Classification of Elements & Periodicity in

Properties
Comprehensive Theory & Concept Notes | Class 11 Chemistry

1. Historical Development of the Periodic Table

The systematic arrangement of elements developed progressively as new elements were discovered. The
major early attempts include:

• Dobereiner’s Triads (1829): Elements were arranged in groups of three (triads) sharing similar chemical
properties. The atomic weight of the middle element was approximately the arithmetic mean of the other
two. Example: Li (7), Na (23), K (39); (7 + 39) / 2 = 23.

• Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1865): When elements were arranged in increasing order of atomic weights,
every eighth element displayed properties similar to the first, akin to musical notes. It failed beyond
Calcium and didn't accommodate noble gases.

• Lothar Meyer’s Atomic Volume Curve: Plotted atomic volumes against atomic weights. Elements with
identical properties occupied corresponding positions on the curve (e.g., alkali metals occupied the peaks).

• Mendeleev’s Periodic Law (1869): The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic weights. Mendeleev left vacant spaces for undiscovered elements (e.g., Eka-
Aluminum, which later became Gallium, and Eka-Silicon, which became Germanium).

2. Modern Periodic Law and Modern Periodic Table

Henry Moseley (1913) demonstrated that the atomic number (Z) is a more fundamental property of an
element than its atomic weight. He plotted the square root of the frequency (√ν) of X-rays emitted by elements
against their atomic numbers, obtaining a straight line.

Modern Periodic Law

The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

Structure of the Long Form of the Periodic Table:

• Periods: The horizontal rows are called periods. There are 7 periods. The period number corresponds to
the highest principal quantum number (n) of the elements in that period.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes: Periodic Table 1

 • Groups: The vertical columns are called groups. There are 18 groups in total, numbered 1 to 18 according
to the IUPAC recommendation.

3. Structural Categorization by Orbitals (s, p, d, f Blocks)

Elements are divided into four main blocks depending on the subshell into which the differentiating (last)
electron enters:

General Outer Group

Block Key Characteristics
Configuration Numbers

s- Reactive metals, low ionization enthalpies, form basic oxides.

ns1–2 1 and 2
Block Includes Alkali and Alkaline Earth metals.

Includes metals, metalloids, and non-metals. Together with

p-
ns2 np1–6 13 to 18 s-block, they are called Representative Elements. Group
Block
18 contains Noble Gases (ns2 np6).

d- Known as Transition Elements. They exhibit variable

(n-1)d1–10 ns0–2 3 to 12
Block valency, form colored ions, and exhibit paramagnetism.

Group 3 Known as Inner Transition Elements. Comprises

f- (n-2)f1–14 (n-1)d0–1
(Bottom Lanthanoids (4f series) and Actinoids (5f series). Most
Block ns2
rows) actinoids are radioactive.

4. Periodic Trends in Physical Properties

A. Atomic Radius
It is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing electrons. Because
electronic boundaries are fuzzy, atomic radii are measured contextually:

• Covalent Radius: Half of the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms joined by a single
covalent bond.

• Metallic Radius: Half of the internuclear distance between two adjacent metal cores in a metallic crystal
lattice.

• Van der Waals Radius: Half of the internuclear distance between two non-bonded isolated atoms or
atoms belonging to neighboring molecules in the solid state. Note: RVan der Waals > RMetallic > RCovalent.

Trends:
• Across a Period: Decreases because the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) increases, drawing electrons closer.
• Down a Group: Increases due to the addition of successive principal energy shells, which outweighs the
increase in nuclear charge.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes: Periodic Table 2

B. Ionic Radius
The effective distance from the center of the nucleus of an ion up to which it exerts its influence on the
electron cloud.

• Cationic Radius: A cation is always smaller than its parent atom because removing an electron increases
Zeff.

• Anionic Radius: An anion is always larger than its parent atom because adding an electron increases
inter-electronic repulsion, expanding the cloud.

• Isoelectronic Species: Species containing the same number of electrons (e.g., N3−, O2−, F−, Na+, Mg2+).
For these, the ionic radius decreases as the atomic number (nuclear charge) increases.

C. Ionization Enthalpy (ΔiH)

The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous
atom in its ground state:

X(g) + ΔiH → X+(g) + e−

Successive ionization enthalpies increase sequentially: ΔiH1 < ΔiH2 < ΔiH3 due to higher attraction by the core
positive charge.

Factors governing Ionization Enthalpy:

1. Nuclear Charge: Δ H ∝ Z
i eff
2. Atomic Size: Δ H ∝ 1 / Atomic Size
i
3. Screening Effect: Outer electrons are shielded from the nucleus by inner shell electrons. Δ H ∝ 1 /
i
Screening Effect.

4. Electronic Configuration: Atoms with stable fully-filled (ns2, np6) or half-filled (np3, nd5) subshells possess
exceptionally high ionization stability. Example: ΔiH of Nitrogen (2p3) is higher than Oxygen (2p4).

D. Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH)

The enthalpy change that occurs when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom to form a negative
ion:

X(g) + e− → X−(g)

Trends: Generally becomes more negative across a period. Down a group, it becomes less negative.
Exception: Chlorine has a more negative electron gain enthalpy than Fluorine. This is because Fluorine's
small size leads to significant inter-electronic repulsions in its compact 2p subshell, resisting the incoming
electron compared to Chlorine's spacious 3p subshell.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes: Periodic Table 3

E. Electronegativity
A qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract the shared pair of electrons
towards itself. It is commonly measured on the Pauling Scale (where Fluorine is assigned the maximum
value of 4.0).

Trends: Increases across a period (due to increasing nuclear attraction) and decreases down a group (due to
increasing size and screening effect).

5. Summary Matrix of Periodic Trends

Across a Period (Left to

Property Down a Group (Top to Bottom)
Right)

Decreases slightly / Constant core

Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) Increases
influence

Atomic & Ionic Radii Decreases Increases

Ionization Enthalpy Increases Decreases

Electron Gain Enthalpy Becomes more negative Becomes less negative

Electronegativity Increases Decreases

Metallic Character
Decreases Increases
(Electropositive)

Non-Metallic Character Increases Decreases

6. Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties

• Valency and Oxidation States: The valency of representative elements is generally equal to the number
of valence electrons (groups 1-2) or equal to 8 minus the number of valence electrons (groups 13-17).

• Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements: The first element of each group in the p-block (Li,
Be, B, C, N, O, F) exhibits anomalous behavior compared to its heavier group congeners. This is caused
by:
1. Exceptionally small atomic size and high ionic charge-to-size ratio.
2. High electronegativity and high ionization enthalpy.
3. Non-availability of vacant d-orbitals in the valence shell (limiting maximum covalency to 4).

• Diagonal Relationships: Certain elements of the second period show striking structural similarities with
elements of the third period placed diagonally below them (e.g., Li and Mg, Be and Al). This is due to their
comparable ionic sizes and similar ionic potential / charge density (ionic charge / size).

Class 11 Chemistry Notes: Periodic Table 4