Earth's Spheres

Spheres of the Earth

There are four interconnected spheres on
Earth:
 Biosphere
 Geosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Atmosphere
Biosphere
 The biosphere represents all living components on Earth.
 Components include:
 all plants (e.g. trees, flowers and grasses)
 all animals (e.g. birds, mammals and fish)
 all sum (e.g. mushrooms and molds)
 The biosphere can be described as the total sum of all
ecosystems.
Geosphere
 The geosphere represents all solid land and interior
components of Earth.
 Components include:
 all types of rocks and minerals
 Earth's mantle
 The geosphere can be described as the Earth beneath our
feet.
Atmosphere
 The atmosphere represents all gaseous
components surrounding Earth's surface; it's retained on
Earth's surface via gravity.
 Components include:
 78% Nitragen Gas (N,)
 21% Oxygen Gas (02)
 0.9% Argon Gas (Ar)
 0.1% other gases
 The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing UV
radiation from the sun, maintaining temperatures and warming
Earth's surface.
Hydrosphere
 The hydrosphere represents all water components of Earth.
 Components include:
 saltwater bodies (oceans)
  freshwaler bodies (rivers, lakes)
 The hydrosphere can be described as the total mass of all
mass found on Earth.
Interconnectedness
All four spheres are highly interconnected.
• They are dependent and internally
connected to one another
When one of the four spheres is positively or negatively affected,
the other three are also affected.
Ecosystems
 An ecosystems has abiotic (non-living) components such as
oxygen, water, nutrients, light, and soil that interact with biotic
(living)
components such as plants, animals, and micro-organisms.
 The abiotic components of terrestrial ecosystems, such as
oxygen, water, nutrients, light, and soil, are just as important
as the organisms that live in them.
 Plants and animals cannot survive without oxygen.
 In wetlands, water plants such as certain types of grass and
algae produce oxygen, which is used by other organisms that
live in water.
Nutrients
 Substances such as the chemicals nitrogen and phosphorus
that are required by plants and animals for energy, growth,
development, repair, or maintenance
 Important components of nutrients cycles in the biosphere
Water
• Without water, no organism would survive
 The cells of most living things contain between 50 and 90
percent water.
 You can go longer without food than you can without water.
 Water also carries nutrients from one place to another in
ecosystems.
Soil
 Soil provides nutrients for plants and supports many species
of small organisms.
 Soil anchors plants in one place and absorbs and holds water,
making it available for both plants and animals.
 Soil organisms maintain soil structure.

Light
  Light is required for photosynthesis, a chemical reaction that
converts solar energy into chemical energy usable by plants.
 Ecosystems vary in the amount of light they receive.
Nutrient Cycles
• Different forms of matter continually cycle through the four
spheres.
 Matter cannot be created nor destroyed; it can be
transformed and recycled.
 Carbon can move through many different forms
 as glucose (CH,2g) in organic matter
 as methane (CHa) in decaying matter
 as carbon dioxide (CO,) in the atmosphere
Energy Flow
 Energy flows freely through the four spheres.
 All of Earth's energy comes from the sun.
 Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can be
transformed and recycled.
 Energy can be stored in different spheres for long periods of
time.
Nutrient Cycles
 Nitrogen can move through many different forms
 as nitrogen gas (N2) in the atmosphere
 as ammonium (NH4+) from bacteria
 as nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-) from bacteria
 Phosphorus from rocks and ocean
sediment
 as phosphate (PO43-)

