How Gametes are Formed?

Homologous chromosome
46-Chr 46-Chr
•> They will be having same
kind of genes on the same
position/locus.
• Gametogenesis

♂ Eye
colour

Maire
colour
> 46-chre In Zygote
Mitosis
complete body

What is Genetics?

Branch of biology that deals with the study of Inheritance and variations.
Inheritance:
a) The process by which
characters are transferred from parents to
offsprings.
• > It is the Basis of Heredity.

Variation ÷ Degree of difference between parents

and offsprings Is
called variation.

Like Begets Like ÷ Organisms of a species give rise to offsprings

of same species.

Artificial selection and Domestication of organisms ÷

→ Ancestral wild cows were selected and domesticated to become
'Sahiwal cow of punjab!

9 people around 8000-1000 BC also knew that the cause of variations among organisms
lies in sexual reproduction.

Character vs Trait
(feature) (Expression)
↳ Eye colour & Black, Blue, Brown

x Height • ✗ Tall, Dwarf

× Hair colour → Black, Brown

Dominant vs recessive Trait

In heterozygous condition, only one allele well empress (i.e dominant) and
other will be recessive.
> Tall
Tt > Tall
At → Dwarf

phenotype us Genotype

→
Genetic
Physical complement
appearance
(Tt) (Tf) ↳
Tall Tall TT Tall
Tt
Diff

Mendel's Research

& Did hybridizations experiments

~
why pea?

* short life span/ (bisexual)

•> pure line can be made

→ Large sample size (data credible)

•> constreasting traits were seen Gore different-characters.

(14) (7)
7- contrasting character

character Dominant trait Recessive trait Character → 7

1 Height Tall (T) Do art (t) Trait → 14

21 pod shape Inflated ≈ (I) constructed more (i) pure lines → 14

3) pod colour Green (G) Yellow (g)

4) seed shape Round (R wrinkled (o)

5) seed colour yellow (x Green (y)
6) Flower colour V80 Let (V) White (u)

7) Flower position Anial (A) Terminal (a)

Monohy breed cross

All characters in 2 peas are same, only one character is kept different.

parent TT

Gamete T t

Fi/ Fillial-1 Tt (Tall) × T t

generation

T t t

T t

IT Tt
62-generation T
t Tt tt

phenotypic Ratio: Tall: Dwart

3 1

Genotypic Ratio ÷ T-: Tt: tt

1: 2: 1

Law of Dominance ÷ "characters are controlled by discrete units called Factors.

> Factors occur in pairs.
9 When 2-different alleles are combined together, only one of
them will express itself.

Recessive
Dominant

Test cross and Back cross

crossing with any parent.

We cross the suspected plant with

pure recessive parent
⊛
2 I
It T I s d o m in a n t
 t
it t
1. Tt Tt Tall: Dwart
Tt
Tall plant At t
1: 1
Tt Tt it
T

All tall 't' comes from both

NO dwart: • 10't'in one parent parents: Tt

. TT
✗
Law or segregation (2ⁿᵈ law):
At the time of gamete formation, the two alleles of a
gene separates so that a gamete carries only one allele.

T t

T t

• . 2ⁿᵈ law is also called as'Law of purity of Gametes'

• > Alleles do not show any blending

Incomplete Dominance

progeny doesn't look like any of the parent

• • . None of the parent is dominant.
eg ÷ Snapdragon, Antirchhinium majus: Mirabilis
Jalapa (Y'O'Clock Plant)

IRIR rere
parents: (Red) (white)

Gametes: IR o

R 6
phenotypic: Red: Pink: White
IRIR Rr 1: 2:1
Ro ✗ Ro
:

IRT or
(pink) Genotypic: RR: Rr: 00

1: 2:]
 Co-Dominance
ABO &
cooperative n

B
eg ÷ Blood group: is decided by a gene 'I'
A- antigen
IA > "A' blood group

B-antigen
Blood group: AB IB > 'B' blood group
IAIB •

no sugar/antigen
i > ' 'blood group
IA=IB > I
Ia
°
IA and IB domenant to'c? '☒ 3
9

"I, 7
9 10 IAC = A
☒x
i IB'? = B
A *:
IA IA = A
A
IB TB = 1b.

