Chapter: Atoms & Molecules

Grade 9 Science | Atomic Foundations of Matter | Complete Structured Notes

Introduction

Everything around us is made of matter. Chemists wanted to understand what matter is made of and
how different substances combine to form new ones. The study of atoms and molecules forms the
very foundation of chemistry.

Opening Observation — Water from Hydrogen and Oxygen

• Hydrogen and oxygen are both gases at ordinary temperatures.
• When they combine, they form water — a liquid at ordinary temperatures.
• Water does not share the same properties as either hydrogen or oxygen:
– Hydrogen gas is combustible (catches fire easily).
– Oxygen supports combustion (helps things burn).
– Water neither burns nor helps in burning — in fact, it extinguishes fire!
• It was found that the mass of water formed always equals the sum of masses of hydrogen
and oxygen that combined to form it.
This observation led to the Law of Conservation of Mass.

Law of Conservation of Mass

This is one of the most fundamental laws in chemistry. It was discovered through careful
experimentation and was formally stated by a French chemist.

Proposed By
Antoine Lavoisier — French chemist, proposed the Law of Conservation of Mass in 1789.
He is often called the 'Father of Modern Chemistry'.

■■ Law of Conservation of Mass

"Mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction." The total mass of
the reactants is always equal to the total mass of the products.

Mathematical Expression
Mass of Reactants = Mass of Products
Illustrative Example — Decomposition of Calcium Carbonate

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

• Reactant: Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
• Products: Calcium oxide (CaO) + Carbon dioxide (CO2)
The mass of CaCO3 taken = Mass of CaO formed + Mass of CO2 released
This confirms: Total mass is conserved in the chemical reaction.

More Examples of the Law

Reaction Reactants Products Mass Check

Mass of Mg + O2 = Mass of
Burning of magnesium Mg + O2 MgO
MgO

Formation of water H2 + O2 H2O Mass of H2 + O2 = Mass of H2O

Mass of CaCO3 = Mass of CaO

Decomposition of CaCO3 CaCO3 CaO + CO2
+ CO2

■ Questions & Answers

Q. If mass is always conserved, why does the mass of burning wood appear to
decrease? Where does the missing mass go?
Ans. The mass doesn't actually disappear. It is converted into gases like CO2 and H2O vapour,
which escape into the air. This makes it seem like the mass is lost in an open system. If the
reaction were carried out in a closed system and all gases were collected, the total mass would
remain the same.

Q. How does the conservation of mass explain what happens in the burning of a candle?
Ans. The wax is converted into gases like carbon dioxide and water vapour. If captured in a
closed system, the total mass of all products (CO2 + H2O vapour + ash, if any) would equal the
original mass of the wax and oxygen consumed. The mass remains constant.

Law of Constant Proportion / Definite Proportion

As chemists studied more compounds, they discovered a remarkable pattern: every compound
always had the same elements combined in the same fixed ratio by mass, no matter where the
compound came from or who prepared it.

Proposed By
Joseph Proust — French chemist, stated the Law of Constant Proportion.
He observed that in any given chemical compound, the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass.
 ■■ Law of Constant Proportion (Law of Definite Proportion)
"In a chemical substance (compound), the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass." This means that a compound always contains the same elements
combined in the same fixed mass ratio, regardless of the source or method of preparation.

Evidence and Examples

Example 1 — Water (H2 O)

• The ratio of mass of hydrogen to mass of oxygen in water is always 1 : 8.
• Whatever the source of water (river, rain, ocean, laboratory-prepared):
– 9 g of water always gives → 1 g of hydrogen + 8 g of oxygen
– 18 g of water always gives → 2 g of hydrogen + 16 g of oxygen
• The ratio H : O = 1 : 8 by mass is always constant.

Example 2 — Ammonia (NH 3 )

• Ammonia always contains nitrogen and hydrogen in the ratio 14 : 3 by mass.
• Whether ammonia is obtained from the Haber process, from natural sources, or any other
method:
– The N : H ratio by mass is always 14 : 3.
• This confirms that the composition of a compound is fixed and independent of its source.

