Definition of stoichiometry

Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships or ratios between two or more
substances undergoing a physical change or chemical change (chemical reaction). The word derives from
the, Greek words: stoicheion (meaning “element”) and metron (meaning “to measure”). Most often,
stoichiometry calculations deal with the mass or volumes of products and reactants.
Pronounce stoichiometry as “stoy-kee-ah-met-tree” or abbreviate it as “stoyk.”
Jeremias Benjamin Richter (1762–1807), a German chemist, first defined and coined the term
“stoichiometry” in 1792. He described it as the science of measuring the quantitative proportions or mass
ratios in which chemical elements interact as reactants or products.

Chemical Formulas and Equations

A chemical formula uses chemical symbols to represent the elements in a compound, along with
subscripts to indicate the relative number of atoms of each element. Types include empirical, molecular,
structural, and projection formulas.

Types of Chemical Formula

1. An empirical formula shows the simplest ratio of elements in a compound (e.g., CH for
benzene).
Empirical formulas are normally used to represent substances with undetermined
molecular structures or substances not made up of normal molecular entities—e.g., sodium
chloride (table salt), which is composed of ions. To express the chemical composition of the
individual molecules of a substance—the molecule being the smallest particle in which the
substance retains its chemical properties—a molecular formula is employed.
For example, the molecular formulas C2H4 and C3H6 for ethylene and propylene,
respectively, state the number and kind of every atom present in a molecule of each substance.
In contrast, both ethylene and propylene have the same empirical formula, CH2, because
they are both composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a ratio of 1 to 2. In some cases, such
as water, the empirical and molecular formulas of a substance may be identical.
An empirical formula is a formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest
whole-number ratio. Glucose is an important simple sugar that cells use as their primary source
of energy. Its molecular formula is
Since each of the subscripts is divisible by 6, the empirical formula for glucose is
When chemists analyze an unknown compound, the first step is often to determine its
empirical formula.
 Molecularformula:
Molecular formula:C6H12O6
C6H12O6
Empiricalformula:
Empirical formula:CH2O
CH2O

Examples
The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. It does NOT
show the actual number of atoms, only the ratio.
Given:
1. Molecular formula = C₆H₁₂O₆
Solution:
Divide all subscripts by the greatest common factor (6):
C₆ ÷ 6 = 1
H₁₂ ÷ 6 = 2
O₆ ÷ 6 = 1
Empirical Formula = CH₂O

Example 2 (From Percent Composition)

Problem:
A compound contains: 40% Carbon, 6.7% Hydrogen, 53.3% Oxygen
Find the empirical formula.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Step 1: Assume 100 g sample
C = 40 g
H = 6.7 g
O = 53.3 g
Step 2: Convert to moles divide by atomic masses:
C: 40 ÷ 12 = 3.33 mol
H: 6.7 ÷ 1 = 6.7 mol
O: 53.3 ÷ 16 = 3.33 mol
 Step 3: Divide by smallest value (3.33)
C: 3.33 ÷ 3.33 = 1
H: 6.7 ÷ 3.33 = 2
O: 3.33 ÷ 3.33 = 1

Final Answer:
Empirical
EmpiricalFormula
Formula==CH₂O
CH₂O

2. A molecular formula indicates the exact number and kind of atoms in a molecule (e.g., C2H4
for ethylene).
A molecular formula is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that represents the
numbers of atoms of each element present in a molecule of the compound. Ammonia is a
compound of nitrogen and hydrogen as shown below:

The arrangement of the elements depends on the particular structure, which is not of
concern at this point. The number of atoms of each kind is indicated by a subscript following the
atom. If there is more than one atom of a specific kind, the number is written as a subscript
following the atom. A value of “1” is implied when there is no subscript written after an element.
We would not write N3H for ammonia, because that would mean that there are three nitrogen
atoms and one hydrogen atom in the molecule.
If we consider the molecular formula for sulfuric acid, H2SO4, one of the most widely
produced chemicals in the United States, we could conclude that one molecule of H2SO4
contains two hydrogen atoms, one sulfur atom, and four oxygen atoms.
 Examples
The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a compound. It is a multiple of the
empirical formula.
Formula Relationship:
Where n= molar mass/ empirical formula mass

1. Given:
Empirical formula = CH₂O
Molar mass = 180 g/mol

Step-by-Step Solution:
Step 1: Find empirical formula mass
CH₂O = (12) + (2×1) + (16) = 30 g/mol
Step 2: Find n
n= 180/30 = 6
Step 3: Multiply subscripts
C: 1 × 6 = 6
H: 2 × 6 = 12
O: 1 × 6 = 6

