CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Domestic violence is widely recognized as one of the most persistent violations of human rights

across the world. It involves a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or

maintain power and control over an intimate partner. In Nigeria, domestic violence manifests in

several forms including physical assault, emotional abuse, sexual coercion, and economic

deprivation. Spouse battering, which refers specifically to physical violence between marital

partners, remains one of the most reported forms (Pillay, 2020). In many societies, particularly in

developing regions, cultural beliefs and patriarchal norms often normalize or justify violence

against spouses, especially women. In Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State,

anecdotal evidence suggests that domestic violence cases are prevalent but underreported due to

stigma, fear of retaliation, and lack of trust in law enforcement agencies.

Human rights principles emphasize dignity, equality, and the right to live free from violence.

Domestic violence directly contradicts these principles. Therefore, examining the intersection

between domestic violence and human rights provides a deeper understanding of how societal

structures perpetuate abuse and how legal frameworks can be strengthened (Adebayo, 2023).

Statistics pertaining to the prevalence of intimate partner violence have revealed an incessant

increase in the rate of its perpetration and victimization all over the world. For instance, some

studies from around the world show that 10% to over 50% of women reported being hit or have

experienced other forms of physical violence from a male intimate partner at some point in their

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lives (World Health Organization, 2020). It is also estimated that as high as 38% of all femicide

killings occur in intimate relationships (World Health Organization, 2013).

In Africa, research reports that about 60% of all women in Tanzania, 50% in Zambia, 42% in

Kenya, 46% in Uganda, and 81% in Nigeria have experienced one form of violence or the other

in conjugal relationships (Kishor & Johnson, 2023). Drawing from the statistics on African

reports, it is evident that Nigeria is one of the countries with high prevalence of domestic

violence in sub-Sahara Africa, where two-thirds of women experience male partner violence

(Amnesty International, 2022). Globally, it can be stated that every case of domestic violence is a

potential life threatening act that can lead to mortality. This is particularly true because numerous

cases of domestic violence have been documented to lead to death of victims.

For instance, according to the Department of Health (2022), on average, two women a week are

killed by a male partner or former partner and this constitutes around one-third of all female

homicide victims. Additionally, intimate partner violence in the United States resulted into 2,340

deaths in 2007, accounting for 14% of all homicides. Of these deaths, 70% were females and

30% were males. In Nigeria, there have been reports of cases of husbands murdering and

maiming their wives in the media. For instance, the statistics presented by This Day (2020)

newspaper are overwhelming. About 50% of women have been battered by their husbands.

Shockingly, more educated women (65%) are in this terrible situation as compared with their

low income counterparts (55%). Sadly enough, a staggering 97.2% of them are not prepared to

report to the Nigeria Police. As a result, most of these women endure, believing they have

nowhere to go and that the law of the country will not protect them from being victimized.

Weldon (2022) as cited in McKie (2024) stated that intimate partner violence is gaining

increasing recognition worldwide and it is an issue of concern. This problem has prompted most

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governments to be keen to promote it as a human rights issue in their countries. Intimate partner

violence has many consequences for both men and women. For women, it affects their

productivity in all forms of life.

However, is that intimate partner violence is associated with physical, mental, and reproductive

health challenges that affect the lives of many women (Emenike, Lawoko & Dalal, 2021). Many

of the physical injuries sustained by women seem to cause medical difficulties as women grow

older. Hypertension, arthritis and different forms of heart diseases have been identified by

battered women as directly caused or aggravated 2 by domestic violence suffered early in their

adult lives. In addition, its perpetration threatens women’s societal freedom, dignity, and

infringes on their fundamental human rights (Sokoloff & Dupont, 2021). In addition, it is

estimated that one third of women worldwide are at risk of experiencing physical and/or sexual

coercion and rape from a male domestic partner (World Health Organization, 2020). In different

cultures and settings, most issues of domestic violence among intimate partners have centered on

men as the major perpetrators in heterosexual relationships. This is not to deny cases of male

victimization in domestic violence. Men can be, and frequently are, also victims of abuse in the

home at the hands of their female partners. For instance, a study found that women are slightly

more likely to be victimized in non-reciprocal violence, whereas men are slightly more likely to

be victimized in reciprocal violence (Centre for Disease Control, 2020). The study also found

that almost three quarters of non-reciprocal violence is perpetrated by women. A similar study

found that women are more likely to be injured in non-reciprocal violence and men are more

likely to be injured in reciprocal violence (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2021). Unfortunately, the great

reluctance of many men and boys to report domestic violence makes it very difficult to assess its

scope worldwide.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite existing laws and advocacy efforts, domestic violence continues to persist in many

Nigerian communities. In Chikun LGA, victims often suffer in silence due to societal pressure,

economic dependence, and fear of stigma. This situation raises serious concerns about the

effectiveness of human rights protection mechanisms (Pillay, 2023).

The continued occurrence of spouse battering highlights gaps in enforcement of laws and public

awareness. Victims are exposed to physical harm, psychological trauma, and in extreme cases,

death. This study seeks to investigate the causes, forms, and consequences of domestic violence,

as well as its implications on human rights. Virtually every week, at least a case of domestic

violence among intimate partners in Chikun LGA is reported in both the print and electronic

media. “Husband beats wife to stupor, wife stabs husband to death, father rapes daughter”, and

many more are becoming daily feature of various Nigerian tabloids. From a gender perspective,

domestic violence among intimate partners has also been identified as a primary cause of

mortality and injury to women across the globe. (Oladepo, et al, 2021) There have several reports

in the mass media suggesting that this problem is on the increase in Lagos State despite several

awareness campaigns and government's efforts to reduce this problem to the barest minimum.