Comparison of the Two Laws

Aspect Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Constant Proportion

Focus Total mass before and after a Ratio of elements in a compound

reaction

What is constant? Total mass (reactants = Mass ratio of constituent

products) elements

Proposed by Antoine Lavoisier (1789) Joseph Proust

Example CaCO3→ CaO + CO 2(mass H2O always has H:O = 1:8 by

conserved) mass

Dalton's Atomic Theory

The Laws of Conservation of Mass and Constant Proportion were well established by experiment, but
no one could explain why they held true. John Dalton proposed his atomic theory to provide a
theoretical explanation for both these laws.
 About John Dalton
• John Dalton — English scientist and chemist.
• He proposed his atomic theory based on the two laws of chemical combination.
• His theory is known as Dalton's Atomic Theory.
• It satisfactorily explained both the Law of Conservation of Mass and the Law of Constant
Proportion.

Postulates (Features) of Dalton's Atomic Theory

No. Postulate Significance

(i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms, which Explains the particulate nature of
participate in chemical reactions. matter

(ii) Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or Supports Law of Conservation of
destroyed in a chemical reaction. Mass

(iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and Explains why elements behave
chemical properties. consistently

(iv) Atoms of different elements have different masses and Explains why elements differ from
different chemical properties. each other

(v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form Explains Law of Constant
compounds. Proportion

(vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a Each compound has a fixed,
given compound. definite composition

How Dalton's Theory Explains the Two Laws

How it explains the Law of Conservation of Mass

Postulate (ii) states that atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• In a reaction, atoms of reactants are only rearranged to form new products.
• Since no atom is created or lost, the total mass of atoms (= total mass) remains the same.
• Mass of reactants = Mass of products → Law of Conservation of Mass ✓

How it explains the Law of Constant Proportion

Postulate (iii) states atoms of a given element are identical in mass.
Postulate (v) states atoms combine in small whole number ratios.
Postulate (vi) states the number and type of atoms in a compound is always constant.
• Since atoms of each element have a fixed mass and always combine in the same
whole-number ratio, the mass ratio of elements in a compound is always the same.
• This is exactly what the Law of Constant Proportion states ✓
 CHEMICAL BONDING
How Atoms Combine — Covalent Bond, Ionic Bond & Chemical Formulae

Grade 9 | Science — Chemistry | Based on NCERT/Exploration Chapter 9, Sections 9.4 & 9.5

TOPICS COVERED IN THESE NOTES

1. How Atoms Combine — the basic idea of chemical bonding • 2. Covalent Bond — molecules of elements
(H2, Cl2, O2) • 3. Covalent Bond — molecules of compounds (HCl, H2O) • 4. Naming Covalent Compounds
(prefix system) • 5. Ionic Bond — formation of cations and anions (NaCl) • 6. Crystal Lattice Structure of
Ionic Compounds • 7. Naming Ionic Compounds & Common Ions Table • 8. Writing Chemical Formulae
(covalent & ionic) • 9. In-text Exercise Questions (Pause & Ponder, Q.8–15) • 10. Quick Revision Summary
& Teacher Tips

LEARNING OBJECTIVES — By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
Explain why atoms combine to form molecules and compounds in terms of stability and the octet/duplet rule •
Differentiate between a covalent bond and an ionic bond • Draw electron-dot (Bohr model) diagrams to show
formation of simple molecules (H2, Cl2, O2, HCl, H2O) and ions (Na+, Cl-) • Name covalent compounds using
the prefix system and ionic compounds using the cation-then-anion rule • Write chemical formulae of covalent
and ionic compounds using the valency criss-cross method.

Prepared as structured teaching notes for classroom delivery — diagrams, tables, worked examples, and in-text
questions are organised exactly in the sequence to be taught.

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

1 HOW ATOMS COMBINE?

Atoms of an element can combine to form a molecule of that element. For example, a hydrogen molecule
consists of two hydrogen atoms joined together. Atoms of different elements combine to form a molecule of
a compound — for example, one hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom combine to form a molecule of
hydrogen chloride.

Definition — Molecule: An electrically neutral entity consisting of more than one atom that is capable of
independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance.

Some elements, such as helium, exist only as single atoms (not as molecules) because their atoms are
already stable on their own and feel no need to combine.

