Grammar

The Conditional

What are conditional sentences?

Conditional sentences are a type of complex sentence. They have two parts: a
condition (often introduced by if or unless) and a result.
The condition sets up a situation, and the result tells us what will happen if that
situation occurs.

In the sentence 'If it rains, we will stay indoors.'the phrase 'If it rains'is the
condition, and 'we will stay indoors'is the result.

Note: If can be used either at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. The
comma is not used when if is in the middle.
Understanding these sentences is key to expressing and understanding hypothetical
situations in English.
There are four main types of conditional sentences, which we’ll explore below.

Types of Conditional Sentences

Type Use Formula

Zero Condi- General truths or factsIf + [simple present], [simple
tional present]
First Condi- Real possibilities in If + [simple present], will/shall/-
tional the future modals + [base verb]
Second Condi- Unreal or hypothetical If + [simple past], would/-
tional situations could/might + [base verb]
Third Condi- Unreal past hypothet- If + [past perfect], would/might/-
tional icals could have + [past participle]

1
Zero Conditional
The zero conditional is the simplest type of conditional sentence. It’s used to express
facts and general truths.

If + [simple present], [simple present]

If you heat ice, it melts.

In this sentence, the condition is 'If you heat ice,'and the result is 'it melts.'This is
a general truth, as it’s always the case that if you heat ice, it melts.

• If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.

• If it’s a weekday, I go to work.

• If you don’t eat, you get hungry.

Remember: The zero conditional is all about facts and general truths. It’s not
about specific situations or possibilities. It’s about what’s always true.
Note: You can use ”when” instead of ”if”.

First Conditional
The first conditional is used to talk about real and possible situations in the
future.

If + [simple present], will/shall/modals + [infinitive]

If it rains, I will stay home.

In this sentence, the condition is 'If it rains,'and the result is 'I will stay home.'This
is a real possibility: 'It might rain, and if it does, I will stay home.'

• If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

• If I see her, I will say hello.

• If they don’t hurry, they may miss the train.

Remember: The first conditional is all about real possibilities in the future and
what might happen. It’s not about general truths or hypothetical situations.
Note: The imperative can be used in place of shall/will or modals.

If you take a commitment, stick with it.

2
Second Conditional
The second conditional is used to talk about unreal or improbable situations
in the present or future.

If + [simple past], would/could/might + [infinitive]

If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.

In this sentence, the condition is 'If I won the lottery,'and the result is 'I would buy
a house.'This is an unreal situation: 'I probably won’t win the lottery, but if I did,
I would buy a house.'
Note: Was and Were In conditional type 2, we usually use, in the if clause, were
instead of was, even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it.

• If I were you, I would take the job.

• If it snowed in the Sahara, it would be a miracle.

• If they knew the truth, they could be shocked.

Remember: The second conditional is all about unreal or improbable situations.

It’s not about what will happen but what could happen in an alternate reality.

Third Conditional
The third conditional is used to talk about unreal situations in the past.

If + [past perfect], would/could/might have + [past participle]

If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.

In this sentence, the condition is 'If I had studied harder,'and the result is 'I would
have passed the exam.'This unreal situation refers to something that could have
but didn’t happen: 'I didn’t study hard, and I didn’t pass the exam. But if I had
studied harder (in the past), I would have passed the exam (in the past).'

• If I had studied harder, I could have passed the exam.

• If we had left earlier, we would have caught the train.

• If he hadn’t forgotten his wallet, he would have paid the bill.

Remember: The third conditional is all about unreal situations in the past. It’s
not about what did happen but what could have happened in a different past.

3
Exceptions and Special Cases

Conditional sentences aren’t always straightforward, and there are exceptions and
special cases to consider. Sometimes, the standard structure of conditional sentences
might not apply. This is often due to the context or the specific meaning we want
to convey.

Mixed conditionals Mixed conditionals are a blend of second and third condi-
tionals. They’re used when the time referenced in the if clause is not the
same as the time referenced in the main clause.

If I had worked harder (past), I would be in a better job now (present).

Inverted conditionals Inverted conditionals have a more formal structure. They

invert the subject and auxiliary verb in the if clause.

Had I known (instead of 'If I had known'), I would have acted differently.

These structures are more common in written English and formal situations.