Final Answer:
Final Answer:
Molecular Formula =
Molecular Formula = C₆H₁₂O₆
C₆H₁₂O₆
Given:
Empirical formula = NO₂
Molar mass = 92 g/mol
Solution:
Step 1: Empirical mass
NO₂ = 14 + (2×16) = 46 g/mol
Step 2: Find n
N= 96/42 = 2
 Step 3: Multiply
N: 1 × 2 = 2
O: 2 × 2 = 4

Final Answer:
Molecular Formula = N₂O₄

1. Given:
Empirical formula = CH₂
Molar mass = 56 g/mol
Find the molecular formula.

2. Given:
Empirical formula = NO₂
Molar mass = 92 g/mol
Find the molecular formula.

3. A structural formula identifies the location of chemical bonds between the atoms of a molecule.
Structural formula Identify the location of chemical bonds between the atoms of a molecule.
A structural formula consists of symbols for the atoms connected by short lines that represent
chemical bonds—one, two, or three lines standing for single, double, or triple bonds,
respectively. For example, the structural formula of ethane is signifying that the compound
consists of two carbon atoms each linked to the other and to three hydrogen atoms by single
bonds. Structural formulas are particularly useful for showing how compounds with the identical
kind and number of atoms differ.
We have chemical compounds all around us – they are in our food, drinks and in objects we use
every single day. These chemical compounds can be identified by their molecular formulas. A
few examples are shown in the following illustration:
Examples of common compounds and their molecular formulas
While the molecular formula shows what how many atoms there are for each element present
in the compound, it does not tell us about how the elements are bonded together. We don’t
know which atom of an element is bonded to which. This is where the structural formula comes
in.
The structural formula shows how the atoms are arranged and bonded together in a molecular
formula of a chemical compound. Let’s take a look at the compounds vinegar and ethyl
alcohol, and compare their molecular formulas with their structural formulas:

Structural formulas of acetic acid and ethyl alcohol

Without the structural formula, we wouldn’t know that acetic acid has a carbon atom double-
bonded together with oxygen. By looking at the structural formula, we can see the spatial
arrangement of the atoms in the compound.

Structural Formula: Types and Examples

It is always good to have choices, and the same goes with how we draw structural formulas.
There are different ways to represent a compound’s structural formula. The earlier examples
illustrate just one way of drawing the structural formula. In this upcoming section, we’ll look at
the different types of structural formulas.
The electron dot structural formula representation uses dots to represent the electrons involved
with the bonding between different atoms. Let’s take a look at the following compounds: water,
 ammonia and ethanol. Here, you can see the nonbonding electrons in red and the bonding
electrons between the atoms in black:

Examples of the electron dot structural formula

Line-bond structural formula: The line-bond structural formula is a very commonly used
representation of the structural formula. Like the name suggests, the line-bond structural formula
uses lines and bonds to show the covalent bonds between atoms. This gives us a simpler and less
cluttered representation of the structural formula. Instead of drawing dots between atoms, we
draw lines. One line is equivalent to one pair of bonding electrons. The red dots are the
nonbonding electrons. Here are the line-bond structural formula versions of the same compounds
shown in the electron dot formula representation:

For organic compounds (carbon containing compounds) like ethanol, we usually don’t show
the nonbonding electrons, the red dots. We can omit the nonbonding electrons, the red dots, for
organic compounds.
 Condensed structural formula: The condensed structural formula still uses lines between
bonded atoms but is an easier and shorter way to draw the line-bond structural formula because it
omits the carbon and hydrogen bonds. We can see this when we compare the line-bond structural
formula with the condensed structural formula.