Why Do Atoms Combine? — The Octet / Duplet Rule

Atoms having 8 electrons in their outermost (valence) shell are stable (this is called the octet rule). The only
exception is when the K-shell is the outermost shell — in that case, just 2 electrons make the atom stable
(this is called the duplet rule).

If an atom's valence shell has fewer than 8 electrons (or fewer than 2, for a K-shell-only atom), it is unstable.
Such atoms try to become stable by sharing, gaining, or losing electrons so as to complete their valence
shell. This is precisely how atoms of elements combine to form compounds.

Two Ways in Which Atoms Combine

Method What Happens Bond Formed

Two atoms share a few or all of their valence electrons with

Sharing of electrons each other. Neither atom permanently loses or gains an Covalent Bond
electron.

One atom completely transfers one or more valence electrons to

Transfer of electrons Ionic Bond
another atom (or accepts electrons from another atom).

Why does bonding happen at all? When atoms combine, the total energy of the resulting system becomes
lower than the sum of the energies of the separate, individual atoms. A lower-energy arrangement is a more
stable arrangement — and nature always favours greater stability. The force that holds the combined atoms
together is called a chemical bond.

Teacher's Tip: Begin the lesson by asking: 'Why don't oxygen atoms simply float around alone in air, while
helium atoms do?' This naturally leads students into the octet/duplet rule before you introduce any bond
names.

2 BONDING BY SHARING OF ELECTRONS — COVALENT BOND

Covalent bond: the type of chemical bond formed when two atoms are held together by a shared pair of
electrons. The shared pair of electrons attracts the nuclei of both atoms, making the resulting molecule
stable.

If two atoms are joined by sharing just one electron each (i.e. one shared pair), they are said to be joined by
a single bond, generally depicted by drawing a single line between the symbols of the two atoms, e.g. H—H.

A. Molecules of Elements
(i) Formation of a Hydrogen Molecule (H2)
●
Electronic configuration of hydrogen (atomic number 1): only 1 electron in the K-shell.

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

●
A K-shell needs a total of 2 electrons to be stable — so each hydrogen atom needs 1 more electron.
●
Each hydrogen atom contributes (shares) its one electron, forming one shared pair between the two
nuclei.

Hydrogen atom (H) Hydrogen atom (H)

Fig. 1: Formation of a Hydrogen molecule (H2). The single shared pair (gold dots) forms one covalent bond, shown as H—H.

Result: Hydrogen molecule, written as H2, represented structurally as H—H (a single bond).

(ii) Formation of a Chlorine Molecule (Cl2)

●
Electronic configuration of chlorine (atomic number 17): 2, 8, 7 — that is, 7 electrons in the valence shell.
●
Each chlorine atom needs just 1 more electron to complete its octet of 8.
●
Two chlorine atoms each contribute one electron, forming one shared pair that holds them together.

Chlorine atom (Cl) Chlorine atom (Cl)

Fig. 2: Formation of a Chlorine molecule (Cl ), represented as Cl—Cl (single covalent bond).
2

(iii) Formation of an Oxygen Molecule (O2)

●
Electronic configuration of oxygen (atomic number 8): 2, 6 — that is, 6 electrons in the valence shell.
●
Each oxygen atom needs 2 more electrons to complete its octet.
●
Two oxygen atoms each share 2 electrons, forming two shared pairs — this is called a double bond.

Oxygen atom (O) Oxygen atom (O)

Fig. 3: Formation of an Oxygen molecule (O ). Two shared pairs (double bond) are represented as O=O.
2

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

KEY IDEA: Bond Order

Single bond = 1 shared pair of electrons (e.g. H—H, Cl—Cl). Double bond = 2 shared pairs of electrons (e.g.
O=O). The number of electrons an atom still needs to complete its octet/duplet tells you how many electrons it
must share — and therefore the type of bond formed.

PAUSE AND PONDER — Try These Questions

8. Nitrogen has five valence electrons. Draw the structure of the nitrogen molecule (N2).
9. The atomic number of fluorine is 9. Explain the formation of the fluorine molecule (F2).