IAIB = AB co-dominance
i≤ = 0

Multiple Allelism

> In human blood group: gene'I'has more thani 2 alleles

SWAB
i
IA IB
C
& out of these 3- alleles, only 2 can be bound in an Individual
and all 3-alleles
be seen at population level.
③
Pleiotropy

9 When a single gene controls many characters.

9 In most cases, mechanism of pleiotropy is the effect of gene on metabolic pathways
which contributes to wareds different phenotypes, i. e if a gene which make an enzyme
that participates in multiple metabolic reactions is activated, these enzyme can help to
make different products. eg:-starch synthesis in pea-seed
"✗ BIB: Round seed: Large seed TT tf
④ B → c (shape) (size)
Putes
F x bb: wrinkled seed: small seed

Bb: Round seed; Intermediate

> Incomplete Dominance
 eg÷ phenylketonuria ⊖

HzN+ "- coo- phenylalanine-hydroxylase 43N"- COO

CH2
duz
LOSS of skin and hair
phenylalanine pigmentation
OH
eliminated through Tyrosine
air:
1:Tsorption It convert into phenyl pyruvate and its accumulate in
derivatives our brain

Metal retardation
IDE-Hybrid cross
5- characters of parents are kept same and inheritance of 2- characters
is seen

Parent Round, Yellow seeds Wrinkled, green seeds

IRIRYY Joyy
Gametes
I
⇒

bigen
Roxy ☒ Rayy selfing
Round, Yellow
RY RY ox ry
IRIR IRIR YY IRO YY Phenotypic ratio → 3: 0
IRY Y
Roy Y
= (3: 1) (3:D
IRIRYY IRRYY Roxy IRoyy
IRY 9:3:3: 1

TY
Rr Yy Roxy oryy orvy ✗ Genotypic ratio → 1: 2:|

(1: 2: 1) x (1: 2: 1)

Roxy Royy or Yy oryy

ry ⇒ 1: 2: 1: 2: 4: 2: 1: 2: 1

Law of Independent Assortment

> when 2 characters are combined in a hybrid, their traits can

segregate and recombine in any combination possible.
Ray RrYy

RY Ry ry ry RY Ry ◦y
ry

They can make every possible combination.

* Law of dominance and Law of

segregation

Tono hybrid cross

* Law of independent assortment

Liny breed cross

Polygenic Inheritance

Many genes

when 3 one more genes controls the expression of same character.

eg÷ skin colour, Height
Skin colour
Cs ÷ Faire and Lovely
controlled by 3- genes → A, B, C

AABBCC-Darkest
AaBbCc Intermediate
aabbcc- Lightest

Mendel's Failure
> use of mathematics and statistics in biologist
•> publicity of Mendel's work was poor
• ) Mendel's work was ahead of his time
> 3-scientists-: Hugo de vries, carel corners and van + shermak has
rediscovered Mendel's Law in 1900
Rediscovery of Mendel's Laws
> 1902- chromosomal movement during meiosis was tracked

In anaphase 3❤←

☐D

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

> sutton and Bovery said that Information pass from

one generation to neat
generation via chromosomes.

* chromosomes are the vehicles of inheritance

Why Drosophila

↳ Fly man of Genetics: Morgan proved the

chromosomal theory of inheritance
↳ Fruit bly/Drosophila Melanogastore

a short Life span (14-15 days)

✗ Great no of progeny
& Grown easily on any culture media
1 sexual dimorphism presents. ✗
can be easily differentiated from ♀

+ There are many contracting characters that

can easily be seen with low power
microscope eg: eye colour: Red and white
Body colour: Brown and yellow
wing size: Large and miniature
 L in k a g e a n d R e c o m b i n a t io n
R e c om b i n a n t s

a
A

p
b
A
€ b
a A s
ñ ; g

B
L i n k e gden e

c
c

c
D
C
G a m e t e s

H o m o lo g o u s c r o s s in g
✗

p a i r ov e r
s o
1
L i n k a g e α
R e c o m b in a ti o n

T o m e a s u r e t h i s
d i s t a n c e ⇒ c e n t i m o re g a n ( c m )