1. Draw the structural formula of ethane (C₂H₆).

2. Convert C₃H₈ (propane) into its structural formula.
3. Draw the electron dot structure of H₂O.

Balancing Chemical Equations

Steps of Balancing a Chemical Equation
Balancing chemical equations ensures the number of atoms for each element is equal on both
sides, adhering to the law of conservation of mass (matter is neither created nor destroyed). This is
achieved by adjusting the coefficients (numbers in front of molecules) rather than altering the
subscripts.
1. Identify each element found in the equation. The number of atoms of each type of atom must
be the same on each side of the equation once it has been balanced.
2. What is the net charge on each side of the equation? The net charge must be the same on each
side of the equation once it has been balanced.
3. If possible, start with an element found in one compound on each side of the equation.
Change the coefficients (the numbers in front of the compound or molecule) so that the number of
atoms of the element is the same on each side of the equation. Remember, to balance an equation,
you change the coefficients, not the subscripts in the formulas.
4. Once you have balanced one element, do the same thing with another element. Proceed until
all elements have been balanced. It’s easiest to leave elements found in pure form for last.
5. Check your work to make certain the charge on both sides of the equation is also balanced.
1. ___ SnO₂ + ___ H₂ → ___ Sn + ___ H₂O
2. __ KOH + __ H₃PO₄ → __ K₃PO₄ + __ H₂O
3. __ KNO₃ + __ H₂CO₃ → __ K₂CO₃ + __ HNO₃
4. __ AgI + __ Na₂S → __ Ag₂S + __ NaI
5. __ Ba₃N₂ + __ H₂O → __ Ba(OH)₂ + __ NH₃
6. __ CaCl₂ + __ Na₃PO₄ → __ Ca₃(PO₄)₂ + __ NaCl
7. __ FeS + __ O₂ → __ Fe₂O₃ + __ SO₂
8. __ C₂H₆O + __ O₂ → __ CO₂ + __ H₂O
9. __ TiCl₄ + __ H₂O → __ TiO₂ + __ HCl
10. __ Na₃PO₄ + __ HCl → __ NaCl + __ H₃PO₄
MOLE CONCEPT EXPLANATION
MOLAR MASS AND MOLECULAR MASS
What is mole?

A mole is used by scientists as a counting unit to measure very tiny particles like atoms and
molecules. Since these particles are too small to count individually, scientists use the mole to
represent a large, fixed number of them. One mole contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles, known as
Avogadro’s number. This makes it easier to measure and compare substances in chemistry,
especially during experiments and calculations. Mole also represents mass and number of particles
and Molar Mass - Mass of one mole of a substance Units use g/mol
Molecular Mass - Mass of One molecule
Units use amu (atomic mass unit)

Amedeo Avogadro was an Italian scientist who played a very important role in the idea
behind the mole. In 1811, he proposed what is now called Avogadro’s Law. His idea that equal
volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of particles.
Because of this, scientists realized that there must be a fixed number of particles in a given
amount of substance. This idea later led to the concept of counting particles using a large number,
which we now call Avogadro’s number (6.022 × 10²³). Even though Avogadro did not directly
invent the term “mole,” his work made it possible to understand how counting tiny particles could
work in chemistry.
 Wilhelm Ostwald, a German chemist, was the one who
introduced the term “mole” in chemistry. He defined the mole as the
amount of substance that contains the same number of particles as
there are atoms in a certain mass of a substance (originally based on
oxygen, later refined). Because of Ostwald, scientists finally had; a
name for the counting unit mole and a standard way to measure
substances in chemistry

The number of entities composing a mole has been

experimentally determined to be, a fundamental constant
named Avogadro’s number (NA) or the Avogadro constant
in honor of Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. This
constant is properly reported with an explicit unit of “per
mole,” a conveniently rounded version being. Consistent
with its definition as an amount unit, 1 mole of any element
contains the same number of atoms as 1 mole of any other
element. The masses of 1 mole of different elements, however, are different, since the masses of
the individual atoms are drastically different. The molar mass of an element (or compound) is the
mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance, a property expressed in units of grams per mole
(g/mol)
Each sample contains 6.022 × 1023 atoms—1.00 mol of atoms.
From left to right (top row): 65.4g zinc, 12.0g carbon, 24.3g magnesium, and 63.5g copper.
From left to right (bottom row): 32.1g sulfur, 28.1g silicon, 207g lead, and 118.7g tin. (credit:
modification of work by Mark Ott)

The definitions of both the mole and the atomic mass unit are based on the same reference
substance, 12C, the molar mass of any substance is numerically equivalent to its atomic or
formula weight in amu. Per the amu definition, a single 12C atom weighs 12 amu (its atomic mass
is 12 amu). According to the definition of the mole, 12 g of 12C contains 1 mole of 12C atoms (its
molar mass is 12 g/mol). This relationship holds for all elements, since their atomic masses are
measured relative to that of the amu-reference substance, 12C. Extending this principle, the molar
mass of a compound in grams is likewise numerically
equivalent to its formula mass in amu

