Research Methods

The Independent Variable (IV) is the variable that is manipulated by the

researcher to check its effect on the dependent variable.

The Dependent Variable (DV) is the variable being measured by the

researcher.

Research Methods
Experiments
Experiments look for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is
manipulated to cause a change in the dependent variable.

Experiment types:

 Laboratory experiment – the experiment is conducted in an

unnatural and controlled environment. The IV is manipulated
by the researcher.
 Field experiment – the experiment takes place in natural
settings, and the IV is manipulated by the researcher.
 Natural experiment – the experiment takes place in a
natural setting and the IV is not directly manipulated by the
researcher. It happens naturally by chance.
 Quasi-experiment – the researcher has lots of control over
the procedure, but not over the allocation of participants.

Laboratory Experiments Evaluation

Strengths:

 Allows extraneous variables such as participant variables

(individual differences) to be controlled. This helps raise
validity.
 Causal relationships can be determined with the scientific data
gathered (quantitative data) since lab experiments attempt to
make studies as scientific as possible.
  Standardised procedures help raise reliability and allow
replication.

Weaknesses:

 Since the experiment takes place in artificial settings, there

are chances of participants exhibiting demand characteristics
and social desirability bias.
 Participants could act on the demand characteristics as a
response and alter their behaviour which would lead to lower
validity and ecological validity.
 Furthermore, the mundane realism of any tasks involved in the
lab exp. would be low. Mundane realism is the extent to which
any tasks involved in a study represent real-world activities.

Field Experiments Evaluation

Strengths:

 Participants are in natural settings showing their natural

behaviour, hence they are likely to show their true behaviour.
This would make the results highly valid, ecologically valid, and
representative.
 If participants are unaware that they are in a study, there is
very less chance of participants exhibiting demand
characteristics, in comparison to lab experiments.

Weaknesses:

 There are chances of uncontrolled, extraneous variables

affecting the experiment process, which could lead to obscure
results. This means the reliability and replicability of the
research lowers since not all variables can be factored in
again.
 The researcher will be less sure that changes in the DV are
caused by changes in the IV, in comparison to lab experiments.
This leads to lower validity.
  The participants are unaware that they are in a study, and this
raises the ethical issues of privacy, confidentiality, and lack of
consent.

Natural Experiments Evaluation

Strengths:

 Natural experiments help to study real-world issues.

 When participants are in natural settings, their behaviour is
likely to be true, and representative. This means the ecological
validity is high.
 As participants are unaware of their participation in the
research, there are very less chances of demand
characteristics affecting the experiment.
 They help researchers investigate variables which wouldn’t be
practical or ethical to manipulate.

Weaknesses:

 Natural experiments are only possible to conduct when

changes in variables occur naturally.
 Extraneous variables are often very difficult to control.
 As the researcher isn’t manipulating the IV, they will be less
sure of the cause of changes in the DV, so a causal relationship
cannot necessarily be established.
 They are hard to replicate as controls and standardization are
hard to implement, so the reliability may be low.
Experimental Design: how participants are allocated to the conditions of the
study.
Experimental Design types:

 Independent measures design – different groups of participants

are used for each level of the IV.
 Repeated measures design – each participant takes part in
every condition of the study.
 Matched Pairs Design – participants are matched in pairs
according to a characteristic they have, that is similar.
How to reduce participant variables:

 Implement the repeated measures design.

 Random Allocation – Participants are randomly distributed to
each level of the IV to reduce the effect of individual
differences (which is a confounding variable) affecting the
study’s results.

Order effects occur when participants take part in more than one
condition of the study.

 Practice effect – due to familiarity or learning how to solve

the task.
 Fatigue effect – Participants’ performance declines when
participating for too long, due to boredom or tiredness.

Use counterbalancing to overcome the order effects from impacting the

study’s results, when implementing the repeated measures design.

When implementing the repeated measures design in a study, there are

chances of order effects impacting the study’s results. Therefore,
counterbalancing can be used to reduce order effects.

Counterbalancing – When the order in which each group attends each level
of the IV is the opposite. A,B. B,A.

How to improve generalisability: Use randomization to select the sample for

the study.
Randomisation: when you choose your sample for the study randomly.