L in k a ge M a p
→ G i v e n b y A lf r e d S t u r t e v a n t

Q u e :
A = 9 0 % li n k e d t o IB

B = 4 0 % li n k e d t o C
A = 10 % li n k e d t o c

s e q :
A B C
Sen Determination → Hanking (1891)

% Human: - /
46-chromosome

l
* and Y are called Allosomes or
44 chromosomes sere chromosome
are common in ♂
and ♀ and are called ♂ =44+x1
22 + × Heterogametic
22 + Y
Autosome. = 44 + XX
gamete

22 + × 22 + ×
Null chromosome 44 + XY
→ Insect: o x xx-x

♀ o Homo gametic

Sen Determination in Humans

Sen Determination Male Female Example

Mechanism

× many Insects and

* x-✗ ◦ mechanism ✗ ◦ (heterogametic)
grasshopper

xx- xx mechanism xx (heterogametic) ✗ X Humans and

Drosophilia
22- 2W Mechanism ZZ 2W (heteroga Breds
> Male metic)
Haplo- deploid type of Haploed 'Dreone'has Diploid-'Queen' and
sen determination (single set of chromosomes ( Honey IBee
workers' have 2 sets
- 16 chromosomes)
of chromosomes-32
chromosomes)
Sen Determination in Honey IBee
332-Chas ⑦ 16
2n
Female Male

Meiosis
Mitosis

n
n
⑦ gamete
gamete gamete

partheno
genesis

2n-
n-♂
M u t a t io n s
✗ A lt e r a t i o n o r c h a n g e i n D N A ( g e n o t y p e ) t h a t c a n c h a n g e p r o t e i n ( p h e n o t y p e ) .

I G D N A Is A lt e r e d :
e g : A T G C A C A C
c h r o m o s o m e i s a ls o A T G C A T A C A C
D e le t i o n

m u t a t e d ( c h r o m o s o m a l
a b b e r a t io n , A T G C G C A T A CA C R e p e t a tion

ca n c a u se
A T G C G A A T A C A C I n s e r t ion
c a n c e r

IP o i n t M u t a t ion

e g ÷ s i c k le c e ll A n aem i a
T A A C T G C A G G T PQ ¾ E a t ion
it b p o l y m e ra s e s a t

point M u t a t ion l o w O 2 l e v e l

T A A C C G C A G G T H b

IB - g l o b i n c h a i n a nt 6 ᵗʰ p o s i t io n 4 2
G lu t a m i c a c i d a nt w e v a li n e 3 1 T 1 12 9 1 E d

ID N A : G A G G T G
R N A : G A G G U G
P r o t e i n : G lu - a c i d v a li n e
 F r a m e s h i f t M u t a t io n s

c o d o n

w h e aty ? 0 8

↓
T y r o s i n e s e r i n e G ly c i n e s e r i n e

M u t a g e n s

G e n e r a t io n
M u t a t io n

> T h e s e a g e n t s c a u s e s m u t a t io n : x - r a y , r a y
- X - r a y , m u s t a r d g a s, f o r m a l d e h y d e

m a k e s t h y m i n e d i m e r s

A = T
T I T ca n c e r

G e n e t i c D i s e a s es

c h r o m o s o m a l d i s o r d e r s
M e n d e l i a n d i s e a s e s ( d u e t o la c k , e x c e s s o f c hr o m o s o m e s ]
( a lt e r n a t i o n o re m u t a t io n in a b n o r m a l a r r a n g e m e n t of c h r o m o s o m e .
s i n g le g e n e )

A n e u p lo i d y p o ly p lo i d y
A u t o s o m a l
✗ - l i n k e d > M o n o s o m y = 2 n - I w h o le s e t ↑
1
> N u lli s o m y = 2 n - 2 o
" a l i en
D o m in a n t R e c e s s i v e D o m in a n t R e c e s s i v e •> T r i s o m y = a n t i
• M y o t o n i c • > s i c k le c e l l a n e m i a •> T e t r a s o m y = 2 7 + 2 2 7 → 4 7
↳ c : c o lo u r b li n d n e s s
d y s t r o p h y > c y s t i c f ib r o s i s
H : H a e m o p h i l ia c o m m o n ly s e e d in
•> P K U p la n t s
• > T h a la s s e m i a