For instant, The Guardian Nigeria (2026) reported that 6,753 cases of gender-based violence

were documented within one year in Lagos State. Similarly, Radio Nigeria Lagos (2025)

reported that the state recorded 8,692 cases of domestic and sexual violence between August

2024 and July 2025, with domestic violence accounting for 3,685 cases. These reports indicate

that domestic violence remains a serious social problem in Lagos State. The alarming rate

morbidity and mortality related to domestic violence necessitates this research in order to

examine the state of intimate partner violence, forms of intimate partner violence, its

4
contribution to casualty among intimate partners and the level of awareness of the mechanisms

introduced by Lagos State to prevent intimate partner violence.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study:

i. What are the major causes of domestic violence and human right activities in Chikun

LGA in Kaduna State?

ii. What are the types of community support available to victims of domestic violence of

spouse battering in Chikun LGA of Kaduna State?

iii. What are the state of domestic violence and casualty among intimate partners in Chikun

LGA of Kaduna State?

iv. What are the state different types of domestic violence among intimate partners in

Chikun LGA of Kaduna State?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The main objective is to examine domestic violence as a human rights issue. The specifically

study aims to:

i. To examine the major causes of domestic violence and human right activities in Chikun

LGA in Kaduna State.

ii. To examine the types of community support available to victims of domestic violence of

spouse battering in Chikun LGA of Kaduna State.

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iii. To examine the state of domestic violence and casualty among intimate partners in in

Chikun LGA of Kaduna State.

iv. To find out different types of domestic violence among intimate partners in Chikun LGA of

Kaduna State.

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study;

Ho1 There is no significant relationship between identified socio-economic, cultural, and

psychological factors and the occurrence of domestic violence in Chikun LGA, Kaduna State.

H02 Community support services do not significantly influence the well-being and recovery of

victims of domestic violence and spouse battering in Chikun LGA, Kaduna State.

H03 There is no significant relationship between identified casual factors and the prevalence of

domestic violence among intimate partners in Chikun LGA, Kaduna State.

Ho4 The various form of domestic violence has no significant relationship in occurrence among

intimate partners in Chikun LGA, Kaduna State.

1.6 Justification of the Study

This study is significant because it contributes to the understanding of domestic violence within

the human rights framework. It will assist policymakers, NGOs, and law enforcement agencies in

developing strategies to combat spouse battering.

This study will also create the consciousness among men and women of why incidents of

intimate partner violence should be given more attention and reported.

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Also, through the findings of this study, young women and men will be confident to report cases

of intimate partner violence knowing that it is not peculiar to them and that the 5 perceived

shame experienced by survivors is uncalled for.

It will also help to provide insights for the government and other relevant agencies on the need to

create strategies and enunciate laws to protect the interest of victims of intimate partner violence

in view of the rise in the act.

1.7 Clarification of Concepts

The following concepts are clarified as used in the research study:

Violence: Violence as used in this study refers to the intentional use of physical force or power,

threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which

either results in or has high the likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm and

deprivation. It can be physical, emotional, sexual, psychological or economical.

Domestic Violence Domestic violence means unlawful physical and emotional violence used or

threatened by one spouse or co-habitant against the other. It represents a pattern of abusive

behaviour in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control

over another intimate partner. It can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological

actions or threats of actions that influence another person. These include behaviours that

intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame and hurt

someone.

Casualty: Casualty as used in this study refers to deaths or injuries suffered as a result of

domestic violence.

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Mortality: Mortality refers to the state of being subjected to death, especially on a large scale. It

also refers to the quality of being susceptible to death or the reality of death.

Intimate Partner: An intimate partner refers to a person with whom one has a close personal

relationship that is characterized by regular contact, emotional connectedness, familiarity and

knowledge about each other’s lives, ongoing physical contact and/or sexual relations and identity

as a couple among others. An intimate partner could be current or former spouse, boyfriend or

girlfriend, dating partner or sexual partner.

Spouse Battering: Is a form of domestic violence involving repeated, intentional physical abuse

by one partner against another, often aim at controlling the victim through fear.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction to the Chapter

This chapter reviews existing literature on domestic violence and presents the theoretical

framework.

2.2 Domestic Violence

Domestic violence among intimate partners, also referred to as intimate partner violence (IPV),

occurs when a person including current or former spouse (married spouse, common-law spouse,

civil union spouse, cohabiting partner); boyfriend/girlfriend; dating partner; sexual partner tries

to control the other person either through the use of fear, threat and or intimidation (Benedicts,

Jaffe & Segal, 2022). Similarly, the World Health Organization (2022) defines domestic violence

among intimate partners as any behaviour within an intimate relationship that causes physical,

psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship. The Maryland Department of Health

and Mental Hygiene (2023) also defines domestic violence among intimate partners as the actual

or threatened physical, sexual, or psychological harm by a current or former partner or spouse.

According to the department, the pattern of assaultive or coercive behaviour is characterized by

the control or domination of one person over another. However, the precise definition of IPV

varies among different organizations and researchers comparing prevalence, epidemiology, and

associated effects. Some definitions are narrow and limited to spouses, only physical violence,

only female, or only to heterosexual couples. Narrow definitions can be useful within a

policy/program framework or for certain research purposes.

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Domestic violence among intimate partners occurs across all cultures, religions and socio

economic backgrounds (Garcia-Moreno, Heise, Jansen, Ellsberg & Watts, 2024), and it has

adverse effects on public health. Intimate partner violence encompasses physical, sexual, or

psychological harm by a current or former partner or spouse. Domestic violence among intimate

partners varies in frequency of occurrence and severity, and it occurs on a continuum, ranging

from one episode that might or might not have lasting impact to chronic and severe episodes over

a period of years (Centre for Disease Control, 2021).