BRIDGING SCIENCE & SOCIETY — “Together We Are Strong…”

Just as atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds, we too can share and care to build strong relationships
with the people around us. This sharing brings unity and stability, laying the foundation for a stronger
community, and ultimately, a stronger nation.

3 COVALENT BOND — MOLECULES OF COMPOUNDS

When atoms of two different elements combine by sharing electrons, the resulting molecule is called a
molecule of a covalent compound.

(i) Formation of Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)

●
Electronic configuration of hydrogen (atomic number 1): 1 electron — needs 1 more to complete its duplet.
●
Electronic configuration of chlorine (atomic number 17): 2, 8, 7 — needs 1 more to complete its octet.
●
Since both atoms need exactly one electron each, they share one electron each, forming one shared
pair.

Hydrogen atom (H) Chlorine atom (Cl)

Fig. 4: Formation of a Hydrogen Chloride molecule (HCl), a single covalent bond represented as H—Cl.

Since hydrogen and chlorine atoms in HCl bond by sharing electrons, hydrogen chloride is a covalent
compound. As they share just one pair, they are bonded by a single bond, depicted as H—Cl.

(ii) Formation of a Water Molecule (H2O)

Hydrogen needs only 1 electron to become stable, while oxygen needs 2 electrons. A single hydrogen atom
cannot supply two electrons to oxygen on its own — so this is solved by two separate hydrogen atoms,
each sharing one electron with the same oxygen atom.

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom

Oxygen atom

Fig. 5: Formation of a Water molecule (H2O). Oxygen shares one electron pair with each of the two hydrogen atoms.

The water molecule formed is represented as H2O, indicating the presence of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom, connected by two single covalent bonds: H—O—H.

BRIDGING SCIENCE & SOCIETY — Nuclear Energy

Atoms can release enormous energy when their nuclei split or combine to form new elements — called atomic
or nuclear energy. Beyond electricity generation, it is used in medicine, scientific research, and space
exploration. In nuclear power plants, thermal energy from nuclear reactions produces steam that drives
turbines, a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels. In India, scientists such as Raja Ramanna (often called the
Father of the Indian Nuclear Programme) made major contributions to developing the nation's Nuclear Energy
Programme and promoting its peaceful use.

PAUSE AND PONDER — Try These Questions

10. Show the formation of the following molecules: (i) Carbon dioxide (CO2) (ii) Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) (iii)
Ammonia (NH3)
11. Neon (atomic number 10) neither transfers nor shares its valence electrons. Explain.

4 NAMING COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Covalent compounds are named using a prefix system that indicates the number of atoms of each element
present in the molecule.

Rules for Naming

●
The first element in the formula keeps its regular (normal) name.
●
The second element's name is changed to end in −ide.
●
Greek number prefixes show how many atoms of each element are present: mono- (1), di- (2), tri- (3),
tetra- (4), penta- (5), hexa- (6), etc.
●
mono- is usually omitted for the first element, but is used for the second element if there is only one atom
of it.
●
Vowel-dropping rule: if a prefix ends in 'o' or 'a' and the element name starts with a vowel, drop the
prefix's last vowel (e.g. mono+oxide → monoxide; penta+oxide → pentoxide).
●
If the prefix ends in 'i', the 'i' is kept for pronunciation (e.g. di+oxide → dioxide; tri+oxide → trioxide).
●
When hydrogen is the first element in the formula, no prefix is added before it, regardless of how many
hydrogen atoms are present.

Worked Examples

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

Formula Name Why this prefix?

mono- omitted for C; used for O (‘monooxide’ → drop vowel →

CO Carbon monoxide
monoxide)

CO2 Carbon dioxide No prefix for C; di- for the 2 oxygen atoms

CS2 Carbon disulfide di- shows 2 sulfur atoms

PCl3 Phosphorus trichloride tri- shows 3 chlorine atoms

SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride hexa- shows 6 fluorine atoms

N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide di- for N (2 atoms); tetra+oxide → drop ‘a’ → tetroxide

N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide di- for N; penta+oxide → drop ‘a’ → pentoxide

H2S Hydrogen sulfide No prefix before hydrogen, even though 2 atoms are present

SPECIAL CASES — Common Names

A few binary covalent compounds are known only by their common (traditional) names rather than their
systematic prefix-based names:
• H2O would systematically be ‘hydrogen monoxide’, but is universally known as water.
• NH3 is systematically ‘nitrogen trihydride’, but is universally known as ammonia.