Each sample contains 6.02 × 1023 molecules or formula units—1.00 mol of the compound or
element. Clockwise from the upper left: 130.2g of C 8H17OH (1-octanol, formula mass 130.2 amu),
454.9g of HgI2 (mercury (II) iodide, formula mass 459.9 amu), 32.0g of CH 3OH (methanol,
formula mass 32.0 amu) and 256.5g of S8 (sulfur, formula mass 256.6 amu). (credit: Sahar Atwa)
 Element Average Atomic Molar Mass (g/mol) Atoms/Mole
Mass (amu)
C 12.01 12.01 6. 022x10^23 Th
e H 1.008 1.008 6. 022x10^23
O 16. 00 16. 00 6. 022x10^23
Na 22. 99 22. 99 6. 022x10^23
Cl 33.45 33.45 6. 022x10^23
mole is used in chemistry to represent 6. 022x10^23 of something, but it can be difficult to conceptualize
such a large number. Watch this video to learn more. While atomic mass and molar mass are numerically
equivalent, keep in mind that they are vastly different in terms of scale, as represented by the vast difference
in the magnitudes of their respective units
The relationships between formula mass, the mole, and Avogadro’s number can be applied
to compute various quantities that describe the composition of substances and compounds. For
example, if we know the mass and chemical composition of a substance, we can determine the
number of moles and calculate number of atoms or molecules in the sample. Likewise, if we know
the number of moles of a substance, we can derive the number of atoms or molecules and
calculate the substance’s mass.

Simple Rule
 Grams ↔ Moles → NO need 6.022 × 10²³
 Moles ↔ Particles → NEED 6.022 × 10²³

Formula: Molar mass = Mass (g)

Moles:
Mol = Mass ÷ Molar mass
Mass = Molar mass × mol

Example 1: How many grams are there in 5.0 moles in an atom of hydrogen?

Step 1: Identify Given

Mole: 5.0 mol
Step 2: Use the formula
 5.0 mol (1.008 g/ 1.0 mol)
Step 3: Cancel units
Cancel the unit mol
Step 4: Solve
5.0 (1.008 g/1.0) = 5.0g

Example 2: How many moles are there in 100 grams of hydrogen (atom)?

Step 1: Identify Given

Mass: 100 g
Step 2: Use the formula
100 g (1.0 g/ 1.008 g)
Step 3: Cancel units
Cancel the unit grams
Step 4: Solve
100 (1.0 mol/1.0008) = 99.2 mol

Solve this:
1. How many moles are there in 0.0643 grams of H?
2. How many moles of Au is equal to 4.77 x 1027 Au atoms?
3. 3. How many moles are there in 52 g of He?4. Find the number of moles in H2 in 10g of H2
Calculating the formula weight: (You need Periodic Table) ([Link]
lang=en#Properties)

In calculating the formula weight of a compound, it is important to first determine the

contribution of each element present in the formula before combining them. For example, in the
compound H₂O, we begin by identifying the elements and the number of atoms of each. The formula
shows that there are two hydrogen atoms (H₂) and one oxygen atom (O). Next, we refer to the
periodic table to find the atomic mass of each element. Hydrogen has an atomic mass of
approximately 1.008 g/mol, while oxygen has an atomic mass of about 16 g/mol. After identifying
these values, we multiply each atomic mass by the number of atoms present in the compound. For
hydrogen, 2 × 1 gives 2 g/mol, and for oxygen, 1 × 16 gives 16 g/mol. Finally, we add these values
together to obtain the total formula weight of the compound. In this case, 2 + 16 equals 18 g/mol.
Therefore, the formula weight of H₂O is 18 g/mol. This process shows that calculating formula
weight requires breaking the compound into its individual elements, computing each element’s total
mass contribution, and then summing them to get the final answer.

Example:
1. CO2
Step 1: Elements
 C=1
 O=2
Step 2: Atomic masses
 C = 12
 O = 16
Step 3: Multiply
 C: 1 × 12 = 12
 O: 2 × 16 = 32
Step 4: Add
12 + 32 = 44 g/mol
 2. CaCO3
Step 1: Elements
 Ca = 1
 C=1
 O=3
Step 2: Atomic masses
 Ca = 40
 C = 12
 O = 16
Step 3: Multiply
 Ca: 1 × 40 = 40
 C: 1 × 12 = 12
 O: 3 × 16 = 48
Step 4: Add
40 + 12 + 48 = 100 g/mol