Self Reports
1. Questionnaires – research method using written questions.
Question types:
o Close-ended (pre-set answer choices, quantitative data)
Evaluation:
a. Easier to analyse than interviews as it isn’t affected by
researcher bias when calculating results.
b. Simple to summarise, and derive results, & conclusions from.
c. Responses may be limited – low validity as they can’t explain
the reason.
o Open-ended (qualitative data).
Evaluation:
a. Produces in-depth and detailed responses.
b. Difficult to quantify.
c. There is a chance that researcher bias might affect the
interpretation of results.
General Questionnaire Evaluations:
 Easy for participants to ignore questions – low generalisability.
 When 2 researchers interpret results there may be a lack of
inter-rater reliability.
2. Interviews – research method using verbal questions asked
directly.
Interview types:
o Structured (fixed questions)
 o unstructured (questions depend on the answer of the
respondent)
o semi-structured (fixed and unwritten questions).
Evaluation: Interpretations of self-reports by the researcher
must be objective.

Case Studies are detailed investigations about a single person or a

small group. The maximum amount of qualitative and quantitative data is
gathered.

Strengths:
 The data collected is highly valid.

 The researcher builds rapport with the subject, making it likely

for them to open up and provide true information.
 The subject is less likely to show demand characteristics as
case studies are longitudinal studies.

Weaknesses:

 The researcher’s findings may be biased due to the close

relation with the subject.
 The data is low in reliability and replicability.
 The data is only internally valid.

Observations
Naturalistic & controlled
observations
 An observation is a non-experimental method which
involves observing and recording behaviours in
either naturalistic or controlled settings

 Observers can only investigate observable behaviours i.e. what

they can see e.g.

o a child hits a Bobo doll with a mallet

o a doctor ignores a patient asking them a question

 o members of a 'doomsday' cult discuss the impending
apocalypse

 Observers cannot infer motive, intention, feeling or

thought from an observation e.g.

o a child hits a Bobo doll because they are naturally violent

o a doctor ignores a patient because the doctor is in a bad mood

o the cult discuss the impending apocalypse because they have

all been brainwashed

 All that can be recorded is the action/behaviour which is then linked

to the topic of the investigation with no assumption of cause-
effect

Naturalistic observation
 A naturalistic observation is one in which the researcher
observes and records behaviours in a natural setting, away from
the lab, with no manipulation or a complete absence of an
independent variable (IV)) e.g.

o children are observed interacting in the school playground

o shoppers are observed choosing items in a supermarket

o the home crowd is observed at a football match

 Naturalistic observations are used when it would

be inappropriate/unfeasible to run an experiment to investigate
the topic e.g.

o attempting to implement an IV and run a controlled

conditions experiment to study how children interact in the
playground is rife with logistical problems and would
essentially invalidate itself

 Participants in a naturalistic observation may be unaware that they

are being observed as they are simply going about their
regular, everyday activities

o Festinger (1956) and confederates infiltrated a 'doomsday'

cult which believed that the world would end and that cult
members would be saved by escaping on flying saucers
 o This was a naturalistic observation as the
researchers mingled amongst the cult members
and secretly recorded their observations in note form

Evaluation of naturalistic observations

Strengths
 Naturalistic observations are high in ecological validity

o This is because behaviour is observed in a real-world

setting as participants are going about their daily activities

o This means that their behaviour is natural and unforced

 If the naturalistic observation is covert, participants are unaware

they are being observed and are therefore unlikely to experience
the Hawthorne effect

o This is the tendency to change behaviour simply because one

knows they are being studied

o Therefore data collect has high validity

Limitations
 Naturalistic observations cannot be easily replicated due to the
uncontrolled nature of the setting

o No variables are controlled, which makes it difficult to

apply scientific rigor

o This reduces the reliability of the findings

 If the naturalistic observation is covert, serious ethical concerns

arise

o Participants cannot give informed consent, cannot exercise

their right to withdraw, and it may not be possible
to debrief them afterward

o If the observation is overt, these ethical concerns are reduced

but the risk of demand characteristics increases

Controlled observation
 A controlled observation is one in which the researcher
implements a level of control, implementing replicable
procedures and (sometimes) an IV
  The procedures and phases of a controlled observation must
be carefully designed by the researcher along with
the predetermined behavioural categories to be measured e.g.