2.2.1 Wife Beating

Beating basically denotes a term which involves the unlawful beating of another person or any

threatening touch to another person’s clothes or body, which in many homes begins with a

relatively minor misunderstanding between the parties (Chukwu, et al, 2024). The term connotes

the use of excessive physical force that ultimately results to injury to that person which the great

force is being applied upon. When it is directed at the female in a marital relationship it is called

wife beating (Dobash & Dobash cited in Muomah, 2021).

According to Suaad (2025), a diverse range of terms has been used to describe wife beating, it

can be regarded as an issue for women in a marital or other intimate relationship, sometimes wife

abuse, wife battery, partner abuse, physical abuse and domestic violence. Thus, wife beating

involves overt physical force or violence perpetrated by a husband on his wife. It is one of the

many dimensions of gender issues that takes the form of hitting, slapping, kicking, pushing,

dragging, cutting, shooting and throwing of objects (Alokan, 2023). In addition, Laeheem and

Boonprakarn (2024) stated that, it is a male behaviour pattern of hurting females or wives

physically and mentally in order to show power in controlling them. Victims are wives who are

10
hurt by their husbands physically in order to threaten them to do something without

consideration of their wives right. To do this, husband use different forms and levels of intensity

which can be physical attack, causing physical wound ranging from minor to more serious one or

even death if weapons are used.

Koenig et al (2023), identified common reasons leading to beating of wives in some cases to

include lack of submission to spouse, refusal to have sex, argue with spouse, going out without

telling spouse and suspected infidelity. Dobash and Dobash cited in Muomah (2020), maintain

that, the history of wife beating is a product of a system, which reflects historical laws about

male ownership in marriage, as well as current social gender roles and structures, which secure

the dominance of men over women. The author further indicated that wife beating like most

things that came into existence at a particular time in history, is traced to the way women for

decade after decade had been conditioned by the religious, socio-cultural and legal concepts that

held them to be naturally inferior to men. For instance In Africa, particularly in Nigeria Ameh

and Abdul (2025), argues that the section 55 (1) of the Penal Code of Northern Nigeria

unwittingly encourages wife beating. It states, “Nothing is an offence which does not amount to

infliction of grievous hurt upon any person and which is done by husband for the purpose of

correcting his wife, such husband or wife being subject to native law or custom in which such

correction is recognized as lawful.” This law has been exploited by many husbands to inflict

terrible violence on their wives. Writing in the same vein Otufale (2023), submits that wife

beating is as a result of the socio-cultural belief system prevalent in relationships between man

and woman, where the men are socialized into believing that they are entitled to be superior to

the women and should be at the apex of decision making in marriage while the women are to be

subordinated to the point of their detriment and to achieve this, husbands are willing to control

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and coerce their wives by a variety of means to maintain their rights, authorities and positions in

the marriage.

2.2.2 Economic Factor and Perception of Wife Beating

Economic factors also matter because they can shape the way public looks at or accepts wife

beating as justified. For instance, Chuma and Chazovachill (2022) argued that, women’s

dependence on men and the cultural value of being a proper wife may lead most women to

decide that, the trouble of contradicting gender role is worse than staying with a violent partner.

The author also argued that, women who depend solely on their husbands for survival are more

likely to tolerate beating perpetrated by spouses because poverty can put a severe constrain on

women to challenge violence perpetrated against them. The implication of this could be that,

poverty limits the ability of most people to see wife beating as abnormal behavior even though

they feel the pains generated by beating perpetrated against them.

According to Fakunmoju, et al, (2022), due to economic factor many women have continue to

bear the major brunt of partner violence in many patriarchal societies, and continue to condone

as well as conceal it as private affair because of the mere fact that women are economically

dependent on men which made it physically incapable of confronting their abusers even in the

face of threatening danger and looming risk of being battered to death by her husband. Similarly,

Oyediran (2021), contended that, categories of people vulnerable to accept and justify wife

beating under the above circumstance are women who depend on men and women who do not

have autonomy in household decision pertaining to their own health, social activities or visits to

parents or relatives, as well as people with rigid believes regarding submissiveness of women,

male prestige.

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2.3 Role of Health Care Sector and Community Support in Preventing and Responding

Domestic Violence

While preventing and responding to violence against women requires a multi-sectorial approach,

the health sector has an important role to play. However, although violence against women has

been accepted as a critical public health and clinical care issue, it is still not included in the

health-care policies of many countries (Ansara & Hindin, 2020). The critical role that the health

system and health-care providers can play in terms of identification, assessment, treatment, crisis

intervention, documentation, referral, and follow-up, is poorly understood or accepted within the

national health programmes and policies of various countries. Health-care professionals tend to

regard violence against women as a criminal justice issue, and view partner violence in particular

as a domestic matter. They are also ill-equipped to deal with the issues, since medical and

nursing education in many countries does not address this problem. In order for health-care

providers to assume their roles in mitigating the effects of violence and fulfill their

responsibility, it is necessary to sensitize them towards the issue and provide them with the

information and tools necessary to respond sensitively and effectively to survivors. These

guidelines are a first step in this direction. The health-care providers frequently, and often

unknowingly, come into contact with women affected by violence, since abused women make

extensive use of healthcare resources (Ansara & Hindin, 2020; Black, 2021). Health-care

providers are in a unique position to create a safe and confidential environment for facilitating

disclosure of violence, while offering appropriate support and referral to other resources and

services. More also, the health care sector can:

i. Advocate to make violence against women unacceptable and for such violence to be

addressed as a public health problem;

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ii. Provide comprehensive services, sensitize and train health care providers in responding to the

needs of survivors holistically and empathetically;

iii. Prevent recurrence of violence through early identification of women and children who are

experiencing violence and providing appropriate referral and support;

iv. Promote egalitarian gender norms as part of life skills and comprehensive sexuality education

curricula taught to young people; and

v. Generate evidence on what works and on the magnitude of the problem by carrying out

population-based surveys, or including violence against women in population-based

demographic and health surveys, as well as in surveillance and health information systems.