Other ways to express a condition Apart from If the conditional can also be
expressed with a certain number of conjunctions and other linking words such
as:

1. only if: as (so) long as / provided / proving that / on condition

that

The children can play in the garden only if they don’t touch the
flowers. (provided they .../ as long as they...

2. unless, if ... not

• I won’t speak to her unless she apologises. (If she doesn’t

apologize, I won’t speak to her.)

• She won’t come unless we invite her. (She won’t come if we

don’t invite her.)

3. in case / in case of

• In case you don’t understand, ask for further information.

(If you don’t understand, ask for ...)

• In case of heavy wave, drink as much water as possible. (If

there is a heavy wave, drink as much water as possible)

4
Unreal Time

Unreal Time: Shifting Verb Forms

Imagined, wished for or unlikely situations are considered unreal time. When we
are talking about these situations, we often shift the verb form backwards. For
example, the present changes to the past, and the past changes to the past perfect.
The tense change suggests a distance from reality.

Wish and If Only

We use wish and if only to talk about things that we would like to be different in
either the present or the past. If only is usually a bit stronger than wish.

The Present We can use wish/if only + a past form to talk about a present
situation we would like to be different.

• I wish I knew more people my own age.

• If only drivers paid more attention to cyclists.

Would is used when the speaker wants someone or something else to change.
It often expresses annoyance.

• I wish people wouldn’t eat noisily at the cinema.

The Past We can use wish/if only + a past perfect form to talk about some-
thing we would like to change about the past.

• I wish I hadn’t stayed out so late last night. I’m really tired
today.

• If only we’d known this company was going to close, we wouldn’t

have recommended them.

The Future Note that we don’t use wish to talk about our wishes for a future
event.

[Incorrect:] I wish you pass the exam.

This is not talking about an unreal time; it’s a wish for the future. We usually
use I hope to express wishes for the future.

[Correct:] I hope you pass the exam.

5
It’s (High) Time

We can use the expression it’s (high) time + subject + past verb form to
say it is time to do something now that should have been done a long time ago.

• It’s high time we went to bed.

• It’s time we took responsibility for our planet.

As If / As Though
We can use as if and as though to talk about how a situation appears or seems.
As if is more common than as though.

• Some people behave as if their actions had no consequences.

• It was as though she hadn’t heard me.

When we follow as if / as though with an unreal tense, we are saying we don’t

think the statement is really true.

Would Rather
Would rather is used to express preference about actions.

• I’d rather buy less, but better quality.

When the subjects of the two clauses are different, we often use unreal tenses.

• They would rather we didn’t wait too long before letting them know
our decision.

• I’d rather you didn’t eat dinner on the new sofa.

6
Exercise: Do this exercise to test your grammar again.

1. It’s high time you to the doctor about that hip pain.
A)had been B) went

2. If only I more time this week, I could help you.

A)had B) have

3. They act as though climate change a reality.

A) hadn’t already been B)wasn’t already

4. I wish I this dress. I’ve only worn it once.

A) bought B) hadn’t bought

5. I’d rather you call them now.

A) didn’t B) wouldn’t

6. I know she hasn’t got much money but she buys my children presents as if
she rich.
A) is B) was

7. If only we it was your birthday yesterday!

A) knew B) had known

8. I wish there a swimming pool near my house.

A) is B) was

7
Explanations of Key Quantifiers

In English, quantifiers change depending on whether the noun is countable or uncount-

able, and whether the sentence is positive, negative, or interrogative.
'A lot of'

Used in positive sentences with BOTH countable and uncountable

nouns.

I have a lot of books (countable). / I drink a lot of water (uncountable).

In negative and interrogative sentences, 'a lot of' usually

changes to many (countable) or much (uncountable).

Do you have many books? (Not a lot of in questions).

'A few'

• Used ONLY with countable plural nouns.

• Means 'a small number' (positive sense).

• In negative and interrogative sentences, 'a few' changes to

many.

I have a few friends → Negative: I don’t have many friends. / Question: Do

you have many friends?

'A little'

• Used ONLY with uncountable nouns.

• Means 'a small amount'(positive sense).

• In negative and interrogative sentences, 'a little' changes

to much.

I have a little money → Negative: I don’t have much money. / Question: Do

you have much money?