Biomes
What are Biomes?
A Biome is the largest division of the biosphere
• Regions that have similar biotic (living) components, such as
similar plants and animals, and similar abictic (non-living)
components, such as similar temperature and amount of rainfall
There are 8 land-based biomes:
 Tundra
 Boreal Forest
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
 Temperate rainforest
 Grassland
  Tropical Rainforest
 Desert
 Permanent Ice
Temperature & Precipitation
 Identical biomes are found in different parts of the world.
These biomes all have similar plants and animals (biotic
factors) because they have similar temperatures and
precipitation patterns (abiotic factors).
 Temperature and precipitation are the main abiotic factors
that influence the characteristics and distribution of biomes.
The following factors influence temperature and precipitation:
1. Latitude
2. Elevation
3. Wind
4. ocean currents
How Latitude Influences Biome Distribution
• Latitude is the distance measured north or south from the equator
 This influences the amount of direct sunlight, and as a result,
temperature and precipitation
 This can change with the season
How Elevation & Wind Influences Biome Distribution
•Elevation is the height of a landmass above sea level
• Windward sides of mountains receive more rain or snow, leeward
sides are sheltered from the wind and are warmer and drier.
How Ocean Currents Influences Biome Distribution
• Ocean Currents are the patterns in which water flows in the
northern and southern hemisphere
•The northern hemisphere generally has clockwise movement, while
the southern hemisphere has a counterclockwise movement of
water
Climate & Climatographs
CLIMATE
The alerage pattern of weather conditions (temperature and rainfall)
that occur in a region over a period of years.
CLIMATOGRAPH
A graph of climate data for a specific region, showing average
monthly temperature and total monthly precipitation
 The month of the year is shown on the horizontal axis
 Average temperats shown on the right vertical axis
 Average precipitation is shown on the left vertical axis
Adaptations & Biomes
• Adaptations -
characteristics that enable organisms to better survive and
reproduce in their current biome.
• There are 3 types of adaptations:
 1. Structural Adaptation
 2. Physiological Adaptation
 3. Behavioural Adaptation
Physiological Adaptation
A physical or chemical event that occurs within the body of an
organism that enables survival.
Examples:
 Wolves can maintain a constant body temperature regardless
of weather conditions
 Enables wolves to survive harsh Canadian winters.
 Photosynthesis in cacti is different from photosynthesis in
trees and ferns of temperate regions.
 Means that cacti require only half as much water for
photosynthesis as trees and ferns do.
Structural Adaptation
 A physical feature of an organism's body having a specific
function that contributes to the survival of the organism.
 Examples:
 Pine trees are cone-shaped, shed snow easily
 Porcupines have sharp, stiff quills that function to defend
against the attacks of other animals.
 Arctic foxes has a thick, white coat in the winter and a
brownish-grey coat in the summer.
 A change of coat colour provides camouflage for arctic foxes
and improves their ability to hunt successfully.
Behavioural Adaptation
What an organism does to survive in the unique conditions of its
environment. These adaptations may include how the organism
feeds, mates, cares for its young, migrates, hibernates, or burrows
to escape predators.
Examples:
 Burrowing owls builds its nest in abandoned prairie dog
burrows in grassland areas.
 The owl lines the nest with grass, which keeps it cool during
the day and warm at night.
  Cow dung placed at the entrance to the burrow hides the
scent of the owl from other predators, such as snakes, skunks,
and foxes, which prey on eggs, young, and adults.