o Bandura’s (1961) Bobo doll study used a standardised

procedure in lab conditions across three distinct phases

 phase 1 was exposure to an aggressive model or

non-aggressive model

 phase 2 was the 'arousal' phase

 phase 3 was the observation of the child alone in a

room full of toys plus the Bobo doll

o Ainsworth's (1970) 'Strange Situation' study used seven

different phases of the procedure with distinct
categories pre-determined as key indicators of the
baby's attachment style e.g.

 separation anxiety

 stranger anxiety

 reunion behaviours

 Participants know that they are taking part in a controlled

observation as they must be recruited for the study and then set
a specific task which is likely to be quite removed from their
everyday activities/experience

Evaluation of controlled observations

Strengths
 Replicable procedures can be set up which adhere more to a
scientific method

o The researcher may manipulate an IV

o Participants are tested using the same standards and

materials

o Thus this method has good reliability, particularly if more

than one observer is used throughout (known as inter-
observer reliability)

 The researcher can be more confident of a cause-

effect relationship with a controlled observation
 o In Bandura's study only the children who had observed
the aggressive model performed imitative acts on the
Bobo doll

o This supports the validity of the researcher's hypothesis

Limitations
 The use of controlled conditions and artificial tasks means that
controlled observations are low in ecological validity

o Ainsworth's study placed a mother and baby pair in

an unfamiliar environment including a stranger

o This means that both mother and baby may have been
responding in ways which did not
truly represent their attachment style

 Demand characteristics may impair a controlled observation

o The children in Bandura's study may simply have been

aggressive because they thought that this was expected of
them (as they had seen an adult behaving aggressively)

o This would lower the validity of the findings as it would not

be a true effect of the IV on the DV

Covert & overt observations

Covert observation
 In a covert observation:

o participants are not aware that they are being observed and
will not have been informed of this in advance

o participants may not be able

to see the researcher observing them

 The only ethical way to conduct a covert observation is to observe

behaviour in a public context that would be happening anyway,
regardless of the observation taking place e.g.

o shoppers in a mall

o a crowd at a football match

o office workers in the workplace

  Covert observations are more likely to occur with naturalistic
observations, as the researcher is keen to preserve the natural
and unforced quality of the behaviour

o E.g. Rosenhan (1973) and confederates covertly observed

staff and patients of several mental hospitals in the USA
by faking symptoms and being admitted as patients
themselves

Evaluation of covert observations

Strengths
 As the researcher is hidden from the participants, this means that
the behaviour being observed is more likely to be real and
uncontrived

o This means that this type of observation is high in ecological

validity

 As the participants are unaware of the researcher, they may

behave in ways which would not necessarily emerge if they knew
they were 'on display'

o Piliavin et al. (1969) staged an emergency on a New York

subway train and observed the reactions of passengers

o The covert nature of the observation meant that passengers

were unguarded and open in their responses

o This increases the validity of the findings

Limitations
 There are ethical issues with covert observations

o In Piliavin's New York subway study, the passengers

were deceived into thinking that someone had collapsed in
their carriage, which could have caused them great distress

o Thus, covert observations lack ethical validity

 It is problematic for a researcher if they wish to replicate a covert

observational study

o Rosenhan's covert observation of mental hospital staff

could not be replicated due to the intrusive and
unethical nature of the study
 o Piliavin's study could not be replicated not only due to
ethics but for the very sound reason that anyone acting
suspiciously on public transport in the 21st century would
attract the attention of the security forces!