Teacher's Tip: Write 5–6 unnamed formulae on the board (e.g. SiO2, NCl3, P2O5) and have students name
them live using the rule chart above — this is a fast, effective way to check understanding before moving to
ionic bonding.

5 BONDING BY ELECTRON TRANSFER — IONIC BOND

If the valence shell of an atom has fewer than 4 electrons, the atom generally finds it easier to donate
(lose) its valence electrons rather than gain more, in order to achieve a stable electronic configuration. Atoms
with more than 4 valence electrons usually gain or share electrons instead, to complete an octet.

Classroom activity: Using Table 8.4 of electronic configurations (Chapter 8), identify four elements among the
first 18 elements whose atoms have fewer than 4 valence electrons and would therefore donate electrons.

Case Study: Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Step 1 — Sodium loses an electron to form a cation
●
Atomic number of sodium = 11; electronic configuration: 2, 8, 1.
●
Its valence shell has only 1 electron, which it loses to attain a stable configuration (matching the noble
gas neon).
●
After losing 1 electron, sodium has 11 protons but only 10 electrons — so it is no longer neutral. It carries
a +1 charge.
●
This positively charged species is called a sodium cation, written Na+.

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

Sodium atom (Na) Sodium cation (Na+)

Fig. 6: Formation of a sodium cation. Sodium loses its single valence electron (2, 8, 1 → 2, 8) to become Na+.

Step 2 — Chlorine gains an electron to form an anion

●
Atomic number of chlorine = 17; electronic configuration: 2, 8, 7.
●
Its valence shell has 7 electrons and needs just 1 more to complete its octet of 8.
●
Chlorine gains 1 electron from sodium. It now has 17 protons but 18 electrons — giving it a −1 charge.
●
This negatively charged species is called a chloride anion, written Cl-.

Chlorine atom (Cl) Chloride anion (Cl-)

-
Fig. 7: Formation of a chloride anion. Chlorine gains one electron (2, 8, 7 → 2, 8, 8) to become Cl .

Step 3 — Ions attract each other to form an ionic bond

Cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions) are collectively called ions. Once Na+ and Cl- are formed,
they are held together by the electrostatic force of attraction between their opposite charges.

DEFINITION — Ionic Bond

The electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions that holds them together is called an
ionic bond.

+ -
Na• + •Cl: → Na + :Cl: → NaCl

PAUSE AND PONDER — Try These Questions

12. What kind of ion will oxygen (O) form?
13. Fill in the blanks: Among magnesium and chlorine, magnesium atom can give two electrons to become
Mg2+. However, chlorine can take only one electron to become ____________. Now, __________ ion of
magnesium and __________ ions of chlorine combine to give magnesium chloride.
14. Show the formation of cations of potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) atoms, and the formation of their
corresponding chlorides using diagrams.
15. Illustrate how sodium sulfide (Na2S) is formed.

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

6 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds usually do not exist as single, isolated units (unlike covalent molecules). Instead, they form
three-dimensional (3-D) crystals in which ions are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern.
+ - -
In sodium chloride (NaCl): each Na ion is surrounded by six Cl ions, and each Cl ion is surrounded by
six Na+ ions. This regular, repeating 3-D pattern is known as a crystal structure, which can be represented
abstractly as a crystal lattice (with ions shown as simple points or dots to help visualise their arrangement).

Cl- Na+

+ -
Fig. 8: Crystal lattice of sodium chloride (schematic) — alternating Na and Cl ions in a regular repeating 3-D pattern.

THREADS OF CURIOSITY — Beyond −1 Charges

Some elements like sulfur have six electrons in their outer shell and need to gain two electrons to complete
their octet. When a sulfur atom gains two electrons, it acquires two units of negative charge and is
represented as S2-.