2.3.1 The Role of Social Workers in Preventing and Responding to Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is one of the most common issues social workers come across. Social workers

have worked with victims of domestic violence for years - in the courts, social services, accident

and emergency, and in refuges (SafeLives, 2021). However, their role in helping victims and

families includes:

i. Social workers are skilled at engaging with the whole family and are able to link the

experiences of every member of that family the victim, the perpetrator and the children.

ii. Making sure the children and the victim are safe are key tasks for the social worker;

iii. The social worker works with the parent to encourage them to see the world how their

children do. This approach helps to motivate the parents to change the situation the family is

in;

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iv. Social workers also work directly with the children to strengthen the mother-child

relationship, as it can be badly affected by domestic abuse especially if the victim separates

from a violent partner;

v. Social workers need to understand the impact of domestic violence on the mother’s mental

health and her parenting skills; and

vi. Also focus on the whole family, social workers engage in a safe way with the perpetrator,

challenging them to change their behavior. But domestic abuse is not a simple issue and

responding effectively requires a truly holistic approach. That is why coordinated support

from a whole range of agencies is crucial. Social workers can build strong links with other

agencies and encourage better access to services for vulnerable families.

It is vital that social workers understand what an effective preventive and response to domestic

abuse is. To offer the skills and knowledge needed to effectively help families, social workers

ensure to keep up-to-date with domestic violence and abuse case law, learn from relevant serious

case reviews and attend training. Social Work experts produce domestic violence preventive and

response guidance, which will help to prevent domestic violence and achieve family stability

(SafeLives, 2021).

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2.3.2 Consequences of Domestic Violence

Denial of Fundamental Rights: Violence against women is recognized as a violation of human

rights. As early as 1984, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the UN General

Assembly identified violence against women as an abuse that threatens the security of women

and their fundamental rights to life and liberty, as well as freedom from fear and want. Also in

December 1993, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights published the

Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women or Violence against Men. Section

34(1)(a) of the Constitution also provides that every individual is entitled to respect for the

dignity of his person, and accordingly, no person shall be subject to torture or to inhuman or

degrading treatment.

Lack of Development: Violence against women causes human suffering, impediments to

personal development and reduction in the contribution women can make to the lives of others.

Violence against women does not avail women the power to protect themselves from unwanted

pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Domestic violence against women has incalculable

costs to present and future generations and limits a woman’s personal growth, her productivity

and her socio-economic roles. Also, women’s aspirations and achievements are inhibited, not

just by the injuries of physical attacks but by the implicit threat to social development. By

subjecting women to violence and without a social structure that endeavours to stop this practice,

the women could be made to believe that they are actually inferior to their counterparts and that

they deserve the abuse. This can affect their self-image and perception of men in general. States

that fail to prevent and prosecute perpetrators of domestic violence treat women as second-class

citizens and send a clear message that the violence against them is of no concern to the state.

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Health Consequences: Domestic violence is a profound health problem that compromises

women’s physical and mental health, and erodes their self-esteem. In addition to causing injury,

violence increases women’s long-term risk of a number of other health problems including

chronic pain, physical disability, drug and alcohol abuse, and depression. Women with a history

of physical or sexual abuse are also at increased risk for unintended pregnancy, sexually

transmitted infections, and miscarriages. For many women, the psychological consequences of

abuse are even more serious than its physical effects. The experience of abuse often erodes

women’s self-esteem and puts them at greater risk of a variety of mental health problems

including depression, anxiety, phobias, post- traumatic stress disorder, and can also result in

alcohol and drug abuse. Violence and sexual abuse also lie behind some reproductive health

issues like unwanted pregnancies, HIV and other STIs, and complications of pregnancy.

Impact on Children: The most important actors in any child’s life are often, and should most

often be, his or her parents. As such, the family can be the single most important factor in

determining whether or not a child is protected. On the other hand, given the centrality of the

family in the child’s life, it can also be a frequent source of violence, abuse, discrimination and

exploitation. Children who have witnessed their mothers being subjected to one form of violence

or another, tend to follow suit because they feel that is the best way to deal with their wives too.

They could on the other hand, avoid women due to the fear of repeating what their fathers did

(Gracia,et al, 2024).

Also, children fail to receive adequate care and attention from battered women who are too busy

nursing their wounds or trying to find a way out of their predicament. This is especially when

injuries inflicted on them by their husbands leads to their death. In a study conducted on 308

women in Igbo land, the results revealed that pregnant women were no less vulnerable to battery

17
than other women, as more than half of the respondents (58.9%) were beaten during pregnancy.

This occurred more in the rural than urban areas (65.8% vs. 52.9%) (Campbell, et al, 2022).

Domestic violence in pregnancy is of particular concern because of the implications for safe

motherhood and child health. In a study conducted in a referral centre in southern Nigeria, in

which 502 women participated, 220 (43.8%) women reported experiencing violence before,

during, and after pregnancy. A total of 142 (28.3%) women reported experiencing violence only

during pregnancy, whereas 4 (0.8%) experienced violence only after childbirth (Walker, 2021).

2.3.3 Effects of Domestic Violence on Children

Domestic violence also affects children. For instance, studies have shown that such abuse results

to lower reading levels for adolescents (Thompson & Whimper, 2020); lower scores on

standardized tests for children ages 6 to 17 in particular, for girls and children younger than 12

years old (Peek-Asa et al., 2023); poor school attendance and lower academic achievement on

average (Jayasinghe, Jayawardena & Perera, 2020); dropping out of school or failing a school

year (Duvand, Schvaiber, Franca & Barros, 2021); lower performance in regular academic tasks

such as reading, quality of work, and math (Bourdillion, Levison, Myers & White, 2021).