Overt observation
 In an overt observation, participants

o are aware that they are being observed and may have
been informed of this in advance

o might be able to see the researcher observing them

 Overt observations are more likely to occur in controlled lab

conditions as the researcher is keen to test the effect of the IV
on the DV e.g.

o Bandura tested the effect of observing an aggressive adult

model on acts of imitative aggression in children

o Ainsworth tested the effect of separation anxiety and

stranger anxiety on young babies

 As each of the above studies was a controlled observation it

would not have benefited the study to use covert methods

Evaluation of overt observations

Strengths
 Ethics can be preserved as the researcher makes themselves
known to the participants, who are aware that they are being
observed

o Zimbardo's prison experiment was an overt observation

o Participants knew that they were being observed

o Knowledge of the overt nature of the observation meant that

the participants could more easily exercise their right to
withdraw, as there was no pretence that this was 'real life'

Limitations
 Participants are aware that they are being observed and that their
behaviour is being measured which could give rise to participant
reactivity
 o This is a type of demand characteristic which involves
participants responding too actively to the research process
i.e. trying too hard/not trying hard enough

o This in turn damages the validity of the findings

 Overt observations may suffer from researcher bias

o The researcher may set up the observation schedule and

tasks to align too closely with their hypothesis

o If so, the researcher has succumbed to confirmation bias as

they are striving to look for behaviours which support
their hypothesis rather than keeping an open mind

Participant & non-participant

observations
Participant observation
 In a participant observation:

o The researcher (and possibly confederates of the

researcher) join the group they are observing, becoming
part of them

o Participants may not be aware that the researcher is an

'outsider' (in fact it is highly likely that the observation
is covert) e.g.

 Rosenhan and confederates had themselves falsely

admitted to mental hospitals and kept a record of what
they observed during their time there

 Festinger and confederates infiltrated a 'doomsday'

cult and kept a record of their conversations and
behaviours

 Piliavin and confederates blended in with New York

subway passengers in their study
of bystander behaviour
Evaluation of participant observations
Strengths
 Participant observations mean that the researcher (and
confederates) can get fully involved with the group that they are
observing

o This increases the validity of the study as access to

real thoughts, feelings, and conversations is possible (as
the participants believe the researcher to be 'one of us')

 As the researcher is so immersed in the situation they may become

aware of other topics or theories that could be investigated in the
future

o In Piliavin's New York subway study, the observers noted

that many of the female passengers did not help in the
emergency which could give rise to further research
on gender roles

Limitations
 Participant observations could result in the researcher having
a restricted view of what they wish to observe and
thus missing some important behaviours

o In Rosenhan's study, the researcher and confederates did not

have full access to every part of the hospital and all of the
staff

o This limits the usefulness of participant observations

 As the researcher is so immersed in the situation they could begin

to lose objectivity

o They may begin to identify with those they are observing,

particularly with long-term studies

o This would damage the validity of the findings

Non-participant observation
 In a non-participant observation:

o The researcher stays separate and apart from the group they
are observing

o Participants may or may not be aware that they are being

observed
  This type of observation can be overt or covert

o The researcher takes no part at all in the procedure(s)

 Bandura's study involved the researcher observing the

children’s behaviour from another room via a one-way
mirror

 Ainsworth observed baby-mother interactions via a

one-way mirror

Evaluation of non-participant observations

Strengths
 The researcher can keep an objective distance from what is being
observed

o This means that they are unlikely to become biased or

subjective in their recording of behaviour

o Thus the validity of the study stays intact

 The researcher is more likely to have a good vantage point from

which to observe behaviour as they are not restricted to particular
times, rooms, areas or locations which could occur with a participant
observation

o This increases the scope of the observation so that more

data can be gathered

Limitations
 Being removed and at a distance from the 'action' means that a
non-participant observation may lack key detail and insight only
made possible through the use of participant observational methods

o This means that a non-participant observation may lack

explanatory power

 As the researcher is apart from what they are observing it is

possible that they could misinterpret some behaviours

o They would not be able to ask the participants for clarification

as a researcher in a participant observation could

o This means that non-participant observations

may lack some validity
Structured & unstructured
observation
Structured observation
 A structured observation may be chosen by a researcher when
observing large samples in busy environments where many
different behaviours are likely to occur

 Selecting a structured observation allows the researcher to observe

a few specific, clearly defined behaviours rather than trying to
make sense of too much information e.g.

o ignoring instructions/obeying instructions

o dropping litter/putting litter in a bin

o helping/not helping

 The emphasis in structured observation is on

gathering quantitative data e.g.

