately/individually by each observer

to avoid conformity (i.e. one observer may be influenced by one or more
other observers)

o After the observational period

 the observers compare the two independent data sets (often

designed as a tally chart)

 they then test the correlation between the two sets

 if there is a strong positive correlation between the sets then

this shows that there is good inter-observer reliability and that
the behaviour categories are reliable

 Establishing good inter-observer reliability means that there is less chance that
researcher bias has interfered with the observation

Evaluation of behavioural categories

Strengths
 The use of clearly defined, unambiguous categories of behaviour enables the
researcher to achieve an objective view of what is being observed

o This means that subjectivity and the need to interpret the behaviour is
eliminated

o Eliminating subjectivity moves the process closer to the scientific

method

 The use of more than one observer should ensure inter-observer reliability

o Being able to claim reliability means that the research is less likely to
be criticised during the peer review process

Limitations
 The predetermined behavioural categories may be limiting in terms of the
types of behaviours enacted during an observation session

o If one or more behaviours recur without there being categories for them
then this means that the research does not accurately represent what
occurred during the session

o This in turn would lower the validity of the findings

 One issue with inter-observer reliability is that it does not allow for the possibility
that raters simply guessed rather than scoring the categories according to strict
criteria

o Thus it may overestimate the true agreement between observers

Sampling methods: event sampling & time sampling
 It can be difficult to observe all behaviours at all times during an observation,
especially if it is a continuous observation

 Researchers therefore can choose a sampling procedure to help structure and

organise the observation session using either (and sometimes both)

o event sampling

o time sampling

 With event sampling the researcher records/tallies every time a behaviour

from a specific behavioural category occurs e.g.

o every time litter is dropped rather than put into a bin

o the frequency with which children in a classroom raise their hands to ask
a question

 With time sampling the researcher records all behaviours during a set time
frame, at a set point e.g.

o they record their observations for 20 seconds at a time every 15

minutes over a 2-hour observation schedule

o they record their observations for 15 minutes every 3 hours of a two-day

observation schedule

 The researcher decides which time sample is most appropriate for that specific
piece of research

Evaluation of event sampling & time sampling

Strengths
 Event sampling ensures that specific behaviours will not be missed or
overlooked as they are set out in the behavioural categories

 Time sampling allows the researcher flexibility to record any behaviours which
may be relevant to the research

o Time sampling also offers researchers the opportunity to

record unexpected behaviours which may trigger new research projects
for future reference

Limitations
 If too many of the specific behaviours occur at once and are overly complex it is
difficult for event sampling to capture them all

o This limits the validity of the method as it would not provide a true
reflection of what occurred during the observation session

 Time sampling can miss any behaviours that occur outside of the set time frame

o This limits the validity of the method as some behaviours will be over-
represented in the findings
Correlations

A correlation is a statistical relationship that suggests the probability of a true

relationship between the IV and DV of the study. A correlational relationship is not
necessarily a causal relationship.

To make sure whether a correlational relationship is causal, the two variables must be
investigated in a laboratory environment where extraneous variables are controlled.

Research Process

Hypothesis – a testable statement predicting the outcomes of a study.

 Non-directional hypotheses: predicts that there will be a relationship between
the variables, but does not specify the direction of the relationship.

 Directional hypotheses: predicts that there will be a specific relationship

between the variables.

 Null hypotheses: any relationship that is found between the variables is purely
due to chance.

Variables

Operationalisation: defining variables to accurately manipulate, measure, quantify,

and replicate.

Pilot studies are conducted to analyse the technical and financial risks and to assess
the feasibility of the study. Any plausible confounding variables are found and controlled
to ensure it does not affect the real trial.

Standardised procedures are important to ensure that all participants undergo the
same procedure. This helps to increase reliability and replicability.

Sampling participants

 Opportunity sampling: participants are chosen because they are available.

Strengths – Quicker and easier than other methods.
Weakness – Likely to be non-representative, as people from the same area may
be a biased sample.

 Volunteer (self-selecting) sampling: participants are invited to participate.

Those who reply will be part of the sample.
 Strengths – participants are likely to stay committed and would be willing to
return for repeated testing.
Weakness – The sample may be unrepresentative because people who respond
may be similar (they may have free time).

 Random sampling: all participants are chosen randomly. Could be with a draw,
or random number generator.
Strengths – The sample is likely to be representative of the target population as
all type of people has an equal chance of being chosen.
Weakness – Everyone may not be equally chosen. For example, there could be
more girls chosen randomly than boys.

Data & Data Analysis

Quantitative Data: data in numerical format.