Alibi and Oni (2017) also find that exposure of children to domestic violence may affect their

performance in school such that they lag behind in class as well as in life. This is because being

the first point of contact and foundation for the child, whatever happens at home significantly

affects the behavioural and psychological upbringing of the child (Meltzer, 2019) just as it has

developmental consequences such as cognitive ability, school readiness, academic achievement

and emotional adjustment for children (Fantuzzo, et al, 2020). Domestic violence has negative

consequences for children (Assad, et al, 2021); projects poor child nutrition (Heaton and Forste,

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2023); has negative effects on children’s intellectual (Huth-Bocks, et al, 2019); emotional, social

and behavioural development (Evans, et al, 2018); and negative psychological, social, and

academic attainment (Kitzmana, etal, 2023). According to Akpan and Usoroh (2025), the

occurrence of domestic violence has profound and destructive consequences that ranges from

physical, emotional and financial effects on the inhabitants of the home are it the women,

children or men. In their study, Moffitt and Caspi (2023) observed that children whose parents

fought one another are at the risk of abuse three to nine times higher than other children. By

implication, living in an emotionally charged and violent homes has negative outcomes for

children’s responsive and mental health in both the immediate and longer term (Stanley, 2021;

Wolfe, et al, 2023) as some children may ‘externalize’ their feelings and confusion through

aggressive or antisocial behaviour, while others may ‘internalize’ the behaviours reflecting

increased levels of depression, anxiety, and traumatic symptoms (Devaney, 2025).

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN, 2014) claim that children who are

exposed to domestic violence are more likely than other children to show signs of behavioral and

emotional depression (such as anxiety, higher levels of anger and disobedience, fear and

withdrawal, poor peer sibling, low self-esteem); cognitive and attitudinal problems (that is,

difficulties with concentration and task completion in school, lack of conflict resolution skills,

lower marks on assessment of verbal, motor, and cognitive skills, possess limited problem

solving skills, and demonstrate pro-violence attitudes); long-term problems (for example, alcohol

abuse, drug abuse, smoking, and several other risk factors that are common causes of death).

Children that witness domestic violence are between 2.9 and 4.4 times more likely to experience

neglect, physical and sexual from a caregiver than those children that are not exposed to such

occurrence (Radford et al., 2024); may suffer abandonment, transfer aggression from either of

19
the parent, and may have difficulties in building and maintaining relationships and impulsiveness

(Taibat & Oni, 2019).

2.4 Types of Domestic Violence among Intimate Partners

Domestic violence takes many forms, which includes;

Physical Violence: Any act which causes physical harm as a result of unlawful physical force.

Physical violence can take the form of, among others, serious and minor assault, deprivation of

liberty, manslaughter, pushing, biting, hitting, burning, strangling, and using a weapon, homicide

(Taket et al., 2023). WHO (1996) observed that 20 to 50 percent of women from country to

country have experience physical abuse at home.

Sexual Violence: Sexual violence is any sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act by violence

or coercion, acts to traffic a person or acts directed against a person's sexuality, regardless of the

relationship to the victim.

Emotional Abuse: Emotional or psychological yelling, name calling, blaming, shaming and

isolation are behavior that threaten, intimidate and undermines victims’ self-worth or self-esteem

or controls the victims’ freedom. Emotional abuse can even involve humiliating the victim

privately or publicly, controlling what he can and cannot do, withholding information or even

deliberately doing things that will make the victim of abuse feed diminished or embarrassed.

The target of emotional abuse is to reduce your feeling of self-worth and independence. Victims

most often report that emotional torture and living under terror is most unbearable than physical

violence or brutality. Close correction except between high incidence of suicide and attempted

suicide to emotional stress. This has been reported in countries like Peru, Nigeria, India,

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Bangladesh, New Guinea and United State. The victims of emotional abuse eventually succumb

to the feeling that they cannot survive and leave independently without their abuser.

Psychological Violence: Any intentional conduct that seriously impairs another person's

psychological integrity through coercion or threats. Statistical definition: Any act which causes

psychological harm to an individual. Psychological violence can take the form of, for example,

coercion, defamation, verbal insult or harassment, bullying, jealous behavior, humiliation, verbal

abuse such as ridiculing and blaming.

Economic Violence: Economic violence is a type of violence committed by individuals or

groups preying on economically disadvantaged individuals. Such as withholding money,

forbidding work or forcing the victim to work. Economic abuse as a form of abuse when an

intimate partner has control over the other partners’ access to economic resources. The ultimate

goal of economic abuse is to control the partner. Financial abuses include but not limited to the

following strategies:

i. Rigid control over income;

ii. Withholding money or credit card;

iii. Withholding basic necessities;

iv. Restricting the partner allowance;

v. Choosing of career;

vi. Sabotaging job and career growth; and

vii. Stealing and taking partners money and making partner account for every penny in their

possession.

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Legal and Administrative Abuse: Abuse of power or abuse of authority, in the form of

malfeasance in the house and is the commission of an unlawful act, done in an official capacity,

which affects the performance of family life, such as use of institutions to inflict further abuse on

a victim, for example taking out false restraining orders to deny the victim access to his children

and pressuring through children.

Spiritual Abuse: Spiritual abuse involves preventing a partner from engaging in his or her

religious practices. It could even involve the use of religious beliefs to manipulate dominate or

control a partner. Religious beliefs, teaching and practices can serve as basis for the tolerance of

abusive behavior in the family. Religious teaching can therefore serve as road blocks and as

resource for victims of violence. Some abusers even justify their action by making reference to

the bible verse that accepts male superiority and female submission. This argument is however

countered that the use of violence by men is purely a misinterpretation of the role of men in the

society. Domestic violence among Christians is complication by a culture of silence and

acceptance of abuse.