o the number of times shoppers go over to look inside a box

when the instruction 'Look inside this box' is placed next to it

o the frequency with which litter is dropped in a school

playground at lunchtime

o the number of times pedestrians help a confederate, who is

pretending to be blind, cross the road

 Researchers conducting structured observations are interested in

a limited set of behaviours

o This allows them to quantify the observed behaviours

o Rather than recording every single behaviour available, they

focus only on the predetermined areas of interest

Evaluation of structured observation

Strengths
 Using quantitative data is a quick and easy method which can be
presented visually in graphical form or converted
to percentages and statistics
 o This is a strength as the data can show trends and
frequencies of behaviour across a large sample

o Large samples and quantitative data lead to reliable results

 Using predetermined categories means that the researcher is not

likely to become distracted or unfocused

o They can ignore any behaviours which do not align with

the behavioural categories they have decided upon

o This ensures that what is being observed is relevant to the

research aim

Limitations
 Quantitative data can shed light on what was observed
but not on why that behaviour occurred

o This means that structured observations lack explanatory

power

 Using pre-determined categories means that the researcher

is unable to include any behaviours which may be interesting
and highly relevant to the study if they have not been included in
the categories beforehand

o This limits the usefulness of structured observations

Unstructured observation
 An unstructured observation may be chosen by a researcher when
observing small samples in more intimate
environments where interpersonal interaction is the focus of
the observation

o Selecting an unstructured observation allows the researcher

to observe everything that is happening throughout the
session e.g.

 a married couple discussing their feelings about

how equitable their relationship is

 a group of five-year-old children playing with gendered

toys

 identical twins talking about the costs and benefits of

being identical
  Unstructured observations are more flexible and open-
ended than structured observations because:

o they are likely to be conducted in a fairly relaxed manner

o they will generally not use predetermined behavioural

categories but instead they simply 'go with the flow' of the
observation session

 The emphasis in unstructured observation is on

gathering qualitative data e.g.

o verbal and non-verbal communication

o the use of the environment e.g. where people choose to

sit/stand/place themselves

o the quality of conversation and spoken utterances e.g.

light-hearted/serious/aggressive/bored/confused/sarcastic etc.

 Researchers conducting unstructured observations are interested in

the full range of behaviours on display

 Observing all behaviours allows them to see 'inside' the behaviour

by not restricting it to a few, limited categories

Evaluation of unstructured observation

Strengths
 This type of observation allows a researcher to gain rich,
insightful data full of depth and detail

o The recorded data is likely to be highly subjective and

personal to those being observed

o Thus it is high in ecological validity

 By focusing on the unique experiences, opinions and personal

'journey' of a participant an unstructured observation is a good
method to use when conducting a case study

o The data from the observation session(s) can then be used in

conjunction with other methods

o This would result in the triangulation of data and

method which increases the validity of a study
Limitations
 Due to the highly personal and subjective nature of
unstructured observations, the researcher may lose their sense
of objectivity

o They may become too close to the participants

o They may use confirmation

bias when analysing their record of the sessions

o They may (consciously or unconsciously) overlook or

miss some important details from the observation sessions

o A lack of objectivity means that the findings would

be unreliable

 Analysing the data from unstructured observations is time-

consuming and depends largely on the
researcher's interpretation of the data

o This means that the published findings may not be a valid

account of the observation process

Behavioural categories
 Behavioural categories are used to record specific behaviours
during one observation session

 The categories must be designed

to only record observable behaviours; there can be
no ambiguity about what is being observed e.g.

o punching/kicking/shoving rather than just 'aggressive

behaviour'

o crossing arms/frowning/pursing lips rather than just 'defensive

body language'

o pressing a button/looking at a notice/stopping at a sign rather

than just 'obedient behaviour'

 The researchers will have previously agreed on which specific

behaviours should be recorded so that all observers agree before
the observation begins

 The behaviour categories should be unambiguous e.g.

 o in an observation of children’s aggression the categories
could be:

 ABL = Aggressive body language

 AGB = Aggressive behaviour

 NABG = Non-aggressive behaviour

 These behavioural categories would then have to

be operationalised to make sure that they are specific and
cannot be confused with anything else e.g.

o ABL could be subdivided into ‘pointing’, ‘shaking fist’,

‘baring teeth’

o AGB could be subdivided into ‘punching’, ‘kicking’,

‘shoving’

o NABG could be subdivided into ‘smiling’, ‘arm-linking’,

‘hugging’