3. Al₂(SO₄)₃
Step 1: Elements
 Al = 2
 S=3
 O = 12 (because 4 × 3)
Step 2: Atomic masses
 Al = 27
 S = 32
 O = 16
Step 3: Multiply
 Al: 2 × 27 = 54
 S: 3 × 32 = 96
 O: 12 × 16 = 192
Step 4: Add
54 + 96 + 192 = 342 g/mol

How to get Percentage Composition by Mass

Step-by-Step Process: Finding Percentage Composition by Mass
Step 1: Know the Formula

The formula for percentage composition of an element in a compound is:

Step 2: Find the Molar Mass of Each Element

 Look at the chemical formula of the compound.
 Multiply the number of atoms of each element by its atomic mass (from the periodic table).
Step 3: Find the Molar Mass of the Compound
 Add the masses of all elements in the compound to get the total molar mass.
Step 4: Calculate the Mass Fraction of Each Element
 Divide the total mass of each element by the total molar mass of the compound.
Step 5: Convert to Percentage
 Multiply the fraction by 100 to get the percentage composition.

Example:
1. Computation:
H = 1x 2 = 2 Divided by 18 = 0.11 x 100 = 11%
O = 16 x 1 = 16 ÷ 18 = 0.89 x 100 = 89%

How to get the Empirical Formula

Step-by-Step Process: Finding Empirical Formula
Step 1: Get the Mass of Each Element
 Usually, the problem gives mass in grams or percentage composition.
 If given percentage, assume total mass = 100 g so the % becomes grams directly.
Step 2: Convert Mass to Moles
 Use the formula:

 This step converts grams to moles because empirical formula is based on mole ratios, not
mass.
Step 3: Divide by the Smallest Number of Moles
 Look at all the moles you calculated.
  Divide each element’s moles by the smallest mole value among them.
 This gives a ratio of atoms in smallest whole numbers.
Step 4: Adjust to Whole Numbers (if needed)
 If you get decimals like 1.5, multiply all numbers by 2, 3, 4… to make whole numbers.
 Example: 1 : 1.5 → multiply by 2 → 2 : 3
Step 5: Write the Empirical Formula
 Use the whole number ratios as subscripts in the chemical formula.
 That’s your empirical formula!

Calculate the molecular mass or formula mass of each compound.

a. KCl (potassium chloride)
b. NaCN (sodium cyanide)
c. H2S (hydrogen sulfide)
d. NaN3 (sodium azide)

Calculate the percentage composition of mass

1. Mg (NO₃)₂
2. (NH₄)₂SO₄.
3. CO2
4. CH₂O
Calculate the Empirical Formula
1. A compound contains 52.14% C, 34.73% O, and 13.13% H. Find the empirical formula
2. A compound contains 69.9% Fe and 30.1% O. Find its empirical formula.
 3. A compound contains 85.6% C and 14.4% H. Find the empirical formula.

MOLAR MASS AND MOLECULAR MASS IN STOICHIOMETRY

Mole – grams and Grams – mole Solving

Example 1: How many grams are there in 5.0 moles of H2O?

Step 1: Identify Given
Mole: 5.0 mol of H2O
Step 2: Get molar mass
H: 1.008 x 2 = 2.016
O: 16 x 1 = 16
2.016 + 16 = 18.016 g/mol

Step 3: Use the formula

moles= Mass/ molar mass
5.0 mol H2O (18.016 g H2O/1 mol H2O)
Step 4: Cancel units
Cancel the unit mol H2O
Step 5: Solve
90.08 g H2O

Example 2: How many moles are there in 100 grams of CO2?

Step 1: Identify Given
Mole: 100 mol of CO2
Step 2: Get molar mass
C: 12.01 x 1 = 12.01
O: 16 x 2 = 32
12.01 + 32 = 44.01 g/mol
Step 3: Use the formula
moles= Mass/ molar mass
 100 mol CO2 ( 1 mol CO2/ 44.01 g CO2)
Step 4: Cancel units
Cancel the unit grams
Step 5: Solve
2.27 mol CO2

Example 3: How many grams are there in 25.0 mole of table sugar, C12H22O11?
Step 1: Elements
 C = 12
 H = 22
 O = 11
Step 2: Atomic masses
 C = 12.01
 H = 1.008
 O = 16

Step 3: Multiply
 C: 12 × 12.01 = 144.12
 H: 22 × 1.008 = 22.176
 O: 11 × 16 = 176
Step 4: Add
144.12 + 22.176 + 176 = 342. 30 g/mol