Social Abuse: Social abuse is a hidden form of violating and can take the form of isolating a

partner from his support networks. The perpetrator is attempting to control and assert his hold on

the victim by isolating the victim from his associates and members of the community. Rigid

social roles are used to limit the expression of feeling of anger and depression. The victim is

given the orientation that he is not as capable as their abuser. The police, legal system, medical

system, social service by the action or inaction can support or promote social abuse by

undervaluing request for help and blaming the victim of domestic violence for his or her ordeal.

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2.5 Causes of Domestic Violence on Spouse Battering

Domestic violence also known as domestic abuse, intimate partner violence or abuse may start

when one partner feels the need to control and dominate the other (Susmitha, 2021; Goldsmith,

2020). Domestic violence and abuse stem from a desire to gain and maintain power and control

over an intimate partner. Abusive people believe they have the right to control and restrict their

partners, and they may enjoy the feeling that exerting power gives them:

i. Abusers may feel this need to control their partner because of low self-esteem, extreme

jealousy, difficulties in regulating anger and other strong emotions, or when they feel

inferior to the other partner in education and socioeconomic background (Semahegn &

Mengistie, 2019; Goldsmith, 2020).

ii. Some people with very traditional beliefs may think they have the right to control their

partner, and that women are not equal to men. Others may have an undiagnosed personality

disorder or psychological disorder. Still others may have learned this behavior from growing

up in a household where domestic violence was accepted as a normal part of being raised in

their family.

iii. A partner’s domination may take the form of emotional, physical or sexual abuse. Studies

suggest that violent behavior often is caused by an interaction of situational and individual

factors. That means that abusers learn violent behavior from their family, people in their

community and other cultural influences as they grow up. They may have seen violence

often or they may have been victims themselves. Some abusers acknowledge growing up

having been abused as a child (Susmitha, 2019; Goldsmith, 2020).

iv. Children who witness or are the victims of violence may learn to believe that violence is a

reasonable way to resolve conflict between people. Boys who learn that women are not to be

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 valued or respected and who see violence directed against women are more likely to abuse

women when they grow up. Girls who witness domestic violence in their families of origin

are more likely to be victimized by their own husbands. Although women are most often the

victim of domestic violence, the gender roles can and are reversed sometimes.

v. Alcohol and drugs may contribute to violent behavior. A drunk or high person will be less

likely to control his or her violent impulses toward their partner, so keeping such drinking or

drug use episodes to a minimum may be valuable for a person living in a domestic violence

situation (Goldsmith, 2020).

2.6 Legal Framework for the Protection of Women against Violence in Nigeria

There have been increased efforts to enhance the protection and promotion of women’s rights

through the international, regional, and national enactment of laws and policies. Such efforts

have resulted in documents like the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of

Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Beijing Platform for Action at the

international level (Biodun, 2020). Some countries have passed laws and policies incorporating

such international standards into their domestic laws. For example, Nigeria has incorporated the

United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially

Women and Children, and the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized

Crime (UNCTOC) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) into domestic law

(Ijeoma, 2013).

However, there is no National Law in Nigeria that deals with the protection of women against

domestic violence. The Minister of Women Affairs and Social Development, Hajiya Zainab

Maina, at a stakeholders preparatory meeting on the 57th Session of the United Nations

24
Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) in September 2013 disclosed that the committee

that was set up to harmonise all bills dealing with violence against women into a single bill titled

‘Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Bill’ (VAPP) was still lobbying for its speedy passage.

In March 2013, the House of Representatives of the National Assembly passed the bill but it is

yet to get the senate’s approval. The law which aims to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the

cases of gender based violence includes a comprehensive definition and harsh sentences for rape

and other sexual offences, compensation for rape victims, institutional protection from further

abuse through restraining orders and a new fund to support the rehabilitation of victims of

violence. Covering a wide spectrum of violence, including Female Genital Mutilation, early and

forced marriage, rape and harmful widowhood practices, the bill aims to recognise the rights of

all to safety both in the workplace and in the home (Jacky, 2013).

There are however, few states in Nigeria which have passed laws to protect women in their

respective states. Such states include Lagos State, Ekiti State, Kaduna, Ebonyi, Cross river and

Jigawa Sates. In Lagos, the Law that was set up to protect women is referred to as the Protection

against Domestic Violence Law 2007. The Law prohibits any person from committing any act of

domestic violence against any person in Lagos State. It prescribes and regulates the behaviour of

every citizen of Lagos state in their domestic environment (BAOBAB, 2023). The Law is made

not only to protect women who are most times, the target of domestic violence, but also to

safeguard the interests of men, children, servants, maids and everyone who may be a victim of

domestic violence. This is regardless of sex, age or marital status. The Law provides for financial

assistance by the state through the office of the public defender or legal aid council to victims of

domestic violence who may be financially handicapped to seek redress in court under this Law

(Francis, 2022). Therefore, lack of money cannot hinder a person from seeking redress under this

25
Law. Section 18(g) lists the acts constituting domestic violence as including but not limited to

the following: physical abuse, sexual abuse, starvation, emotional, verbal and psychological

abuse, economic abuse, denial of basic education, intimidation, harassment, stalking, hazardous

substance, damages to property, wrongful entry, controlling or abusive behaviour or deprivation.

The case of domestic violence can be commenced in a magistrate court or high court of the state

through a motion on notice (Aihie, 2021). One good thing about this Law is that it is gender

neutral that is, made for both men and women.

A complainant under the law can apply for a protection order where an act of Domestic violence

or a criminal offence that contains an element of domestic violence is committed against him or

her. Parties present at such proceedings are the officers of the court, parties, legal representatives,

witnesses, or person bringing the application and the court has discretion to hear the proceedings

in private or exclude any person from the proceeding in court. The information on the identity of

the parties or relating to the proceeding in court must be confidential and not published;

otherwise it attracts a penalty of N 20,000 fine or a year imprisonment (Saharay, 2018). The

Director, Gender and Legal Aid, Women Advocate Research and Documentation Centre

(WARDC), Ms. Grace Otor in an interview acknowledged that domestic violence is a criminal

matter that should not be accepted by victims as a cultural phenomenon or as a way of life.