8
Summary Table

Positive Noun type Negative/Question Example

a lot of countable many Do you have many friends?
a lot of uncountable much Is there much water?
a few countable many He doesn’t have many ideas.
a little uncountable much She doesn’t have much time.

9
Passive Voice

How to Construct the Passive Voice

The passive voice is formed using a specific structure:

be + past participle

Active: Subject + Verb + Object

Passive: Object of active becomes Subject + be
(conjugated) + Past Participle of main
verb + (by + agent)

Step-by-step transformation:

1. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.

2. The main verb is changed to its past participle form.

3. The auxiliary verb be is added in the same tense as the active verb.

4. The subject of the active sentence becomes the agent, usually introduced by
by (often omitted if vague or unimportant).

Important notes:

• The agent (by + subject) is often omitted when it is vague (someone, people,
they) or self-evident.

• Only transitive verbs (verbs that take an object) can be made passive.

• Intransitive verbs (e.g., arrive, sleep, die) cannot be used in the passive.

• Active: Everyone knows this fact very well.

– Passive: This fact is known very well.

• Active: Someone has taken two of my books.

– Passive: Two of my books have been taken.

• Active: You must write the answers in ink.

– Passive: The answers must be written in ink.

10
Examples across tenses

Tense Active Passive

Present Simple Someone opens the door. The door is opened.
Past Simple Someone opened the door. The door was opened.
Present Continu- Someone is opening the door. The door is being opened.
ous
Past Continuous Someone was opening the The door was being opened.
door.
Present Perfect Someone has opened the The door has been opened.
door.
Past Perfect Someone had opened the The door had been opened.
door.
Future (will) Someone will open the door. The door will be opened.
Future (going to) Someone is going to open the The door is going to be
door. opened.
Modal (can) Someone can open the door. The door can be opened.
Modal (must) Someone must open the The door must be opened.
door.

Why Use the Passive Voice?

The passive voice is not simply an alternative to the active. It is chosen for specific
stylistic or communicative reasons:

Avoiding vague subjects: When the active form would require an

indefinite or vague subject (e.g., someone, people, they ), the
passive is preferred.

• I’ve been robbed! (instead of: Someone has robbed me.)

• It is assumed that the Government will act. (instead of: People assume
that the Government will act.)

Avoiding awkward change of subject: The passive maintains focus

on a single subject throughout the sentence.

The Prime Minister arrived back in London last night, and was immediately
besieged by reporters. (instead of: The Prime Minister arrived back in London
last night, and reporters immediately besieged him.)

Making statements impersonal: Used to avoid direct

responsibility (e.g., company announcements, orders).

11
 • The new working methods that are to be introduced may result in some
redundancies. (instead of: The new working methods we have intro-
duced may result in some redundancies.)

• This room must be tidied up. (instead of: You must tidy up this room.)

Focusing on the receiver of the action: The passive highlights

what happened to X rather than what Y did.

• The escaped convict was arrested two days later. (instead of: The police
arrested the escaped convict two days later.)[ the agent is self- evident.]

• Several trees were struck by lightning in last night’s storm. (instead of:
Lightning struck several trees in last night’s storm.)

Passive with Direct and Indirect Objects (Verbs like Give, Send, Tell,
Offer)

Some verbs can take two objects: a direct object (what is given/sent/told) and
an indirect object (who receives it). Common verbs include: give, send, tell,
offer, show, teach, pay, promise, refuse, lend, sell.
In the passive, either object can become the subject, though the indirect
object (person) is more common as the subject.

Active The crowd gave the King (IO) a great reception

(DO).
Passive (IO as sub- The King was given a great reception by the
ject) crowd.

In some occasions, we wish to make the direct object the subject of the passive
construction. In theses cases, we give a greater interest in what is done than in to
whom it is done.

Active We shall offer a hight salary (DO) to a really suit-

able applicant (IO).
Passive (DO as sub- A high salary will be offered to a really suitable
ject) applicant.

Note: When the direct object becomes the subject, the indirect object is usually
preceded by to or for.

12
Passive with Phrasal Verbs & Prepositions

When forming the passive of phrasal verbs (verb + particle) or verbs followed by
a preposition, the particle/preposition must be retained.

Active: They will have to put off the meeting.