Step 1: Identify Given

Mole: 25.0 mol C12H22O11
Step 2: Get molar mass
C: 12.01 x 12 = 144.12
H: 1.008 x 22 = 22.176
O: 16 x 11 = 176
144.12 + 22.176 + 176 = 342. 30 g/mol
Step 3: Use the formula
moles= Mass/ molar mass
25.0 mol C12H22O11 (342. 30 g C12H22O11/ 1 mol C12H22O11)
Step 4: Cancel units
 Cancel the unit mol
Step 5: Solve
8557.5 g C12H22O11

Solve this:
1. Calculate the number of moles in 5.00 × 102 g of each substance. How many molecules or
formula units are present in each sample?
a. CaO (lime)
b. CaCO3(chalk)
c. C12H22O11 [sucrose (cane sugar)]

Avogadro’s Concept – Step by Step

Step 1: Understand the Mole
 A mole is a counting unit in chemistry, just like a dozen.

 1 mole = particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.)

 This number is called Avogadro’s Number.
Step 2: Write the Problem
 Identify what is given: mass, moles, or number of particles.
 Identify what you are asked: number of moles, particles, or mass.
Step 3: Choose the Correct Formula
1. Particles → Moles

2. Moles → Particles
3. Mass → Moles

4. Moles → Mass

Example Problem:
How many moles are there in molecules of H₂O?
Step 1: Write formula

Step 2: Plug in values

Answer: 5 moles of H₂O

Example 3: Mass → Number of Particles (Harder Level)

Problem:
How many molecules are in 18 g of H₂O?
Step 1: Find moles first

Step 2: Find number of molecules

 Answer: molecules of H₂O

1. Reaction:
Question A: How many moles of hydrogen gas are needed to react with 5 moles of oxygen
gas?

2. Reaction:
Question B: How many moles of hydrogen gas are needed to react with 4 moles of nitrogen
gas?

 Stoichiometric Calculations:
Stoichiometry comes from the Greek words:
stoicheion = element
metron = measure
- It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the quantitative relationships between
reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
In simple words: Stoichiometry is all about calculating how much of a substance reacts or is
produced in a chemical reaction based on the balanced chemical equation.
Mole Ratio:
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation indicate the ratio of moles of each substance.
Example:

Ratio: H₂ : O₂ : H₂O = 2 : 1 : 2
Example problem: Mole – Mole
1. 6.0 moles of H2 react completely with N2 to form NH3 callculate the amount of NH3
produced in moles.

Step 1: Write a Balanced Chemical Equation

N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3
Step 2: Mole of ratio

Step 3: Formula
Mole of H2 → Mole of NH3
Given mole x mole of ratio

Step 4: Cancel unit

Cancel the unit mol of H2

Step 5: Answer
= 4.0 mol of NH3

Mass – Mass
2. Suppose of 16 g of H2 react completely with N2 to form NH3, how many grams of NH3
will be formed?

Step 1: Write a Balanced Chemical Equation

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Step 2: Formula
 grams of H2 → moles of H2 → moles of NH3 → grams of NH3
 given mass x molar mass (given) x mole ratio x molar mass

Step 3: Cancel Unit

 Cancel the grams of H2
 Cancel the mole of H2
 Cancel the mole of NH3
Step 4: Answer
= 90. 1 g of NH3

1. If grams of C6H112O6 is consumed by person in certain period, what is mass of CO2

produced?
2. Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry, low- temperature research, deep-sea diving
tanks, and ballons. How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He?
3. Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in making brass 9with copper) and in plating iron to
prevent corrosion. How many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mole of Zn?

4. Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned, sulfur is
converted to sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to the acid rain
phenomenon. How many atoms are in 16.3 g of S?