Strengths: objective measure, very reliable, data can be analysed using statistical
methods and, data is easy to compare.
Weaknesses: limits responses of participants, so data may not be very valid.

Qualitative Data: data written in a non-numerical format that often expresses a quality
or opinion.
Strengths: highly valid, unrequested, but important data is incurred.
Weaknesses: data interpretation may be subjective. Not representative, generalisable, or
reliable.

Data can be analysed using the measure of central tendency such as the mode, median,
and mean, and measures of spread such as the range, and standard deviation.

The measure of central tendency: a mathematical way to find the average score from
a data set using the mode, median, and mean.

Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and dividing them by the
number of scores in the data set.

Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked in order (ascending order)

Mode is the most frequent score in a data set

Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation or spread within a
data set. This includes the range and the standard deviation.

The range is between the most significant and negligible values with an addition 1.

Standard deviation calculates the average difference between each score and the data
set's mean.

The normal distribution is an even spread of a symmetrical variable about the mean,
median and mode. It forms a bell-shaped curve and is symmetrical.

Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories and total or average scores.
There are gaps between the columns as the data is not related linearly.

A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.

A scatter graph is a way to display data from a correlational analysis

Ethical Considerations

For human participants:

 Informed consent: The aim should be told to the participants before the study. If
the aim needs to be hidden to protect the validity of the finding, then sufficient
data about the study should be given to participants for them to decide whether
they want to participate or not.

 Protection (physical and physiological)

 Right to withdraw: they should be informed that they can withdraw at any
point.

 Deception: participants should not be deceived during the study however if it’s
necessary to do so to protect the findings of the study, then participants need to
be debriefed.

 Confidentiality: participants’ identities and personal data should be concealed

from the general public.

 Privacy: Invasive/private questions should be avoided. Participants should be

made aware of their right to ignore the questions they incur during the study.
  Debriefing

For animals:

 Replacement: try to use alternatives such as video recordings instead of

animals.

 Species and strain: chosen species/strain should be least likely to suffer pain.
Whether they were socially housed or participated in other studies.

 The number of animals: minimum no. of animals required should be used.

 Pain and distress: research causing any form of physical, emotional, or

psychological harm should not be conducted.

 Housing: Isolation and crowding can cause animals distress. Caging conditions
should depend on the social behaviour of the species. Overcrowding ➔ distress &
aggression.

 Rewards, deprivation, and aversive stimuli: Normal drinking and feeding

patterns of the animal should be followed. Preferred food should be used as a
motivator, rather than deprivation.

 Anaesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia: During surgery, anaesthesia and

analgesia should be used. If the animal suffers lasting pain, it should be
euthanised.

Evaluating Research
 Reliability – the consistency of the outcome.

 Validity – the extent to which the study measures what is intended to study.

 Ecological Validity – the extent to which the results of the study represent real-
life behaviour.

 Generalisability – the extent to which the results represent the behaviour of the
target population.

 Test-retest: a way to measure the consistency of a test. The test is used twice
and if the scores on both tests are similar, then it has good reliability.

 Demand Characteristics – when participants change their behaviour as they

derive cues on what is expected of them.
 Inter-rater reliability – the extent to which similar conclusions are produced by
two researchers interpreting the same qualitative responses.

 Inter-observer reliability – the extent to which similar observations are

produced by two researchers observing the same event.

Validity

Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing.

Internal validity is how well an experiment controls confounding variables. This allows
the researcher to be more condent about the causal relationship.

Ecological validity is the extent to which the findings in one situation would
generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation represents
the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life.

Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents the real-world situation.

Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a measure appears to test

what it claims to.

Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a measure that has previously
been validated.

Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a study apply to other

settings and populations.

Demand characteristics are features of an experiment that give away the aims. This
could cause participants to change their behaviour and hence reduce the validity of
the study.

Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by an individual’s feelings,

beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent between different researchers. This
would increase the validity of the study.

Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased by one’s feelings, beliefs or

experiences and may differ between researchers. Since this is not consistent, it may
reduce the validity of the study

Reliability

This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent.

Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are standardised so that each
participant experiences the same thing.
External reliability is the extent to which the results of a procedure can be replicated
from one time to another, gaining consistent results.

Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two researchers

interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same records from the same raw
data.

There are two methods to test the reliability of a study: the split-half method and the
test-retest method

The split-half method involves the results of the first half of the questionnaire or
interview to be the same as the results of second half when the questions are the
same in both halves but presented in different a manner.

The test-retest method is a way to measure the consistency of a test or task by using
it twice and then comparing the results of each time to check how similar they are.