Passive: The meeting will have to be put off.
Active: We insist on punctuality.
Passive: Punctuality is insisted on.

Passive with Reporting Verbs (Say, Think, Feel, etc.)

Sentences with a noun clause object (e.g., They say that he knows some influential
people.) can be made passive in two ways: Impersonal it construction

It is said that he knows some influential people.

Subject-to-subject raising (with infinitive)

The subject of the noun clause becomes the subject of the main clause, and the
verb in the noun clause becomes an infinitive.

He is said to know some influential people.

Choice of Infinitive Tense

The form of the infinitive depends on whether or not the time reference of the verb
in the noun clause is the same as that of the verb in the introductory (main) clause.

• Same time reference: present infinitive (to know, to be)

– It is said that he knows → He is said to know.

– It was said that he knew → He was said to know.

• Anterior time reference: perfect infinitive (to have acted, to have shown)

– It is thought that he acted → He is thought to have acted.

– It was thought that he had acted → He was thought to have

acted.

13
Summary Table: Passive Construction

Active (with vague subject) Passive (preferred)

People know this fact very well. This fact is known very well.
Someone has taken two of my books. Two of my books have been taken.
What should one do in such cases? What should be done in such cases?
Active (with reporting verb) Passive (it or subject + infini-
tive)
They say he is honest. It is said that he is honest. / He is
said to be honest.
Everyone thought the Government It was thought that the Government
had shown disregard. had shown disregard. / The Govern-
ment was thought to have shown dis-
regard.
Active (double object) Passive (two possibilities)
They gave the secretary a new com- The secretary was given a new com-
puter. puter. / A new computer was given
to the secretary.
Someone sent me an anonymous let- I was sent an anonymous letter. / An
ter. anonymous letter was sent to me.

Quick reference examples

Active: France beat England in yesterday’s rugby international.

Passive: England was beaten by France in yesterday’s rugby in-
ternational.
Active: They will have to put off the meeting.
Passive: The meeting will have to be put off.
Active: People felt the social workers were doing valuable work.
Passive (it): It was felt that the social workers were doing valuable
work.
Passive (infinitive): The social workers were felt to be doing valuable work.
Active (double object): He offered me a seat.
Passive (IO): I was offered a seat.
Passive (DO): A seat was offered to me.

14
Indirect (reported speech)

What is Direct Speech?

Direct speech presents a person’s exact words without any alteration. In writing,
quotation marks are used to enclose the spoken words. These quoted words can
appear either before or after the reporting verb.
If the reporting verb comes first, a comma is placed right after it. If the reporting
verb follows the quoted statement, the comma is placed right after the closing
quotation mark.
For questions, no comma is used after the question mark.

What is Indirect Speech?

Indirect speech (reported speech) focuses on the content of what someone said,
not their exact words. No quotation marks are used. Grammatical changes (tense,
pronouns, time/place words) are common.

Direct vs. Indirect Speech

@p0.28p0.34p0.34@
Aspect Direct speech Indirect speech

Structure Exact words, quotation marks Paraphrase, no quotation marks

Tense Original tense preserved Often ’backshifted’ (past)
Pronouns Original speaker’s pronouns Adjusted to reporter’s perspective
Tone Original tone/emphasis May be altered (paraphrasing)
Punctuation Comma + capital inside quotes Normal sentence punctuation

Reporting Statement

Basic structure: Subject + reporting verb + (that) + reported clause

She said, ’I am tired.’ ⇒ She said (that) she was tired.

Using tell vs. say

• tell + indirect object (the person being spoken to):

He told me (that) he was tired. (NOT He told that ...)

• say (no indirect object needed):

He said (that) he was tired.

15
Reporting Questions

• Yes/No questions: use if or whether + statement order.

’Are you Scottish?’ → She asked if I was Scottish.

• Wh- questions: keep wh- word + statement order (no question mark).

’What do you want?’ → He asked me what I wanted.

• Who/what as subject: no inversion.

’Who called?’ → She asked who had called.

Reporting Commands & Requests

• Use tell/ask/order/request + to-infinitive.

’Sit down,’ she said. → She told me to sit down.

• Negative: add not.

’Don’t be late,’ he said. → He told me not to be late.

• Polite requests: beg, ask.

’Please send me money,’ he begged. → He begged us to send him

money.