7 NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

In naming ionic compounds, the name of the cation is written first, followed by the name of the anion.
Names of simple (monoatomic) anions end with −ide.
●
Generally, metals form cations and non-metals form anions.
●
Ionic compounds are typically formed when a metal combines with a non-metal (e.g. sodium chloride,
calcium oxide, magnesium sulfide).
●
Some ions are formed from a group of atoms bonded together (two or more elements) and are called
polyatomic ions. Names of polyatomic ions generally do not end in −ide (e.g. hydroxide is an exception
in spelling only, but carbonate, sulfate, nitrate, ammonium do not end in −ide).

Table 9.1(a): Common Monoatomic Ions

Name of Ion Formula Valency

Sodium Na+ 1

Lithium Li+ 1

Potassium K+ 1

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine

Name of Ion Formula Valency

Silver Ag+ 1

Calcium Ca2+ 2

Barium Ba2+ 2

Iron (Ferrous) Fe2+ 2

Iron (Ferric) Fe3+ 3

Copper (Cuprous) Cu+ 1

Copper (Cupric) Cu2+ 2

Magnesium Mg2+ 2
2+
Zinc Zn 2
3+
Aluminium Al 3
-
Fluoride F 1
-
Chloride Cl 1
-
Bromide Br 1
-
Iodide I 1
2-
Oxide O 2
2-
Sulfide S 2

Table 9.1(b): Common Polyatomic Ions

Name of Ion Formula Valency

-
Hydroxide OH 1
-
Nitrate NO 1
3
-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO 1
3
2-
Carbonate CO 2
3
2-
Sulfate SO 2
4
+
Ammonium NH 1
4

Teacher's Tip: Have students copy Tables 9.1(a) and (b) into their notebooks and colour-code cations in blue
and anions in red — this visual habit pays off enormously when writing chemical formulae in the next section.

8 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE

Beyond drawing out electron-sharing/transfer diagrams, there is a quicker method to write the chemical
formula of any compound once you know the valencies of the elements/ions involved.

9.5.1 Writing Formulae of Covalent Compounds

●
Step (i): Write the symbols of the constituent elements of the compound.

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Chemical Bonding — Grade 9 Chemistry Notes How Atoms Combine
QUICK REVISION SUMMARY

Feature Covalent Bond Ionic Bond

Complete transfer of electrons from one

Mechanism Sharing of electron pairs between atoms
atom to another

Typically formed
Two non-metals A metal and a non-metal
between

Charged ions (cations and anions), e.g.

Resulting particles Neutral molecules (e.g. H2, HCl, H2O)
Na+, Cl-

Force holding Mutual attraction of shared electron pair Electrostatic attraction between oppositely
atoms/ions together to both nuclei charged ions

Typical structure Discrete molecules 3-D crystal lattice

Examples H2, Cl2, O2, HCl, H2O, CO2 NaCl, MgCl2, CaO, Al2O3

Key Terms to Remember

Term Meaning

Molecule Electrically neutral entity of ≥2 atoms, capable of independent existence

Chemical bond The force that holds combined atoms together

Covalent bond Bond formed by a shared pair of electrons between two atoms

Single / Double bond 1 shared pair / 2 shared pairs of electrons respectively

Ionic bond Electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions

Cation A positively charged ion, formed when an atom loses electron(s)

Anion A negatively charged ion, formed when an atom gains electron(s)

Polyatomic ion An ion made of a group of atoms bonded together, carrying an overall charge

Crystal lattice The regular, repeating 3-D arrangement of ions in an ionic solid

Valency The combining capacity of an element/ion, used to criss-cross and write formulae

Questions for Practice

Q1. Nitrogen has five valence electrons. Draw the structure of the nitrogen molecule (N2 ).
[Link] atomic number of fluorine is 9. Explain the formation of the fluorine molecule (F2 ).
Q3. Show the formation of: (i) CO2 (ii) H2S (iii) NH3 .
Q4. Neon (atomic number 10) neither transfers nor shares its valence electrons. Explain.
Q5. What kind of ion will oxygen (O) form?
Q6. Fill in the blanks about magnesium and chlorine combining to form magnesium chloride.
Q7. Show formation of cations of potassium (K) and calcium (Ca), and their chlorides.
Q8. Illustrate how sodium sulfide (Na2S) is formed.

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