Overview: Limiting and excess reactants, Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
In every chemical reaction, substances combine according to a fixed ratio that is represented by a
balanced chemical equation. This equation does not only show the substances involved but also indicates the
exact proportions in which they react. However, in actual laboratory or real-life situations, reactants are rarely
present in the exact required amounts. Because of this, some substances are completely consumed while
others are left unused after the reaction. This situation gives rise to the concepts of limiting reactant and
excess reactant, which are essential in understanding how much product can be formed in a reaction.
To better understand this, consider the balanced chemical equation:
N 2 +3 H 2 → 2 N H 3
This equation tells us that one mole of nitrogen reacts with three moles of hydrogen to produce
ammonia. The ratio between nitrogen and hydrogen is therefore fixed at 1:3. This means that if the reactants
are not present in this exact proportion, one of them will run out before the other.
 The substance that is consumed first is called the limiting reactant. It is referred to as “limiting”
because it limits or controls the amount of product that can be formed. Once the limiting reactant is
completely used up, the reaction stops, regardless of how much of the other reactant is still present. This is
because a chemical reaction requires all reactants to continue; if one is missing, the process cannot proceed.
On the other hand, the substance that remains after the reaction has stopped is known as the
excess reactant. This reactant is present in a greater amount than required, so it is not fully consumed. It is
important to understand that the excess reactant does not influence the amount of product formed. Instead, the
amount of product depends entirely on the limiting reactant.
For example, if five moles of nitrogen react with twelve moles of hydrogen, we must determine
whether the available hydrogen is sufficient to react with all the nitrogen. Based on the balanced equation, five
moles of nitrogen would require fifteen moles of hydrogen. Since only twelve moles of hydrogen are
available, hydrogen will be used up first. Therefore, hydrogen is the limiting reactant, while nitrogen is the
excess reactant. This means that the amount of ammonia produced will depend only on the amount of
hydrogen available.
Once the limiting reactant is identified, we can determine the theoretical yield of the reaction. The
theoretical yield is defined as the maximum amount of product that can be formed from the given amount of
limiting reactant, if the reaction proceeds perfectly. It is calculated using stoichiometric relationships derived
from the balanced equation.
Theoretical yield represents an ideal situation where all reactants are completely converted into
products without any loss. However, in real experiments, this ideal condition is rarely achieved. There are
several reasons for this, including incomplete reactions, side reactions that produce unwanted products, and
loss of materials during handling or transfer. Because of these factors, the amount of product obtained in an
experiment, known as the actual yield, is usually less than the theoretical yield.

To evaluate how efficient a reaction is, chemists use the concept of percent yield. Percent yield
compares the actual yield obtained from an experiment to the theoretical yield calculated from stoichiometry.
Actual Yield
Percent Yield= ×100
Theoretical Yield
This value provides insight into how closely the experimental results match the expected results. A
percent yield close to 100% indicates that the reaction is highly efficient, while a lower percent yield suggests
that there were losses or inefficiencies in the process. In some cases, a percent yield greater than 100% may be
obtained, which usually indicates an error in measurement or the presence of impurities in the product.
Understanding limiting and excess reactants, as well as theoretical and percent yield, is very
important in both academic and real-world contexts. In industrial processes, for example, controlling the
limiting reactant ensures that resources are used efficiently and that the desired product is produced in the
correct amount. Excess reactants may be used deliberately to ensure that the limiting reactant is fully
consumed, thereby maximizing production.
In summary, chemical reactions are governed not only by the substances involved but also by the
quantities in which they are present. The limiting reactant determines when the reaction stops and how much
product is formed, while the excess reactant remains unused. Theoretical yield provides the maximum
possible amount of product, and percent yield measures the efficiency of the reaction. By understanding these
concepts, students can better analyze and predict the outcomes of chemical reactions.

Key Concepts
a) Limiting Reactant
 The reactant that runs out first, stopping the reaction.
 Determines the maximum amount of product that can form.
 b) Excess Reactant
 The reactant that remains after the reaction is complete.
c) Theoretical Yield
 The maximum amount of product predicted based on the limiting reactant.
 Calculated without considering losses.
d) Percent Yield
 The efficiency of the reaction in practice.
 Formula:
Actual Yield
Percent Yield= ×100 %
Theoretical Yield

Step 1: Write the balanced chemical equation

Example:
2 H2 +O2 → 2 H2 O
 Step-by-step guidance shows stoichiometric coefficients and color-coded molecules for clarity.
Step 2: Convert given quantities to moles
 Use molar mass if given in grams.
 Example: 5 g of H₂ →? moles
mass 5 g
n= = =2.5 mol
molar mass 2 g/mol
 The system can display an interactive input box for students to calculate, with hints.
Step 3: Determine the limiting reactant
 Compare the mole ratio of reactants from the balanced equation.
 Step-by-step logic:
1. Calculate the moles of product each reactant can produce.
2. The reactant producing less product is the limiting reactant.
Example:
 2.5 mol H₂ and 1.0 mol O₂
 From the equation: 2 mol H₂ : 1 mol O₂ → 2.5 mol H₂ needs 1.25 mol O₂
 Only 1.0 mol O₂ is available → O₂ is limiting.
Step 4: Calculate theoretical yield
 Based on the limiting reactant.
 Example: 1 mol O₂ produces 2 mol H₂O → 1 mol O₂ × (2 mol H₂O / 1 mol O₂) = 2 mol H₂O
 Convert moles to grams if needed: 2 mol × 18 g/mol = 36 g H₂O
Step 5: Identify the excess reactant
 Subtract the moles reacted from initial moles.
 Example: H₂ initial = 2.5 mol, reacted = 2 × 1.0 mol O₂ = 2 mol H₂ reacted
 Excess H₂ = 2.5 − 2 = 0.5 mol