Summary: Reporting Verbs and Structures

@lll@
Function Reporting verb Structure

Statement say, tell, remark, explain that + clause

Yes/no question ask, wonder, want to know if/whether + clause
Wh- question ask, wonder, inquire wh- word + clause
Command order, tell, command to-infinitive
Request ask, beg, request to-infinitive
Advice advise, recommend to-infinitive or that

16
Rule 1: Backshifting (when reporting verb is past)

Direct tense Indirect tense

Present simple Past simple
Present continuous Past continuous
Present perfect Past perfect
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
Past simple Past perfect
Past continuous Past perfect continuous When NOT to back-
Past perfect Past perfect
Shall/Will Should/Would
Can/May Could/Might
Could/Should/Would Could/Should/Would
Must Must/Had to
Ought to/Used to Ought to/Used to
shift:

• Reporting verb in present (simple or perfect) /future:

– He says, ’I’m busy’ → He says he is busy.

– She has said, ’I’ll sell my car’. → She has said that she will sell
her car.

• Universal truth/fact or unchanging condition:

Buddha said, ’We make the world’ → Buddha said we make the world.

• Stylistic choice for clarity or relevance:

’You must try’ → The professor said we must try.

17
Time Expression Changes
When reporting speech, time references shift backward because the moment of
speaking changes.
Direct Indirect
now then / at that moment
today that day
yesterday the day before / the previous day
tomorrow the next day / the following day
this week/month that week/month
last week/month the previous week/month
next week/month the following week/month
ago before

Direct: ’I saw her yesterday,’ said Tom.

Indirect: Tom said that he had seen her the day before.

Place and Demonstrative Changes

Direct Indirect
here there
this that
these those
come go
Example:
Direct: ’I will meet you here,’ she said.
Indirect: She said that she would meet me there.

Pronoun Changes
When converting direct speech into indirect (reported) speech, pronouns often
change according to the subject and object of the reporting verb. The following
four rules summarise the typical transformations.

Rule 1: First Person Pronouns (I, we, my, our, etc.)

The first person pronouns in the reported clause change to match the subject
pronoun of the reporting verb.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

I said, “I want water.” I said that I wanted water.
We said, “We saw a joker.” We said that we had seen a joker.
He said, “I will wash my car.” He said that he would wash his car.

Rule 2: Second Person Pronouns (you, your, yours)

The second person pronouns in the reported clause change according to the object
of the reporting verb (the person being spoken to).

18
 Direct Speech Indirect Speech
He said to me, “You won a prize.” He told me that I had won a prize.
He said to them, “You won a prize.” He told them that they had won a prize.
She said to him, “Your book is here.” She told him that his book was there.

Rule 3: Third Person Pronouns (he, she, it, they)

Third person pronouns in the reported clause do not change when the speech is
reported.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

She said, “He works in a factory.” She said that he worked in a factory.
He said, “She is washing her shirt.” He said that she was washing her shirt.
They said, “It is raining.” They said that it was raining.

Rule 4: Compound Pronouns / Mixed Cases

When a sentence contains more than one type of pronoun, each pronoun is changed
independently according to the appropriate rule (subject for first person, object for
second person, no change for third person).

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

She said to me, “You and I are going She told me that she and I were going
to the park.” to the park.
He said to us, “I told her that you He told us that he had told her that
were late.” we were late.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Tense confusion: Always check the reporting verb and backshift when
needed.

2. Incorrect pronoun: Adjust pronouns to the reporter’s perspective.

3. Failing to change time/place words: ’I’ll do it tomorrow’ → He said he

would do it the next day.

4. Mixing direct and indirect: Do not write She said ’I love it and that she
would buy it.’ Stick to one style per statement.

Final Tip
In US English, direct speech is often preferred for clarity; in UK English, indirect
speech is common in news and conversation. Whichever you choose, be consistent
throughout your text.

19
Complete Transformation Examples
1. Direct: ’We are going to the cinema tomorrow,’ they said.
Indirect: They said that they were going to the cinema the next day.

2. Direct: ’I finished this report last week,’ Mary said.

Indirect: Mary said that she had finished that report the previous week.

3. Direct: ’You must submit your homework now,’ the teacher said.
Indirect: The teacher told me that I had to submit my homework then.

20