 These categories could then be arranged into whether it is boys or

girls who are being aggressive/non-aggressive and to whom the
aggression/non-aggression is directed e.g.

o aggression towards another boy(s) or another girl(s) for even

more detail and insight into the behaviour

 Even when categories of behaviour are firmly established an

observation can still be affected by researcher bias

 Researchers can test the reliability of their observations by

comparing them with another researcher's recording of their
behaviours

o The level of consistency between the two records is

then compared

 Inter-observer reliability is the level

of consistency between two or more trained observers when
they conduct the same observation

o All observers must agree on the behaviour categories and

how they are going to record them before the observation
begins
 o The observation is conducted separately/individually by
each observer to avoid conformity (i.e. one observer may
be influenced by one or more other observers)

o After the observational period

 the observers compare the two independent data

sets (often designed as a tally chart)

 they then test the correlation between the two sets

 if there is a strong positive correlation between the

sets then this shows that there is good inter-observer
reliability and that the behaviour categories
are reliable

 Establishing good inter-observer reliability means that there is less

chance that researcher bias has interfered with the observation

Evaluation of behavioural categories

Strengths
 The use of clearly defined, unambiguous categories of behaviour
enables the researcher to achieve an objective view of what is
being observed

o This means that subjectivity and the need to interpret the

behaviour is eliminated

o Eliminating subjectivity moves the process closer to

the scientific method

 The use of more than one observer should ensure inter-

observer reliability

o Being able to claim reliability means that the research is less

likely to be criticised during the peer review process

Limitations
 The predetermined behavioural categories may be limiting in
terms of the types of behaviours enacted during an observation
session

o If one or more behaviours recur without there being

categories for them then this means that the research
does not accurately represent what occurred during the
session
 o This in turn would lower the validity of the findings

 One issue with inter-observer reliability is that it does not allow for
the possibility that raters simply guessed rather than scoring the
categories according to strict criteria

o Thus it may overestimate the true agreement between

observers

Sampling methods: event

sampling & time sampling
 It can be difficult to observe all behaviours at all times during an
observation, especially if it is a continuous observation

 Researchers therefore can choose a sampling procedure to help

structure and organise the observation session using either (and
sometimes both)

o event sampling

o time sampling

 With event sampling the researcher records/tallies every time a

behaviour from a specific behavioural category occurs e.g.

o every time litter is dropped rather than put into a bin

o the frequency with which children in a classroom raise their

hands to ask a question

 With time sampling the researcher records all behaviours during

a set time frame, at a set point e.g.

o they record their observations for 20 seconds at a time

every 15 minutes over a 2-hour observation schedule

o they record their observations for 15 minutes every 3

hours of a two-day observation schedule

 The researcher decides which time sample is most appropriate for

that specific piece of research
Evaluation of event sampling & time
sampling
Strengths
 Event sampling ensures that specific behaviours will not be
missed or overlooked as they are set out in the behavioural
categories

 Time sampling allows the researcher flexibility to record any

behaviours which may be relevant to the research

o Time sampling also offers researchers the opportunity to

record unexpected behaviours which may trigger new
research projects for future reference

Limitations
 If too many of the specific behaviours occur at once and are
overly complex it is difficult for event sampling to capture them all

o This limits the validity of the method as it

would not provide a true reflection of what occurred during
the observation session

 Time sampling can miss any behaviours that occur outside of the
set time frame

o This limits the validity of the method as some behaviours

will be over-represented in the findings

Correlations
A correlation is a statistical relationship that suggests the probability of a true
relationship between the IV and DV of the study. A correlational relationship is
not necessarily a causal relationship.

To make sure whether a correlational relationship is causal, the two variables

must be investigated in a laboratory environment where extraneous variables
are controlled.

Research Process

Hypothesis – a testable statement predicting the outcomes of a study.

  Non-directional hypotheses: predicts that there will be a
relationship between the variables, but does not specify the
direction of the relationship.
 Directional hypotheses: predicts that there will be a specific
relationship between the variables.
 Null hypotheses: any relationship that is found between the
variables is purely due to chance.

Variables

Operationalisation: defining variables to accurately manipulate, measure,

quantify, and replicate.