Rather, it should be viewed as a human right issue which touches on the right to liberty, freedom

of expression, freedom of movement among other rights. Otor however noted that the Lagos

State government has failed to make domestic violence a criminal offence but a civil offence.

She stated that the act would only become a criminal matter when an abuser or a culprit disobeys

court orders as listed in the law unlike the Ekiti state law which criminalizes it. Besides, she said

the Federal and the state governments had also not shown the political will to curb the incidence

26
of domestic violence adding that of the 36 states of Nigeria, only five states have a legal

framework regulating domestic violence. Ekiti Enacts Law against Gender-Based Violence

(EKSGON, 2011).

In Ekiti State, Nigeria, the bill prohibiting gender-based violence was signed into law by the

Governor, Dr Kayode Fayemi, in Ado-Ekiti on November 25, 2011. With the development, Ekiti

became the first state in the federation to pass such law that seeks to protect both genders against

physical and psychological abuse and violence. The Gender based Violence Law seeks to create

an Act to eliminate violence in private and public life, prohibit all forms of violence including

physical, sexual, psychological, domestic, harmful traditional practices and discrimination

against persons and to provide maximum protection and effective remedies for victims and

punishment of offenders. The law seeks to protect the human rights and fundamental freedoms of

women, children and a minority of men against physical, economic, mental or sexual harm or

suffering, as well as threats of such acts, coercion and other deprivations of liberty within the

public or private spheres.

2.7 Theoretical Framework

To critically examine Domestic violence and human rights within Chikun LGA of Kaduna State,

this study draws upon two complementary theoretical frameworks: the Social Ecological Model

and Feminist Theory. These frameworks provide a multidimensional lens through which the

complexity of domestic violence can be understood, analyzed, and addressed.

Social Ecological Model

The Social Ecological Model (SEM) offers a layered approach to understanding violence,

recognizing that individual behavior is shaped by interactions across multiple levels of influence

27
namely, individual, relationship, community, and societal contexts. At the individual level,

factors such as personal history, substance use, and exposure to violence during childhood can

increase vulnerability to both victimization and perpetration. The relationship level considers the

influence of close interpersonal connections, including family dynamics and peer interactions,

which may reinforce harmful norms or provide protective support. The community level

examines the role of institutions such as schools, religious centers, and workplaces, and how

their norms and resources either mitigate or exacerbate violence. Finally, the societal level

addresses broader structural factors, including cultural beliefs, economic inequality, and legal

policies that shape the environment in which domestic violence occurs (Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention, 2015; UN Women, 2013).

Feminist Theory

Feminist Theory provides a critical lens for analyzing domestic violence as a manifestation of

gendered power relations embedded within patriarchal structures. It posits that gender-based

violence is not random or isolated but is deeply rooted in societal norms that privilege male

dominance and female subordination. Feminist scholars argue that domestic violence is

perpetuated by institutionalized inequalities such as unequal access to resources, limited legal

protections, and cultural narratives that normalize male control over women (Buiten, 2022; Hall,

2022).

This theory also emphasizes the importance of empowerment and systemic change, advocating

for policies and practices that challenge gender hierarchies and promote equity. Feminist

approaches to domestic violence call for survivor-centered interventions, intersectional analysis,

and community mobilization to dismantle the structural conditions that enable abuse. In the

28
context of Chikun LGA of Kaduna State, Feminist Theory helps illuminate how cultural and

institutional norms may reinforce silence, stigma, and impunity, and underscores the need for

transformative action.

Together, the Social Ecological Model and Feminist Theory offer a robust foundation for

understanding the multifaceted nature of domestic violence and guiding effective, context-

sensitive responses.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction to the Chapter

This chapter presents the various steps that were adopted in studying the research problem. It

deals with the various techniques, methods and tools employed in the collection and analysis of

data. Topics presented include the research design, study location, study population, sampling

technique and sample size, research instruments and methods of data analysis.

3.2 Design

The research design for the research study was anchored on the non-experimental and descriptive

research designs. Descriptive research according to Best and Kahn (2020) is the type of

investigation that deals with the collection and analysis of data for the purpose of describing and

interpreting existing conditions and also to make discovery and explanation of past event.

Descriptive research is being utilized because it enables exploring relationship between variables

as well as being appropriate for testing the hypothesis of the study. Descriptive research helps

answer the what, when, where and how questions of a research problem rather than just why in

the domestic violence and human rights of spouse battering.

3.3 Study Area

Chikun Local Government Area (LGA) is situated in southern Kaduna State, Nigeria, between

latitudes 10°00′N and 10°50′N and longitudes 6°04′E and 7°05′E. It covers approximately 4,801

km², with Kujama as its administrative headquarters. The LGA borders Kaduna South LGA to

the north, Niger State to the southwest, and Kajuru and Kachia LGAs to the east. Chikun LGA

30
has a tropical continental climate, classified as Köppen Aw. This is characterized by a

pronounced harmattan season (November–February) that is cold, dry, and dusty, and a rainy

season from April to October, peaking in August. Mean maximum temperatures range from

33.4°C to 34.9°C (March–May), with minima of 19.1°C–21.8°C in December–January (Baba et

al., 2020).

Soils are predominantly ferruginous, tropical, fragile, and leached, with 30–40% clay content and

poor nutrient retention, requiring fertilizers for sustained agriculture. Some low-lying areas

feature permanently waterlogged 'fadama' soils prone to seasonal flooding and cracking.

Vegetation falls within the northern Guinea savannah zone, characterized by scattered trees such

as Isoberlinia doka and Isoberlinia tomentosa, interspersed with grasslands, though heavily

modified by farming, grazing, firewood collection, and deforestation (Baba et al., 2020).