Ecosystems
Ecosystems
 Ecosystem: a part of a biome in which abiotic components
interact with biotic components
 An ecosystem has abotic components such as oxygen, water,
nutrients, light, and soil that interact with biotic components
such as plants, animals, and microorganisms.
 Can be large (like an entire forest) or small, like a tide pool
Abiotic Interactions in Ecosystems
 The abiotic components of terrestrial ecosystems, such as
oxygen, water, nutrients, light, and soil, are just as important
as the organisms that live in them.
 Oxygen & Water: Plants and animals cannot survive without
oxygen or water.
 Water also carries nutrients (such as nitrogen & phosphorus)
required for growth
Light & Soil
 Light is required for photosynthesis a chemical reaction that
converts solar energy into chemical energy usable by plants.
 Ecosystems vary in the amount of light they receive.
 Soil provides nutrients, structural support, and stores water
from plants and animals
Biotic Interactions In Ecosystems
Ecological Hierarchy:
 organism = a single living organism
 Species = closely related organism that can reproduce with
one another
 Population = all members of a species within an ecosystem
 Community different populations of
species that interact in an ecosystem
 Ecosystem = different communities within the same area
Biotic Interactions in Ecosystems
Within an ecosystem, organisms interact
constantly within their species and with other organisms. Three
kinds of interactions in ecosystems are:
1. Commensalism
 2. Mutualism
3. Parasitism
These are referred to as symbiosis or
symbiotic relationships
Commensalism
Commensalism = Relationship where one
species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed
• Often host species provide shelter or transportation for the other
ie. Barnaces & whales - Barnacles attach to whales to transport to
new food sources
Mutualism
Mutualism = Relationship where both
organisms benefit
• Often the two species cannot survive without the other
• Eg. Flowering plants
pollinators (bees) - plants get their gametes to other members of
their species, while bees get food.
Parasitism
Parasitism = Relationship where one species
benefits while the other is harmed
 Parasites are often much smaller and more numerous than
host:
 Parasites may live in or on a host and obtain food from the
host's body
 Parasites usually do not kill the host intentionally, but can
cause a great deal of damage over long periods of time
 i.e. Hookworms can infect both humans and dogs, attaches to
the small intestine
Habitats & Niches
A habitat is a place in an ecosystem where an organism lives.
A niche is a special role an organism plays within its ecosystem
• Includes the way in which the organism contributes to & fits into
its environment
 Within a niche, an organism will interact with other members
of the same species or with members of different species
 Often interactions involve Como
for food and other resources (water, sunlight, or habitat)
Competition
Competition is the harmful interaction between two or more
organisms (can be from the same species or different species) that
occurs when organisms compete for the same resace (i.e. food) in
the same location at the same time
• Both organism's health and ability to grow/reproduce are reduced
because they expend energy to compete
 Can Limix population size
 i.e. Coyotes hunting alone
Predation
 Predation = when one organism (the predator) eats all or part
of another organism (the prey). One organism benefits and the
other is harmed.
 Predatory animals have adaptations that make them effective
predators. Predator adaptations may include highly developed
senses such as very good eyesight or a keen sense of smell.
 i.e. The sharp, pointed teeth, or "fangs," of a cougar are an
adaption that make this predator better able to catch its
 Prey animals also have adaptations that keep them from
being eaten.
 i.e. Porcupines have spines. Turtles and clams have hard
shells. Newts produce poisonous substances.
Predation
Other forms of adaptation, such as camouflage, allow prey animals
to hide from predators.
• i.e. stick bugs, which are eaten by birds, look like twigs.
Mimicry is an adaptation in which a prey
animal mimics another species that is dangerous or tastes bad.
• i.e. the viceroy butterfly (A) looks like the bitter-tasting monarch
butterfly (B) and so is avoided by predators.
Predation
The size of a prey population can be affected by the number of
predators
E.g. Lynx & Snowshoe Hare - hare population grows when there are
few lynx, but then the lynx population grows because there is lots of
prey to eat, causing the hare population to crash, then the cycle
repeats.
Energy Flow
Food Chains
 Food chains show the flow of energy from plant to animal and
from animal to animal.
  Plants are called prodicers because they "produce" their own
food in the form of carbohydrates (glucose) during
photosynthesis.
 consumers eat plants and other organisms.
• Each step in a food chain is called a trophic level
Energy Flow
The transfer of energy from one organism to another in an
ecosystem. Every organism interacts with its ecosystem in two
ways:
• 1. The organism obtains food energy from the ecosystem
• 2. The organism contributes energy to the ecosystem
Food Webs
 Many animals are part of more than one food chain in an
ecosystem because they eat or are eaten by several
organisms.
 Interconnected food chains are illustrated in a model called a
food web.
 Animals that eat plants and other animals are called
omnivores.
Food pyramids
 A food pyramid (or ecclogical pyramid) is a model that shows
the loss of energy from one trophic level to another.
 When one organism consumes another, the energy stored in
the food organism is transtered to the consumer.
Decomposition
 Describes the breakdown of organic wastes and dead
organisms.
 Energy is released in decomposition. When living organisms
carry out decomposition, it is called biodegradation.
Food Pyramid
 Not all of this energy is incorporated into the consumer's
tissues. Between 80 and 90 percent of it is used for chemical
reactions and is lost as heat.
 This means ecosystems can support fewer organisms at
higher trophic levels, as less energy reaches these levels.
Decomposition
DETRIVORES
• such as small insects, earthworms, bacteria and fungi, obtain
energy and nutrients by eating dead plants and animals, as well as
animal waste.
DECOMPOSERS
• such as bacteria and fungi, change wastes and dead organisms
into nutrients that can once again be used by plants and animals.
Detrivores and decomposers feed at all trophic levels.
Nutrient Cycles
Nutrient Cycles
Nutrient cycles describe the flow of nutrients in and out of stores as
a result of biotic and abiotic processes.
Without human interference, nutrient cycles are almost perfectly
balanced. There are three main cycles that move nutrients through
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems:
 carbon cycle
 nitrogen cycle
 phosphorus cycle
Nutrients
Nutrients are chemicals required for • They are constantly
plant and animal growth and other life recycled within Earth's
processes. biosphere.
Spend different amounts of time in • Short -term stores, such as
stores within the atmosphere, living organisms and the
hydrosphere, and geosphere. atmosphere.
•longer-term stores, such as
Earth's crust.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is an essential component of cells and life-sustaining
chemical reactions.
Carbon is cycled through living and decaying organisms, the
atmosphere, bodies of water, and soil and rock.
Carbon moves between stores via six main processes:
1. Photosynthesis
A chemical reaction that converts solar energy atmospheric carbon
dioxide gas (CO,), and water(H,O)
612G = carbohydrates/glucose)
and oxygen gas (02)
Reaction:
energy (sunlight) + 6 CO, + 6 H,0 → C6H120 + 60г
2. Cellular Respiration
Plants and animals obtain energy by converting chemical energy
(C6H12G = carbohydrates/glucose) and oxygen gas (O,) into carbon
dioxide (CO,)and water (H,O).
Reaction:
C6H120 + 602 → 6 CO, + 6H20 + energy (ATP)
3. Decomposition
Decomposers release carbon dioxide
(CO,) into the atmosphere through the decomposition of carbon-rich
organic matter in soil.
4. Ocean Processes
Dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) is stored in oceans.
Marine organisms store carbon-rich carbonate(CO32-) in their shells,
which eventually form sedimentary rock.
How do human activities affect the Carbon Cycle?
Human activities, such as fossil fuel combustion and land clearance,
quickly introduce carbon into the atmosphere from longer-term
stores.
These actions increase the levels of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse
gas
that contributes to global climate change.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an important component of DNA and proteins
Most organisms cannot use atmospheric nitrogen gas.
Most nitrogen is stored in the atmosphere, where it exists as
nitrogen gas (N2). It is also stored in bodies of water, living
organisms, and decaying organic matter.
The nitrogen cycle involves pour processes, three of which make
nitrogen available to plants and animals

1. Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen Fixation = when Nitrogen gas
(N2) is converted into ammonium (NH4+) which is usable by plants.
Nitrogen fixation occurs mainly through nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and
when lightning strikes in the atmosphere.
2. Nitrification
Nitrification = when ammonium (NH4+)
is converted into nitrite(NO2) and nitrate (NO3-) through the work of
nitrifying bacteria.
3. Uptake
 Useable forms of nitrogen (primarily nitrite and nitrate) are
taken up by plant roots and incorporated into plant proteins
 When herbivores and omnivores eat plants, they incorporate
nitrogen into their own tissues.
4. Denitrification
Denitrification = when Denitrifying
bacteria convert nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) back into
atmospheric nitroger gas (N2).
How do human activities affect the Nitrogen Cycle?
Fossil fuel combustion and burning
organic matter release nitrogen into the
atmosphere, where it forms acid rain.
Chemical fertilizers also contain nitrogen, which escapes into the
atmosphere or leaches into lakes and streams.
High levels of nitrogen cause eutrophication (too many nutrients)
and increased algal
growth in aquatic ecosystems, depriving aquatic organisms of
sunlight and oxygen.
The Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is found in phosphate(PO43-) rock and sediments on the
ocean floor.
• phosphorus - through chemical or physical means— breaks down
rock, releasing phosphate into the soil from longer-term stores.
Phosphorus carries energy to cells. Organisms take up phosphorus.
• When they die, decomposers return phosphorus to the soil.
Excess phosphorus settles on floors of lakes and oceans, eventually
forming sedimentary rock.
• It remains trapped for millions of years until it is exposed hrough
geologic uplift or mountain building
How do human activities affect the Phosphorus Cycle?
Commercial Fertilizers and phosphate-containing detergents enter
waterways and contribute additional phosphate to the phosphorus
cycle.
Slash-and-burn forest clearance reduces phosphate levels, as
phosphate in trees enters soil as ash. It leaches out of the soil and
settles on lake and ocean bottoms, unavailable to organisms.

Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification

What is bioaccumulation?
 The gradual build-up of synthetic and organic chemicals in
living organisms.
 Synthetic and organic chemicals build up in the environment
when decomposers cannot break them down through the
biodegradation process.
Bioaccumulation & Ecosystems
Human activity creates many harmful pollutants.
These build up in the environment when decomposers are unable to
break them down.
Plants take up these pollutants.
The pollutants are then transferred along the food chain until they
reach the highest trophic level.
What is Biomagnification?
 Biomagnification = the process in which pollutants not only
accumulate but also become more concentrate at each trophic
level.
 Organisms at lower trophic levels may be affected by the
pollutant, but primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers will
be more affected because levels will build up in their tissues as
they consume contaminated food.
Biomagnification:
Orcas
 An example of biomagnification is the
PCB concentrations in the orca's food web.
 When orcas consume food contaminated with PCBs, they
store some of the PCBs in their blubber
 When salmon (their primary food) is not available, orcas use
their blubber for energy.
 This releases PCBs into their system.
PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls)
 PCBs have a long half-life (the time it takes for a substance to
decrease by half).
 They stay in the environment for a long time.
 Aquatic ecosystems are most sensitive to PCBs.
 Organisms at high trophic levels, like the orca, retain high
levels of the pollutant.
PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls)
• PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) were used in various things like
paints, lubricants, plastics, etc. - They are banned since 1977 in
North America.
• They interfere with the normal functioning of the body's immune
system and cause problems with reproduction
POPS (Persistent Organic Pollutants)
POPs are harmful, Carbon -containing compounds that remain in
water and soil for many years. Can Cause:
 Reproductive failure
 Birth defects
 Immune system disorders (cancers, weakness to disease)
  Behaviour and learning disorders
 Death
Examples of POPs: DDT
 DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) is a toxic POP that
was used as a pesticide in
the past to control disease-carrying mosquitoes.
 Accumulation is measured in parts per million (ppm).
 This refers to one particle of a given substance mixed with
999 999 other particles.
 DDT is harmful at 5 ppm
Examples of POPs: Heavy Metals
• Heavy metals can be found in water and air and are taken in
through the food chain.
• They can bioaccumulate within organisms and biomagnify, moving
up the
food chain like POPs.
• The three most polluting heavy metals are lead (Pb), cadmium
(Cd), and mercury (Hg).
Examples of POPs:
Heavy Metals
Heavy Metals: metallic elements with a high density that are toxic to
organisms at low concentrations.
Within the biosphere, they do not degrade and cannot be destroyed
Some heavy metals such as copper, selenium, and zinc are essential
to human health in very small quantities.
Bioremediation
• The use of living organisms- usually
micro-organisms or plants - to do the clean-up naturally, only taster
through biodegradation.
 Micro-organisms that naturally feed on chemicals and reduce
them to non-toxic compounds can be added to contaminated
soil
 Working at the molecular level, scientists have extracted
enzymes from chemical-eating bacteria or pesticide-resistant
insects and used these to create new environmental clean-up
technologies.