Pilot studies are conducted to analyse the technical and financial risks and to
assess the feasibility of the study. Any plausible confounding variables are
found and controlled to ensure it does not affect the real trial.

Standardised procedures are important to ensure that all participants

undergo the same procedure. This helps to increase reliability and
replicability.

Sampling participants

 Opportunity sampling: participants are chosen because they

are available.
Strengths – Quicker and easier than other methods.
Weakness – Likely to be non-representative, as people from
the same area may be a biased sample.
 Volunteer (self-selecting) sampling: participants are
invited to participate. Those who reply will be part of the
sample.
Strengths – participants are likely to stay committed and would
be willing to return for repeated testing.
Weakness – The sample may be unrepresentative because
people who respond may be similar (they may have free time).
  Random sampling: all participants are chosen randomly.
Could be with a draw, or random number generator.
Strengths – The sample is likely to be representative of the
target population as all type of people has an equal chance of
being chosen.
Weakness – Everyone may not be equally chosen. For
example, there could be more girls chosen randomly than
boys.

Data & Data Analysis

Quantitative Data: data in numerical format.

Strengths: objective measure, very reliable, data can be analysed using
statistical methods and, data is easy to compare.
Weaknesses: limits responses of participants, so data may not be very valid.

Qualitative Data: data written in a non-numerical format that often expresses

a quality or opinion.
Strengths: highly valid, unrequested, but important data is incurred.
Weaknesses: data interpretation may be subjective. Not representative,
generalisable, or reliable.

Data can be analysed using the measure of central tendency such as the
mode, median, and mean, and measures of spread such as the range, and
standard deviation.

The measure of central tendency: a mathematical way to find the average

score from a data set using the mode, median, and mean.

The measure of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation within

a data set.

Standard Deviation: the average difference between each score in the data
set and the mean.
T-test: a statistical test used to determine any significant difference between
the mean scores of 2 groups.

Graphs such as bar charts, histograms, scatter graphs, and normal

distribution curves can be used to provide a visual illustration of the data.

Ethical Considerations

For human participants:

 Informed consent: The aim should be told to the participants
before the study. If the aim needs to be hidden to protect the
validity of the finding, then sufficient data about the study
should be given to participants for them to decide whether
they want to participate or not.
 Protection (physical and physiological)
 Right to withdraw: they should be informed that they can
withdraw at any point.
 Deception: participants should not be deceived during the
study however if it’s necessary to do so to protect the findings
of the study, then participants need to be debriefed.
  Confidentiality: participants’ identities and personal data
should be concealed from the general public.
 Privacy: Invasive/private questions should be avoided.
Participants should be made aware of their right to ignore the
questions they incur during the study.
 Debriefing

For animals:

 Replacement: try to use alternatives such as video recordings

instead of animals.
 Species and strain: chosen species/strain should be least
likely to suffer pain. Whether they were socially housed or
participated in other studies.
 The number of animals: minimum no. of animals required
should be used.
 Pain and distress: research causing any form of physical,
emotional, or psychological harm should not be conducted.
 Housing: Isolation and crowding can cause animals distress.
Caging conditions should depend on the social behaviour of the
species. Overcrowding ➔ distress & aggression.
 Rewards, deprivation, and aversive stimuli: Normal
drinking and feeding patterns of the animal should be followed.
Preferred food should be used as a motivator, rather than
deprivation.
 Anaesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia: During surgery,
anaesthesia and analgesia should be used. If the animal suffers
lasting pain, it should be euthanised.

Evaluating Research
 Reliability – the consistency of the outcome.
 Validity – the extent to which the study measures what is
intended to study.
 Ecological Validity – the extent to which the results of the
study represent real-life behaviour.
 Generalisability – the extent to which the results represent
the behaviour of the target population.
 Test-retest: a way to measure the consistency of a test. The
test is used twice and if the scores on both tests are similar,
then it has good reliability.
 Demand Characteristics – when participants change their
behaviour as they derive cues on what is expected of them.
 Inter-rater reliability – the extent to which similar
conclusions are produced by two researchers interpreting the
same qualitative responses.
 Inter-observer reliability – the extent to which similar
observations are produced by two researchers observing the
same event.