Economic activities are diverse: rural areas focus on subsistence and commercial farming of

crops such as yams, cassava, maize, beans, millet, rice, and groundnuts, as well as livestock

rearing (cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry). Urban and peri-urban zones feature trade, public

service employment, and industries such as the Kaduna Refinery, agro-allied processing,

manufacturing (e.g., Indomie, pure water), quarrying, and cement production. Chikun LGA has a

projected population of 503,242 people in 2020. The population is predominantly Christian, with

roots in traditional African beliefs and a minority Muslim community. This mix of rural

agriculture, urban trading, and industrial activities shapes socio-economic dynamics relevant to

domestic violence patterns.

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3.4 Population of Study

The study population included male and female adults of eighteen (18) years and above. They

totaled 90 the rationale behind restricting the population in Chikun LGA of Kaduna State this is

so because the research aimed at studying persons who have intimate partners in the study area.

The study also involved Police and Medical Officers who were interviewed as experts who can

provide useful information concerning the cases of casualty associated with the perpetration and

victimization of domestic violence among intimate partners.

3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

To ensure convenience and avoid over-emphasis on the rule of generalization and unnecessary

time wasting, the researcher decide to apply the Taro Yamani (1967) formula to determine the

appropriate number of sample size that could represents general opinion of the total population.

In view of this a total of 73 sample size has been arrived at, which made a true representation of

the total population size of 90 workforces.

Taro Yamani Formula:

N
n=
1+ N ¿ ¿
Where:
n = Sample Size (unknown)
N = Population Size (90)
e = Sample error limit that is 5% or 0.05
Therefore:
90
n =
1+ 90 ¿ ¿
90
n =
1+ 90(0.0025)
90
n =
1+ 0 .225
90
n =
1.225
32
n = 73.4693
n = 73

3.6 Methods of Data Collection

The instrument used for this study was the questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed by

the researcher. Questionnaire was appropriate because the area under study were literate.

Besides, the questionnaire method facilitated easy coverage and is more appropriate in survey

studies of the nature (Nwana, 2018). The questionnaire was tagged Domestic Violence and

Human Right Questionnaire (DVHRQ).

The Questionnaire was designed on 5-point Likert Scale of strongly agreed, Agreed, Undecided,

Disagreed and Strongly disagreed. The 24 items in the questionnaire were generated through a

view of previous studies. In scoring the items related to the Likert type 5-point scale, respondents

had a respondent’s opinion. The higher the score, the more influenced the respondent was by the

scale. The design of the questionnaire was clustered around four sections. Section A consists of

items related to the personal data of the respondents such as sex, age while section B to E

contained information dealing with Domestic Violence and Human Right (See Appendix II).

3.6.1 Validity

According to Kerlinger (1973), in Nwana, (2018), Validation of research instrument by others is

an effective method for content validation. Consequently, the questionnaire was validated by

three experts in the Department of Social Science, National Open University Kaduna State. They

were requested to judge the appropriateness, comprehensiveness and clarity of items in the

questionnaire. Their contributions in form of suggestions and constructive criticism were used in

the final draft.

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3.6.2 Reliability

To obtain reliability for factual questions, Oppenheim (1966) in Uzoagulu (2019) suggests that

“internal checks in the form of logical test in the questionnaire should be included”. In line with

this, a number of questions were built into the questionnaire to give a clue to the respondents’

consistency of responses.

A pilot was also carried out with 10 respondents in Chikun Local Government of Kaduna State

to pre-test the efficacy of the questionnaire. The choice of a small sample for the pilot study is in

agreement with the view held by Nworgu (1991) who opines that pilot testing is usually done on

a smaller scale than the main study but under similar conditions. The 10 respondents did not

form part of the main investigation. The respondents were requested to indicate their responses

to each statement by ticking one of the responses built on the Likert type 5-point scale. This was

to ensure that individual opinion about the domestic violence and human right of spouse

battering in Chikun LGA of Kaduna State was adequately expressed.

3.7 Techniques of Data Analysis

The quantitative data generated from the study was analyzed with the aid of the Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 20. It also involved descriptive statistical analysis

of socio-demographic characteristics of respondents as well as cross-tabulation (inferential

statistics) of independent and dependent variables for the purpose of testing the research

hypothesis. For the qualitative data generated, analysis was done manually through the process

of content analysis.

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3.8 Data Analysis Matrix

Objective Variable Indicators Data Source Method of Analysis

To examine the major causes of Domestic % of victims, Survey Percentages, tables
domestic violence and human right Violence frequency
activities in Chikun LGA in
Kaduna State.
To examine the types of Intervention Awareness programs Questionnaire Frequency distribution
community support available to
victims of domestic violence of
spouse battering in Chikun LGA of
Kaduna State.
To examine the state of domestic Socio-economic Police records Interviews Thematic analysis
violence and casualty among
intimate partners in in Chikun
LGA of Kaduna State.
To find out different types of Type of abuse Right to dignity, Survey Correlation
domestic violence among intimate equality
partners in Chikun LGA of Kaduna
State.

3.9 Ethical Considerations

Participants' consent was obtained and confidentiality was maintained. Ethical considerations are

code of conducts that guide the actions of social researchers when dealing with human subjects

during the course of a research study. In other words, they are rules that govern how scientific

research is carried out with stated code of conduct that helps in guiding researchers in the course

of the research study without implicating the respondents who take part in the study. In order to

abide by these codes of conduct, informed consent of the respondents was obtained with their

anonymity ensured and confidentiality guaranteed. More so, the respondents were not forced to

participate in the study as participation was made voluntary. In addition, the respondents were

not exposed to any form of risk and were assured they could withdraw from the research process

whenever they wished.

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36