Natural vs. Human Causes of

Climate Change
What is climate?
 Can refer to large and small regions - BC has a range of
different climates called biogeoclimatic zones
 Each region has certain types of plant life, soil, geography,
and climate
• BC has 14 of these zones
What is climate?
Climate describes the average conditions of the atmosphere in a
large region over file or more. It includes the following:
 clouds and precipitation
 temperature
 humidity
 atmospheric pressure
 solar radiation
 wind
Climate vs. Weather
Climate
 The weather of a place averaged over a period of time. We
talk about climate change in terms of years, decades, and
centuries.
 Climate information includes the statistical weather
information that tells us about the normal weather, as well as
the range of weather extremes for a location.
 Scientists study climate to look for trends or cycles of
variability, such as the changes in wind patterns, ocean surface
temperatures and precipitation over the equatorial Pacific that
result in El Niño and La Niña, and also to place cycles or other
phenomena into the bigger picture of possible longer-term or
more permanent climate changes.
Weather
 The day-to-day state of the atmosphere, and its short-term
variation in minutes to weeks.
 People generally think of weather as the combination of
temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, visibility, and
wind.
 We talk about changes in weather ir erms of the near auture:
 "How hot is it right now?"
 "What will it be like today?"
 "Will we get a snowstorm this week?"
Determining the past
Paleoclimatologists study fossils and sediments or gather
information about glaciers to help them understand climatic change.
Ice cores are used to determine what types and amounts of gases
existed in the
demosphere when the ice was formed.
Geologic evidence shows that, throughout its history, Earth has
undergone many climatic changes, including ice ages and periods of
warming
Scientists draw conclusions about current climatic changes by
observing current climate and by comparing their observations with
evidence of past climates.
What affects climate?
Composition of Earth's Atmosphere
• Atmosphere is made of up greenhouse
gases that absorb and emit radiation as thermal energy
Earth's Tilt, Axis of Rotation, and Orbit around Sun
 Earth's tilt varies from 22.1 to 24.5 degrees from vertical
causing more extreme seasonal changes
 Direction of the axis of rotation changes the angle of
incidence
 Orbit grade alters how close Earth is to the sun and how much
solar radiation reaches the
The Water Cycle
 High temperatures increases evaporation of water (a
greenhouse gas), trapping more thermal
energy
What effects climate?
Ocean Currents
• Sinking & rising of ocean waters created convention currents that
transports water and thermal energy around Earth
The Carbon Cycle
• Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas - sinks (deep oceans, forests)
remove carbon dioxide from atmosphere and sources (weathering,
decaying vegetation) add carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere
Catastrophic Events
• Large-scale disasters (volcanic eruptions, meteor impacts) add
dust, debris, and gases into atmosphere - reflects solar radiation
back into space.

Climate Change & Global Warming

  climate change refers to changes in long-term weather
patterns in certain regions. These changes affect the
redistribution of thermal energy around Earth.
 Global warming describes an increase in Earth's average global
temperature. It is one aspect of climate change.
 As greenhouse gases increase, the atmosphere is able to
absorb and emit more thermal energy. This is known as the
ennanced greenhouse effect.
 Global warming Potential (GWP) describes the ability of a
substance to warm the atmosphere by absorbing and emitting
thermal energy.
Modeling climate change
General circulation models (GCMs) are computer models designed to
study climate. They take into account multiple factors, such as
changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, ocean currents, winds,
surface temperatures, and albedo.
• The albedo at Earth's surface affects the amount of solar radiation
that a region receives.
GCMs can determine both past and present climate. Some models
predict a temperature rise of 6°C in northern regions and a sea level
rise of almost 88 cm within the next 100 years.
• More extreme in northern countries.
How Does the Sun Heat the Earth?
 Sun's rays radiate heat towards the Earth.
 Rays bounce off the surface of the Earth. Some heat is
trapped by the atmosphere, some is reflected back into space.
 Light surfaces on Earth reflect heat.
 Dark surfaces on earth absorb heat.
What is Causing Climate Change?
 More green house gases in
the Earth's atmosphere than ever before.
 The gases trap more heat the atmosphere.
 In Earth's history, usually 220-
228ppm of CO2.
 Due to human emissions, there is currently 415ppm.
 Temperatures have risen approximately 1 degree Celsius
since industrial times.
What is Canada doing about Climate Change?
Investing in energy efficient housing, model
codes for new and existing buildings to improve efficiency.
Investing in public transit, more electric vehicle charging stations,
developing stringent vehicle standards, cleaner fuels.
Investing in clean techndogy pricing industrial emissions, reducing
methane in the oil and gas sector by 40-45%
Supporting renewable fuels and bioproducts, cleaner innovative
agriculture practices, conserving more nature for carbon
sequestration, reforestation, reducing waste including plastic
pollution.
Phasing out coal-fired electricity, increasing investment in
renewable energy, increasing investment in smart grids (electricity).