Step 6: Calculate percent yield (if actual yield is given)

 Example: Actual yield = 30 g H₂O
30
Percent Yield= × 100 %=83.3 %
36
 Step-by-step interface highlights formula usage, substitution, and calculation.

ANOTHER STEP-BY-STEP EXAMPLE:

Step 1: Write the Balanced Equation
Reaction example:
2 H2 +O2 → 2 H2 O
 Coefficients (numbers in front) show how much of each chemical is needed.
 Here: 2 H₂ reacts with 1 O₂ to make 2 H₂O.
Reminder: Always write the balanced equation first.

Step 2: Convert given quantities to moles

 Chemicals may be given in grams, but calculations work best in moles.
 Formula:
Mass (g)
Moles=
Molar Mass (g/mol)
Example:
 4 g H₂ → Moles = 4 ÷ 2 = 2 mol
 32 g O₂ → Moles = 32 ÷ 32 = 1 mol
Step 3: Determine the limiting reactant
Method 1: Using Ratios
1. Divide moles available by coefficient from the balanced equation:

2 1
H₂: =1O₂: =1
2 1
2. The smaller number = limiting reactant
In this case, both are equal → either could limit (both will react fully).

Step 4: Find the Excess Reactant

 Excess = what’s left over after reaction.
 Formula:
Leftover=Starting amount−Amount used in reaction
Example:
 H₂ needed for O₂ = 2 × 1 = 2 mol
 Starting H₂ = 2 mol → leftover = 2 − 2 = 0 mol (no excess)
 O₂ needed = 1 mol → starting 1 mol → leftover = 0 mol

Step 5: Calculate Theoretical Yield

 Use limiting reactant to find product.
 Formula:
Coefficient of Product
Moles of Product=Moles of Limiting Reactant ×
Coefficient of Limiting Reactant
Example:
 Limiting H₂ = 2 mol
 Product H₂O: 2 H₂ → 2 H₂O → 2 mol H₂O
 Convert to grams: 2 × 18 = 36 g
Reminder: Theoretical yield = maximum you can make.

Step 6: Percent Yield (If needed)

 Percent yield = how much you got ÷ how much you should have gotten × 100
Example:
 Actual yield = 30 g
  Theoretical yield = 36 g
30
Percent Yield= × 100=83.3 %
36

Instructions: Read each problem carefully and solve systematically. Show your complete
solution for full credit. Use the balanced chemical equation, convert given quantities to moles
when necessary, and apply the appropriate mole ratios.
For problems involving yield, express your final answers with the correct unit and proper
significant figures.

Part A: Identification of Limiting Reactant

1. Consider the reaction:

A+2 B→ A B2

If 5 moles of A react with 8 moles of B, determine:

a. The limiting reactant
b. The excess reactant

2. Given the balanced equation:

N 2 +3 H 2 → 2 N H 3

If 4 moles of N₂ react with 9 moles of H₂, identify:

a. The limiting reactant
b. The excess reactant

Part B: Theoretical yield

 3. Consider the reaction:
N 2 +3 H 2 → 2 N H 3

If 6 moles of H₂ are available and nitrogen is in excess, calculate the theoretical yield
of NH₃ in moles.

4. Given the reaction:

2 H 2+ O 2 → 2 H 2 O

If 10 grams of hydrogen react with excess oxygen, determine the theoretical yield of water
in grams.

Part C: Percent Yield

5. In a chemical reaction, the theoretical yield of a product is 25 grams, but only 18 grams
were obtained experimentally.
Calculate the percent yield.

6. For the reaction:

2 H 2+ O 2 → 2 H 2 O

If the theoretical yield of water is 36 grams and the actual yield is 30 grams, determine the
percent yield.